PREFACE

Generally seismic sensors are used at the earthquake prone areas; here in this project we
are using this seismic sensor concept for security purposes. Security is required everywhere
almost.

This project “SEISMIC SENSOR” can detect the vibrations produced by human beings or
animals. We use a piezo device here to detect them. We can place these piezo devices
inside the floor of the area, so that it will not be visible to the strangers.
And when they (animals or humans) step on the floor tile having a piezo device it will
detect the vibrations or we can say it will convert the mechanical energy into electrical
energy and the piezo buzzer will get turn on.

It can be used at the places where the interruption of human or animal is not allowed for
example in the bank lockers, jeweler showrooms, high voltage areas and many more.
This project can also be extended into the seismometer or the earthquake detectors.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 2
2. COMPONENTS USED 3
3. PIEZO ELEMENT 4
4. INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 8
5. VARIABLE RESISTOR 14
6. CAPACITORS 16
7. BUZZERS 17
8. RESISTORS 18
9. TRANSISTOR 31
10. LED 37
11. SWITCH 38
12. BATTERY 40
13. WORKING 43
14. APPLICATIONS 43
15. CONCLUSION 44
16. REFERENCES 45

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 SEISMIC SENSOR

INTRODUCTION
This circuit simulates the seismic sensor to detect vibrations and sound. It is very sensitive
and detects vibrations and caused by movement of human beings and animals. So it can be
used to monitor the protected areas to restrict entry of unwanted persons and animals.
The circuit uses readily available components and the design is straightforward. A standard
piezo sensor is used to detect vibrations/sounds due to pressure changes. The piezo element
acts as a small capacitor having a capacitance of a few nanofarads. Like a Capacitor, it can
store charge when a potential is applied to its terminals. It discharges through VR1, when it
is disturbed.

The circuit uses readily available components and the design is straightforward.
A standard piezo sensor is used to detect vibrations/sounds due to pressure changes. The
piezo element acts as a small capacitor having a capacitance of a few nanofarads. Like a

3
capacitor, it can store charge when a potential is applied to its terminals. It discharges
through VR1, when it is disturbed.

• Components Used :

1. Piezo Element
2. Integrated Circuit (IC1 TL071 & IC2 NE555 )
3. Variable resistor (1M)
4. Capacitor (.01, 0.1, 10, 100 µ F)
5. Buzzer
6. Resistor ( 100, 10, 1 K & 330, 470Ω )
7. Transistor
8. LED
9. Switch
10. Battery (9V)

4
 Piezo Element

A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to

measure pressure, acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical signal.

Applications:
Piezoelectric sensors have proven to be versatile tools for the measurement of various
processes. They are used for quality assurance, process control and for research and
development in many different industries. Although the piezoelectric effect was discovered
by Curie in 1880, it was only in the 1950s that the piezoelectric effect started to be used for
industrial sensing applications. Since then, this measuring principle has been increasingly
used and can be regarded as a mature technology with an outstanding inherent reliability. It
has been successfully used in various applications, such as
in medical, aerospace, nuclear instrumentation, and as a pressure sensor in the touch pads
of mobile phones. In the automotive industry, piezoelectric elements are used to monitor
combustion when developing internal combustion engines. The sensors are either directly
mounted into additional holes into the cylinder head or the spark/glow plug is equipped
with a built in miniature piezoelectric sensor.

5
The rise of piezoelectric technology is directly related to a set of inherent advantages. The
high modulus of elasticity of many piezoelectric materials is comparable to that of many
metals and goes up to 10e6 N/m². Even though piezoelectric sensors are electromechanical
systems that react to compression, the sensing elements show almost zero deflection. This
is the reason why piezoelectric sensors are so rugged, have an extremely high natural
frequency and an excellent linearity over a wide amplitude range. Additionally,
piezoelectric technology is insensitive to electromagnetic fields and radiation, enabling
measurements under harsh conditions. Some materials used (especially gallium
phosphate [2] or tourmaline) have an extreme stability even at high temperature, enabling
sensors to have a working range of up to 1000°C. Tourmaline show spyroelectricity in
addition to the piezoelectric effect; this is the ability to generate an electrical signal when
the temperature of the crystal changes. This effect is also common topiezo
ceramic materials.

One disadvantage of piezoelectric sensors is that they cannot be used for truly static
measurements. A static force will result in a fixed amount of charges on the piezoelectric
material. While working with conventional readout electronics, imperfect insulating
materials, and reduction in internal sensor resistance will result in a constant loss
of electrons, and yield a decreasing signal. Elevated temperatures cause an additional drop
in internal resistance and sensitivity. The main effect on the piezoelectric effect is that with
increasing pressure loads and temperature, the sensitivity is reduced due to twin-formation.
While quartz sensors need to be cooled during measurements at temperatures above 300°C,
special types of crystals like GaPO4 gallium phosphate do not show any twin formation up
to the melting point of the material itself.

6
However, it is not true that piezoelectric sensors can only be used for very fast processes or
at ambient conditions. In fact, there are numerous applications that show quasi-static
measurements, while there are other applications with temperatures higher than 500°C.

Piezoelectric sensors are also seen in nature. Dry bone is piezoelectric, and is thought by
some to act as a biological force sensor.

Electrical Properties

A piezoelectric transducer has very high DC output impedance and can be modeled as a
proportional voltage source and filter network. The voltage V at the source is directly
proportional to the applied force, pressure, or strain. The output signal is then related to this
mechanical force as if it had passed through the equivalent circuit.

Frequency response of a piezoelectric sensor; output voltage vs applied force

A detailed model includes the effects of the sensor's mechanical construction and other
non-idealities. The inductance Lm is due to the seismic mass and inertia of the sensor
itself. Ce is inversely proportional to the mechanical elasticity of the sensor. C0 represents
the static capacitance of the transducer, resulting from an inertial mass of infinite size. Ri is
the insulation leakage resistance of the transducer element. If the sensor is connected to
a load resistance, this also acts in parallel with the insulation resistance, both increasing the
high-pass cutoff frequency.

7
For use as a sensor, the flat region of the frequency response plot is typically used, between
the high-pass cutoff and the resonant peak. The load and leakage resistance need to be large
enough that low frequencies of interest are not lost. A simplified equivalent circuit model
can be used in this region, in which Cs represents the capacitance of the sensor surface
itself, determined by the standard formula for capacitance of parallel plates.[3][4] It can also
be modeled as a charge source in parallel with the source capacitance, with the charge
directly proportional to the applied force, as above.

Sensor Design:

Based on piezoelectric technology various physical quantities can be measured; the most
common are pressure and acceleration. For pressure sensors, a thin membrane and a
massive base is used, ensuring that an applied pressure specifically loads the elements in
one direction. For accelerometers, a seismic mass is attached to the crystal elements. When
the accelerometer experiences a motion, the invariant seismic mass loads the elements
according to Newton’s second law of motion

F = ma.

The main difference in the working principle between these two cases is the way forces are
applied to the sensing elements. In a pressure sensor a thin membrane is used to transfer the
force to the elements, while in accelerometers the forces are applied by an attached seismic
mass.

Sensors often tend to be sensitive to more than one physical quantity. Pressure sensors
show false signal when they are exposed to vibrations. Sophisticated pressure sensors
therefore use acceleration compensation elements in addition to the pressure sensing
elements. By carefully matching those elements, the acceleration signal (released from the
compensation element) is subtracted from the combined signal of pressure and acceleration
to derive the true pressure information.

Vibration sensors can also be used to harvest otherwise wasted energy from mechanical
vibrations. This is accomplished by using piezoelectric materials to convert mechanical
strain into usable electrical energy.

8
 Metal disks with piezo material, used in buzzers or as contact microphones

Sensing Materials

Two main groups of materials are used for piezoelectric sensors: piezoelectric ceramics and
single crystal materials. The ceramic materials (such as PZT ceramic) have a piezoelectric
constant / sensitivity that is roughly two orders of magnitude higher than those of single
crystal materials and can be produced by inexpensive sintering processes. The piezoeffect
in piezoceramics is "trained", so unfortunately their high sensitivity degrades over time.
The degradation is highly correlated with temperature. The less sensitive crystal materials
(gallium phosphate,quartz, tourmaline) have a much higher – when carefully handled,
almost infinite – long term stability.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

Integrated Circuit, tiny electronic circuit used to perform a specific electronic function,
such as amplification; it is usually combined with other components to form a more
complex system. It is formed as a single unit by diffusing impurities into single-crystal
silicon, which then serves as a semiconductor material, or by etching the silicon by means
of electron beams. Several hundred identical integrated circuits (ICs) are made at a time on
a thin wafer several centimeters in diameter, and the wafer is subsequently sliced into
individual ICs called chips.

9
IC NE 555

The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety

of timer and multivibrator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R.
Camenzind in 1970 and brought to market in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by Philips).
The original name was the SE555 (metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part was
described as "The IC Time Machine".[1] It has been claimed that the 555 gets its name from
the three 5 kΩ resistors used in typical early implementations,[2] but Hans Camenzind has
stated that the number was arbitrary.[3] The part is still in wide use, thanks to its ease of use,
low price and good stability. As of 2003, it is estimated that 1 billion units are
manufactured every year.

NE555 from Signetics in dual-in-line package

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20 transistors,
2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package
(DIP-8).[4] Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one
chip), and the 558 (a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR
connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).

Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and TLC555.
[5]
The 7555 is designed to cause less supply glitching than the classic 555 and the
manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a "control" capacitor and in many cases
does not require a power supply bypass capacitor.

The 555 has three operating modes:

10
 Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot". Applications
include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency
divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc
 Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.
 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin
is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched switches,
etc.

Internal block diagram

11
Monostable mode

In the monostable mode, the 555 timer acts as a “one-shot” pulse generator. The pulse
begins when the 555 timer receives a signal at the trigger input that falls below a third of
the voltage supply. The width of the output pulse is determined by the time constant of an
RC network, which consists of acapacitor (C) and a resistor (R). The output pulse ends
when the charge on the C equals 2/3 of the supply voltage. The output pulse width can be
lengthened or shortened to the need of the specific application by adjusting the values of R
and C.[6]

The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to 2/3 of the supply
voltage, is given by

where t is in seconds, R is in ohms and C is in farads. See RC circuit for an explanation of

this effect.

12
 Schematic of a 555 in monostable mode

Bistable Mode

In bistable mode, the 555 timer acts as a basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset inputs (pins 2
and 4 respectively on a 555) are held high via pull-up resistors while the threshold input
(pin 6) is simply grounded. Thus configured, pulling the trigger momentarily to ground acts
as a 'set' and transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high state). Pulling the reset input to
ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the output pin to ground (low state). No capacitors
are required in a bistable configuration. Pins 5 and 7 (control and discharge) are left
floating.

Astable mode

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a
specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected between VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7)
and another resistor (R2) is connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger
(pin 2) and threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is
charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7 has low impedance
to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore discharging the capacitor.

13
 Standard 555 Astable Circuit

In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the values of R1, R2 and
C:

The high time from each pulse is given by

and the low time from each pulse is given by

where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor
in farads.

To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a diode can be added in parallel with R2 towards
the capacitor. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the cycle so that the high interval
depends only on R1 and C1.

IC TL071

TLO71 is a low-noise JFET input op-amp with low input bias and offset current. The
BIFET technology provides fast slew rates.
The JFET-input operational amplifiers in the TL07_ series are designed as low-noise
versions of the TL08_ series amplifiers with low input bias and offset currents and fast

14
slew rate. The low harmonic distortion and low noise make the TL07_ series ideally suited
for high-fidelity and audio preamplifier applications. Each amplifier features JFET inputs
(for high input impedance) coupled with bipolar output stages integrated on a single
monolithic chip.

The C-suffix devices are characterized for operation from 0C to 70C. The I-suffix devices
are characterized for operation from 40°C to 85°C. The M-suffix devices are characterized
for operation over the full military temperature range of 55°C to 125°C.

Variable Resistor

Adjustable resistors

A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can be changed
by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wirewound power resistors
have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance element, allowing a larger or
smaller part of the resistance to be used.

Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of equipment is

required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob accessible to an operator.
Such a device is called a rheostat and has two terminals.

15
Potentiometers

A common element in electronic devices is a three-terminal resistor with a continuously

adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob. These variable resistors
are known as potentiometers when all three terminals are present, since they act as a
continuously adjustable voltage divider. A common example is a volume control for a radio
receiver.[9]

Accurate, high-resolution panel-mounted potentiometers (or "pots") have resistance

elements typically wire wound on a helical mandrel, although some include a conductive-
plastic resistance coating over the wire to improve resolution. These typically offer ten
turns of their shafts to cover their full range. They are usually set with dials that include a
simple turns counter and a graduated dial. Electronic analog computers used them in
quantity for setting coefficients, and delayed-sweep oscilloscopes of recent decades
included one on their panels.

Resistance decade boxes

A resistance decade box or resistor substitution box is a unit containing resistors of many
values, with one or more mechanical switches which allow any one of various discrete
resistances offered by the box to be dialed in. Usually the resistance is accurate to high
precision, ranging from laboratory/calibration grade accuracy of 20 parts per million, to
field grade at 1%. Inexpensive boxes with lesser accuracy are also available. All types offer
a convenient way of selecting and quickly changing a resistance in laboratory,
experimental and development work without needing to attach resistors one by one, or even
stock each value. The range of resistance provided, the maximum resolution, and the
accuracy characterize the box. For example, one box offers resistances from 0 to 24
megohms, maximum resolution 0.1 ohm, accuracy 0.1%.

Special devices

There are various devices whose resistance changes with various quantities. The resistance
of thermistors exhibit a strong negative temperature coefficient, making them useful for
measuring temperatures. Since their resistance can be large until they are allowed to heat
up due to the passage of current, they are also commonly used to prevent excessive current

16
surges when equipment is powered on. Metal oxide varistors drop to a very low resistance
when a high voltage is applied, making them useful for protecting electronic equipment by
absorbing dangerous voltage surges. One sort of photo detector, the photo resistor, has a
resistance which varies with illumination.

The strain gauge, invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C. Ruge in 1938, is a type of
resistor that changes value with applied strain. A single resistor may be used, or a pair (half
bridge), or four resistors connected in a Wheatstone bridge configuration. The strain
resistor is bonded with adhesive to an object that will be subjected to mechanical strain.
With the strain gauge and a filter, amplifier, and analog/digital converter, the strain on an
object can be measured.

A related but more recent invention uses a Quantum Tunnelling Composite to sense
mechanical stress. It passes a current whose magnitude can vary by a factor of 1012 in
response to changes in applied pressure.

CAPACITOR

Capacitor, device for storing an electrical charge, sometimes called a condenser. In its
simplest form a capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by a non-conducting layer
called the dielectric. The dielectric may be air, plastic, waxed paper, or another substance
such as the mineral mica. When one plate of a capacitor is charged using a battery or other
source of direct current, the other plate becomes charged with the opposite sign; that is,
positive if the original charge is negative, and negative if the original charge is positive.

17
The electrical size of a capacitor is its capacitance, that is the amount of electric charge it
can hold per unit potential difference across its plates—C = Q/V. The SI unit of
capacitance is the farad (F). Because this is such a large unit, capacitors commonly have
their size expressed in µF (1 microfarad = 10-6 F) or pF (1 picofarad = 10-9 F). The
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor can be calculated from the relationship:

where A is the area of the plates, d is the distance between them, ε0 is the permittivity of
free space, and εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the two plates.

Capacitors can hold a limited amount of electric charge. As more and more charge is added
to the plates of a capacitor, the potential difference between the plates increases. Eventually
this potential difference becomes so great that the atomic structure of the dielectric breaks
down, and charge “leaks” through it. Capacitors can conduct direct current for only an
instant but are able to act as conductors in alternating-current circuits, as they constantly
charge and discharge as the direction of the current constantly changes. This property
makes them useful when direct current must be prevented from entering some part of an
electric circuit. Fixed-capacity and variable-capacity capacitors are used with coils in
resonant circuits in radios and other electronic equipment.

Because the dielectric of a capacitor may break down, there is a limit to the potential
difference that may be applied across a capacitor. Capacitors are therefore labelled not only
with their capacitance but also with their working potential difference in order to prevent
breakdown of the dielectric in use.

BUZZER

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A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may
be mechanical, electromechanical, or electronic. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers
include alarms, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.

Piezoelectric disk beepe

Mechanical:

A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.

Electromechanical:

Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric

bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own
actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or
ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that
electromechanical buzzers made.

Electronic

A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio

signal source. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click,
a ring or a beep. Electronic buzzers find many applications in modern days.

RESISTOR

19
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its
terminals that is proportional to the electric currentthrough it in accordance with Ohm's
law:

V = IR

A typical axial-lead resistor

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and
films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-
chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, the maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature
coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below
which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current, and above which the limit
is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions
of the resistor.

Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits, as well as integrated circuits.
Size, and position of leads (or terminals), are relevant to equipment designers; resistors
must be physically large enough not to overheat when dissipating their power.

Partially exposed Tesla TR-212 1 kΩ carbon film resistor

20
UNITS

The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
Commonly used multiples and submultiples in electrical and electronic usage are the
milliohm (1x10−3), kilohm (1x103), and megohm (1x106).

Theory of operation

Ohm's law

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I)
through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is maintained across a
resistance (R), a current (I) will flow through the resistance.

This formulation is often used in practice. For example, if V is 12 volts and R is 400 ohms,
a current of 12 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow through the resistance R.

Series and parallel resistors

Resistors in a parallel configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage). To
find their total equivalent resistance (Req):

21
The parallel property can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in
geometry) to simplify equations. For two resistors,

The current through resistors in series stays the same, but the voltage across each resistor
can be different. The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage.
To find their total resistance:

A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series can be broken up into smaller
parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

22
However, many resistor networks cannot be split up in this way. Consider a cube, each
edge of which has been replaced by a resistor. For example, determining the resistance
between two opposite vertices requires additional transforms, such as the Y-Δ transform, or
else matrix methods must be used for the general case. However, if all twelve resistors are
equal, the corner-to-corner resistance is 5⁄6 of any one of them.

The practical application to resistors is that a resistance of any non-standard value can be
obtained by connecting standard values in series or in parallel.

Power dissipation

The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated using the following:

All three equations are equivalent. The first is derived from Joule's first law. Ohm’s Law
derives the other two from that.

The total amount of heat energy released is the integral of the power over time:

If the average power dissipated is more than the resistor can safely dissipate, the resistor
may depart from its nominal resistance and may become damaged by overheating.
Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it
burns out, which could cause a fire in adjacent components and materials. There are
flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.

Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can
safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient
temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated power

23
dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25 °C in free air. Inside an
equipment case at 60 °C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a
bit less than the maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be outside the safe
operating areaand may prematurely fail.

CONSTRUCTION

Lead arrangements

Through-hole components typically have leads leaving the body axially. Others have leads
coming off their body radially instead of parallel to the resistor axis. Other components
may be SMT (surface mount technology) while high power resistors may have one of their
leads designed into the heat sink.

Carbon composition

Carbon composition resistors consist of a solid cylindrical resistive element with embedded
wire leads or metal end caps to which the lead wires are attached. The body of the resistor
is protected with paint or plastic. Early 20th-century carbon composition resistors had
uninsulated bodies; the lead wires were wrapped around the ends of the resistance element
rod and soldered. The completed resistor was painted for color coding of its value.

A single in line (SIL) resistor package with 8 individual, 47 ohm resistors. One end of each resistor is connected to a separate
pin and the other ends are all connected together to the remaining (common) pin - pin 1, at the end identified by the white dot.

The resistive element is made from a mixture of finely ground (powdered) carbon and an
insulating material (usually ceramic). A resin holds the mixture together. The resistance is
determined by the ratio of the fill material (the powdered ceramic) to the carbon. Higher
concentrations of carbon, a weak conductor, result in lower resistance. Carbon composition

24
resistors were commonly used in the 1960s and earlier, but are not so popular for general
use now as other types have better specifications, such as tolerance, voltage dependence,
and stress (carbon composition resistors will change value when stressed with over-
voltages). Moreover, if internal moisture content (from exposure for some length of time to
a humid environment) is significant, soldering heat will create a non-reversible change in
resistance value. These resistors, however, if never subjected to overvoltage nor
overheating were remarkably reliable considering the component's size [1]

They are still available, but comparatively quite costly. Values ranged from fractions of an
ohm to 22 megohms. Because of the high price, these resistors are no longer used in most
applications. However, carbon resistors are used in power supplies and welding controls[1].

Resistors with wire leads for through-hole mounting

Carbon film

A carbon film is deposited on an insulating substrate, and a helix cut in it to create a long,
narrow resistive path. Varying shapes, coupled with the resistivity of carbon, (ranging from
90 to 400 nΩm) can provide a variety of resistances.[2] Carbon film resistors feature a
power rating range of 0.125 W to 5 W at 70 °C. Resistances available range from 1 ohm to
10 megohm. The carbon film resistor has an operating temperature range of -55 °C to
155 °C. It has 200 to 600 volts maximum working voltage range. Special carbon film
resistors are used in applications requiring high pulse stability.

Thick and thin film

Thick film resistors became popular during the 1970s, and most SMD (surface mount
device) resistors today are of this type. The principal difference between thin film and thick

25
film resistors is not the actual thickness of the film, but rather how the film is applied to the
cylinder (axial resistors) or the surface (SMD resistors).

Thin film resistors are made by sputtering (a method of vacuum deposition) the resistive
material onto an insulating substrate. The film is then etched in a similar manner to the old
(subtractive) process for making printed circuit boards; that is, the surface is coated with
a photo-sensitive material, then covered by a pattern film, irradiated with ultraviolet light,
and then the exposed photo-sensitive coating is developed, and underlying thin film is
etched away.

Thick film resistors are manufactured using screen and stencil printing processes[1].

Because the time during which the sputtering is performed can be controlled, the thickness
of the thin film can be accurately controlled. The type of material is also usually different
consisting of one or more ceramic (cermet) conductors such as tantalum
nitride (TaN), ruthenium dioxide (RuO2), lead oxide (PbO), bismuth
ruthenate (Bi2Ru2O7), nickel chromium(NiCr), and/or bismuth iridate (Bi2Ir2O7).

The resistance of both thin and thick film resistors after manufacture is not highly accurate;
they are usually trimmed to an accurate value by abrasive or laser trimming. Thin film
resistors are usually specified with tolerances of 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, or 1%, and with temperature
coefficients of 5 to 25 ppm/K.

Thick film resistors may use the same conductive ceramics, but they are mixed
with sintered (powdered) glass and some kind of liquid so that the composite can
be screen-printed. This composite of glass and conductive ceramic (cermet) material is then
fused (baked) in an oven at about 850 °C.

Thick film resistors, when first manufactured, had tolerances of 5%, but standard
tolerances have improved to 2% or 1% in the last few decades. Temperature coefficients of
thick film resistors are high, typically ±200 or ±250 ppm/K; a 40 kelvin (70 °F)
temperature change can change the resistance by 1%.

Thin film resistors are usually far more expensive than thick film resistors. For example,
SMD thin film resistors, with 0.5% tolerances, and with 25 ppm/K temperature

26
coefficients, when bought in full size reel quantities, are about twice the cost of 1%, 250
ppm/K thick film resistors.

Metal film

A common type of axial resistor today is referred to as a metal-film resistor. Metal

electrode leadless face (MELF) resistors often use the same technology, but are a
cylindrically shaped resistor designed for surface mounting. Note that other types of
resistors (e.g., carbon composition) are also available in MELF packages.

Metal film resistors are usually coated with nickel chromium (NiCr), but might be coated
with any of the cermet materials listed above for thin film resistors. Unlike thin film
resistors, the material may be applied using different techniques than sputtering (though
that is one such technique). Also, unlike thin-film resistors, the resistance value is
determined by cutting a helix through the coating rather than by etching. (This is similar to
the way carbon resistors are made.) The result is a reasonable tolerance (0.5, 1, or 2%) and
a temperature coefficient that is generally between 50 and 100 ppm/K.[4]. Metal film
resistors possess good noise characteristics and low non-linearity due to a low voltage
coefficient. Also beneficial are the components efficient tolerance, temperature coefficient
and stability.

Metal Oxide film

Metal-Oxide film resistors resemble Metal film types, but are made of metal oxides such as
tin oxide. This results in a higher operating temperature and greater stability/reliability than
Metal film. They are used in applications with high endurance demands.

Wire wound

Wire wound resistors are commonly made by winding a metal wire, usually nichrome,
around a ceramic, plastic, or fiberglass core. The ends of the wire are soldered or welded to
two caps or rings, attached to the ends of the core. The assembly is protected with a layer
of paint, molded plastic, or an enamel coating baked at high temperature. Because of the
very high surface temperature these resistors can withstand temperatures of up to
+450 °C[1]. Wire leads in low power wirewound resistors are usually between 0.6 and

27
0.8 mm in diameter and tinned for ease of soldering. For higher power wirewound
resistors, either a ceramic outer case or an aluminum outer case on top of an insulating
layer is used. The aluminum-cased types are designed to be attached to a heat sink to
dissipate the heat; the rated power is dependent on being used with a suitable heat sink,
e.g., a 50 W power rated resistor will overheat at a fraction of the power dissipation if not
used with a heat sink. Large wirewound resistors may be rated for 1,000 watts or more.

Types of windings in wire resistors:

1 - Common
2 - Bifilar

3 - Common on a thin former

4 - Ayrton-Perry

Because wirewound resistors are coils they have more undesirable inductance than other
types of resistor, although winding the wire in sections with alternately reversed direction
can minimize inductance. Other techniques employ bifilar winding, or a flat thin former (to
reduce cross-section area of the coil). For most demanding circuits resistors with Ayrton-
Perry winding are used.

Applications of wirewound resistors are similar to those of composition resistors with the
exception of the high frequency. The high frequency of wirewound resistors is substantially
worse than that of a composition resistor.

28
Foil resistor

The primary resistance element of a foil resistor is a special alloy foil

several micrometres thick. Since their introduction in the 1960s, foil resistors have had the
best precision and stability of any resistor available. One of the important parameters
influencing stability is the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR). The TCR of foil
resistors is extremely low, and has been further improved over the years. One range of
ultra-precision foil resistors offers a TCR of 0.14 ppm/°C, tolerance ±0.005%, long-term
stability (1 year) 25 ppm, (3 year) 50 ppm (further improved 5-fold by hermetic sealing),
stability under load (2000 hours) 0.03%, thermal EMF 0.1 μV/°C, noise -42 dB, voltage
coefficient 0.1 ppm/V, inductance 0.08 μH, capacitance 0.5 pF.[5]

Ammeter shunts

An ammeter shunt is a special type of current-sensing resistor, having four terminals and a
value in milliohms or even micro-ohms. Current-measuring instruments, by themselves,
can usually accept only limited currents. To measure high currents, the current passes
through the shunt, where the voltage drop is measured and interpreted as current. A typical
shunt consists of two solid metal blocks, sometimes brass, mounted on to an insulating
base. Between the blocks, and soldered or brazed to them, are one or more strips of
low temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) manganin alloy. Large bolts threaded into
the blocks make the current connections, while much-smaller screws provide voltage
connections. Shunts are rated by full-scale current, and often have a voltage drop of 50 mV
at rated current. Such meters are adapted to the shunt full current rating by using an
appropriately marked dial face; no change need be made to the other parts of the meter.

Grid resistor

In heavy-duty industrial high-current applications, a grid resistor is a large convection-

cooled lattice of stamped metal alloy strips connected in rows between two electrodes.
Such industrial grade resistors can be as large as a refrigerator; some designs can handle
over 500 amperes of current, with a range of resistances extending lower than 0.04 ohms.
They are used in applications such as dynamic braking and load
banking for locomotives and trams, neutral grounding for industrial AC distribution,

29
control loads for cranes and heavy equipment, load testing of generators and harmonic
filtering for electric substations.

The term grid resistor is sometimes used to describe a resistor of any type connected to
the control grid of a vacuum tube. This is not a resistor technology; it is an electronic
circuit topology.

Measurement

The value of a resistor can be measured with an ohmmeter, which may be one function of
a multimeter. Usually, probes on the ends of test leads connect to the resistor. A
simpleohmmeter may apply a voltage from a battery across the unknown resistor (with an
internal resistor of a known value in series) producing a current which drives a meter
movement. The current flow, in accordance with Ohm's Law, is inversely proportional to
the sum of the internal resistance and the resistor being tested, resulting in an analog meter
scale which is very non-linear, calibrated from infinity to 0 ohms. A digital multimeter,
using active electronics, may instead pass a specified current through the test resistance.
The voltage generated across the test resistance in that case is linearly proportional to its
resistance, which is measured and displayed. In either case the low-resistance ranges of the
meter pass much more current through the test leads than do high-resistance ranges, in
order for the voltages present to be at reasonable levels (generally below 10 volts) but still
measurable.

Measuring low-value resistors, such as fractional-ohm resistors, with acceptable accuracy

requires four-terminal connections. One pair of terminals applies a known, calibrated
current to the resistor, while the other pair senses the voltage drop across the resistor. Some
laboratory quality ohmmeters, especially milliohmmeters, and even some of the better
digital multimeters sense using four input terminals for this purpose, which may be used
with special test leads. Each of the two so-called Kelvin clips has a pair of jaws insulated
from each other. One side of each clip applies the measuring current, while the other
connections are only to sense the voltage drop. The resistance is again calculated
using Ohm's Law as the measured voltage divided by the applied current.

30
Resistor making

Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-
mount resistors are marked numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; more-
recent small sizes are impractical to mark. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green,
though other colors are occasionally found such as dark red or dark gray.

Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their
entire body for color coding. A second color of paint was applied to one end of the
element, and a color dot (or band) in the middle provided the third digit. The rule was
"body, tip, dot", providing two significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in
that sequence. Default tolerance was ±20%. Closer-tolerance resistors had silver (±10%) or
gold-colored (±5%) paint on the other end.

Four-band resistors

Four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding scheme on resistors. It

consists of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The first two
bands encode the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a power-of-
ten multiplier or number-of-zeroes, and the fourth is the tolerance accuracy, or acceptable
error, of the value. The first three bands are equally spaced along the resistor; the spacing
to the fourth band is wider. Sometimes a fifth band identifies the thermal coefficient, but
this must be distinguished from the true 5-color system, with 3 significant digits.

For example, green-blue-yellow-red is 56×104 Ω = 560 kΩ ± 2%. An easier description can

be as followed: the first band, green, has a value of 5 and the second band, blue, has a value
of 6, and is counted as 56. The third band, yellow, has a value of 10 4, which adds four 0's to
the end, creating 560,000 Ω at ±2% tolerance accuracy. 560,000 Ω changes to 560 kΩ ±2%
(as a kilo- is 103).

Each color corresponds to a certain digit, progressing from darker to lighter colors, as
shown in the chart below.

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 TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is

made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the
transistor provides amplification of a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged
individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

32
 Assorted discrete transistors. Packages in order from top to bottom: TO-3, TO-126, TO-92, SOT-23

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the
transistor revolutionised the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and
cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, amongst other things.

History

Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed the first patent for a transistor in Canada in 1925,
describing a device similar to a Field Effect Transistor or "FET".[1] However, Lilienfeld did
not publish any research articles about his devices, nor did his patent cite any examples of
devices actually constructed. In 1934, German inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar
device.

From 1942 Herbert Mataré experimented with so-called Duodiodes while working on a
detector for a Doppler RADAR system. The duodiodes built by him had two separate but
very close metal contacts on the semiconductor substrate. He discovered effects that could
not be explained by two independently operating diodes and thus formed the basic idea for
the later point contact transistor.

In 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T's Bell Labs in the United
States observed that when electrical contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium, the

33
output power was larger than the input. Solid State Physics Group leader William
Shockley saw the potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand
the knowledge of semiconductors. The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce.
[3]
According to physicist/historian Robert Arns, legal papers from the Bell Labs patent
show that William Shockley and Gerald Pearson had built operational versions from
Lilienfeld's patents, yet they never referenced this work in any of their later research papers
or historical articles.

A replica of the first working transistor.

The name transistor is a portmanteau of the term "transfer resistor".

The first silicon transistor was produced by Texas Instruments in 1954.[6] This was the
work of Gordon Teal, an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously
worked at Bell Labs.[7] The first MOS transistor actually built was by Kahng and Atalla at
Bell Labs in 1960.

Importance

The transistor is the key active component in practically all modern electronics, and is
considered by many to be one of the greatest inventions of the twentieth century.[9] Its
importance in today's society rests on its ability to be mass produced using a highly
automated process (semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low per-
transistor costs.

Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known
as discrete) transistors every year,[10] the vast majority of transistors now produced are

34
in integrated circuits (often shortened to IC, microchips or simply chips), along
with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to produce complete
electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about twenty transistors whereas an
advanced microprocessor, as of 2009, can use as many as 2.3 billion transistors
(MOSFETs).[11] "About 60 million transistors were built this year [2002] ... for [each] man,
woman, and child on Earth."[12]

The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a ubiquitous device.
Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling
appliances and machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a
standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than
to design an equivalent mechanical control function.

Uses

The bipolar junction transistor, or BJT, was the most commonly used transistor in the
1960s and 70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the
transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as simple amplifiers because of their
greater linearity and ease of manufacture. Desirable properties of MOSFETs, such as their
utility in low-power devices, usually in the CMOS configuration, allowed them to capture
nearly all market share for digital circuits; more recently MOSFETs have captured most
analog and power applications as well, including modern clocked analog circuits, voltage
regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters, motor drivers, etc.

BC 548 transistor

The BC548 is a general purpose silicon, NPN, bipolar junction transistor found commonly
in European electronic equipment. It is electrically similar to the North
American 2N3904 and Japanese 2SC1815 but has different lead assignments.
If the TO-92 package is held in front of one's face with the flat side facing toward you and
the leads downward, (see picture) the order of the leads, from left to right is collector,

35
base, emitter. Note that the pin assignment of the complementary PNP device BC558 is
exactly the same.

BC548 transistor

Historical roots

Before the silicon "BC" devices were developed, the older germanium technology "OC"
series devices were used. These generally date between about 1958-1970. The most
commonly encountered are the glass encapsulated OC44, OC45, OC71 and OC75. These
were very low power devices with a Vcbo generally in the 12-16 volt range and Ic values
of less than 50mA. The OC44 and OC45 were the first common British/European radio
frequency devices with an ft around 1 MHz. The OC71 and OC75 were audio devices with
an ft of about 150 kHz. A "power" version, the OC25, with an Ic of 3 Amperes was
sometimes seen in a TO-3 package. All of these earlier germanium devices were generally
PNP, although NPN versions were made. These older germanium devices
contained indium, a metal with a very low melting point which limited the power
dissipation of the devices to a very low level and rendered them unreliable in harsh
environments, such as use in aircraft where wide temperature variations are encountered.
The silicon technology based "BC" devices appeared and superseded the older germanium
based devices. The doped silicon from which the newer devices were fabricated could
withstand much greater temperature variations and allowed much greater power
dissipations. The main limiting factor of the newer silicon BJTs was thermal runaway, a
condition where the current gain ("beta") of a BJT increases as it gets hotter. This increases
the collector current (Ic) despite the base current being constant. An increase in Ic makes

36
the chip "die" hotter, increasing the "beta" and thus Ic, and so on until the transistor is
cooled externally or it burns out. This thermal runaway can be overcome by using an
emitter resistor in combination with a voltage divider providing the base bias current, or by
using a resistor between the collector and the base (sliding bias), we call all these measures
against thermal runaway Bipolar transistor biasing.

Specification

The exact specs of a given device depend on the manufacturer. It is important to check the
datasheet for the exact device and brand you are dealing with. Philips and Telefunken are
two manufacturers of the BC548.
Vcbo = 30 Volts, Ic = 100mA, Ptotal = 50 mW and ft = 300 MHz

Relationship to the family of BC devices

The BC548 is a member of a larger group of similarly numbered transistors. Its

complement is the BC558, which is similar to the North American 2N3906 and the
Japanese 2SA1015. The BC548 is flanked by two similar transistors, the BC547 and the
BC549. These are similar to the BC548 but the 547 has a greater Vcbo of 50 volts and the
549 has the same Vcbo of 30 volts but a lower noise figure. The 547 and 549 have
complementary PNP versions numbered 557 and 559. A 556 device also exists with a Vcbo
of 80 volts, which device finds extensive use in the current mirror input stages of medium
quality audio amplifiers with relatively high rail voltages. A family of older "BC"
transistors predates the TO-92 BC54x series, the BC107, 108 and 109, (with complements
BC177, 178 and 179). These are generally housed in the TO-18 metal package, the same as
what the North American 2N2222 uses. These older transistors have similar characteristics
as the TO-92 BC5xx devices and are generally interchangeable. For example, a damaged
BC178 could be replaced with a BC558, taking the usual precautions to ensure that the
three leads are correctly oriented.

The BC337, 338 and 339 are a range of higher current, slower devices with complementary
PNP versions BC327, 328 and 329. These are similar to the North American 2N2222 and
2N2907 in Ic and ft values and have the same Vcbo ratings as the BC547, 548 and 549.
The BC635, 637 and 639 possess an Ic value of 1A, a Vcbo of between 45 and 80 volts and
an ft of 50 to 130 MHz. These devices have a different lead configuration, with the

37
collector lead in the middle. The complementary PNP versions are BC636, BC638 and
BC640. There are many other devices based on the BC54x family, such as the surface-
mount versions of the BC547, 548 and 549, the BC847, 848 and 849.

Advantages

The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors
in most applications are

 Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized

electronic devices.
 Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost.
 Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-
powered applications.
 No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.
 Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
 Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
 Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than
50 years.
 Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementary-
symmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.
 Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem
of microphonics in audio applications.

Limitations

 Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about

1,000 volts (SiC devices can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron
tubes have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts.
 High power, high frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-air television
broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron mobility in a
vacuum.

38
  Silicon transistors are much more vulnerable than electron tubes to
an electromagnetic pulse generated by a high-altitude nuclear explosion.

LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) (pronounced /ˌɛl iː ˈdiː/, L-E-D[1]) is

a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices, and are
increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,
[2]
early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across
the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-
emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able
to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form
of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical
components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[3] LEDs present
many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability
and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources
of comparable output.

39
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation
lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well
as in traffic signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching
speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and
sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced
communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of
many commercial products including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic
appliances.

SWITCH

In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,

interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.[1][2] The most familiar
form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets
of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed'
meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or 'open',
meaning the contacts are separated and nonconducting.

40
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a
computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch.
Automatically-operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for
example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine
tool is in a position to accept another workpiece. Switches may be operated by process
variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting
as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example,
a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch
that is operated by another electrical circuit is called arelay. Large switches may be
remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric
power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be pad-locked if
necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent
electric shock.

In Circuit Theory

In electronics engineering, an ideal switch describes a switch that:

 has no current limit during its ON state

 has infinite resistance during its OFF state
 has no voltage drop across the switch during its ON state
 has no voltage limit during its OFF state
 has zero rise time and fall time during state changes
 switches only once without "bouncing" between on and off positions

Practical switches have loss and limitations. The ideal switch is often used in circuit
analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved, however this can lead
to a less accurate solution.

Contacts

In the simplest case, a switch has two conductive pieces, often metal, called contacts that
touch to complete (make) a circuit, and separate to open (break) the circuit. The contact
material is chosen for its resistance to corrosion, because most metals

41
form insulating oxides that would prevent the switch from working. Contact materials are
also chosen on the basis of electrical conductivity, hardness (resistance to abrasive
wear), mechanical strength, low cost and low toxicity[3].

Sometimes the contacts are plated with noble metals. They may be designed to wipe
against each other to clean off any contamination. Nonmetallic conductors, such as
conductive plastic, are sometimes used.

BATTERY

Battery, device that converts energy stored in chemicals into energy in the form of
electricity. It consists of two or more electric cells connected in series or parallel. A
number of new types of batteries have been designed for use in electric vehicles. Improved
versions of conventional storage batteries have been developed for electric cars, but they
still suffer the drawbacks of either short range, high expense, bulkiness, or environmental
problems. Advanced batteries that show promise for use in electric vehicles include
lithium-iron sulphide, zinc-chlorine, nickel metal hydride, and sodium-sulphur. Such
batteries are also being developed by electricity supply companies to be used for “load
levelling”, to compensate for momentary system load fluctuations. Such battery modules
could be installed close to sites of variable demand. They cause few environmental
problems and occupy little space.

Nine volt battery

A nine-volt battery, also called a PP3 battery, is shaped as a rounded rectangular prism
and has a nominal output of nine volts. Its nominal dimensions are 48 mm × 25 mm ×
15 mm. 9v batteries are commonly used in pocket transistor radios, smoke
detectors, carbon monoxide alarms, guitar effect units, and radio-controlled
vehicle controllers. They are also used as backup power to keep the time in digital
clocks and alarm clocks.

42
Connectors
The connector (snap) consists of two connectors: one smaller circular (male) and one
larger, typically either hexagonal or octagonal (female). The connectors on the battery are
the same as on the connector itself; the smaller one connects to the larger one and vice
versa.
History
The PP3 appeared when portable transistorized radio receivers became common, and is still
called a "transistor" battery by some manufacturers. The Eveready company claims that it
introduced this battery type in 1956.
Technical specification

The battery has both the positive and negative terminals on one end. The negative terminal
is fashioned into a snap fitting which mechanically and electrically connects to a mating
terminal on the power connector. The power connector has a similar snap fitting on its
positive terminal which mates to the battery. This makes battery polarization obvious since
mechanical connection is only possible in one configuration. The clips on the 9-volt battery
can be used to connect several 9-volt batteries in series. One problem with this style of
connection is that it is very easy to connect two batteries together in a short circuit, which
quickly discharges both batteries, generating heat and possibly a fire. Multiple 9 volt
batteries can be snapped together in series to create higher voltage.

43
Inside a PP3 there are six cells, either cylindrical alkaline or flat carbon-zinc type,
connected in series. Some brands use welded tabs internally to attach to the cells, others
press foil strips against the ends of the cells.

Rechargeable NiCd and NiMH batteries have various numbers of 1.2 volt cells. Lithium
versions use three 3.2 V cells - there is a rechargeable lithium polymer version. There is
also a Hybrid NiMH version that has a very low self- discharge rate (85% of capacity after
1 year of storage).

Formerly, mercury batteries were made in this size. They had higher capacity than carbon-
zinc types, a nominal voltage of 8.4 volts, and very stable voltage output. Once used in
photographic and measuring instruments or long-life applications, they are now unavailable
due to environmental restrictions.

Open 9-Volt 'transistor' battery showing five of six AAAA cells, which are commonly used in medical equipment.

Self discharge
An alkaline battery that is unused or used with extremely low power consumption devices
(transistor leak current, etc.) can be expected to last approximately for 6 years, essentially
the shelf-life of a new battery.

44
 WORKING OF SEISMIC SENSOR

In the circuit, IC TLO71 (IC1) is wired as a differential amplifier with both its inverting
and non-inverting inputs tied to the negative rail through a resistive network comprising
R1, R2 and R3. Under idle conditions (as adjusted by VR1), both the inputs receive.
almost equal voltages, which keeps the output low. TLO71 is a low-noise JFET input op-
amp with low input bias and offset current. The BIFET technology provides fast slew rates.
Capacitor C1 is provided in the circuit to keep the differential input of IC1 for better
performance.
When the piezo element is disturbed (by even a slight movement), it discharges the stored
charge. This alters the voltage level at the inputs of IC1 and the output momentarily swings
high as indicated by green
LED1. This high output is used to trigger switching transistor T1, which triggers
monostable IC2. The timing period of IC2 is determined by R7 and C5. With the shown
values, it will be around two minutes. The high output from IC2 activates T2 and the
buzzer starts beeping along with red light indication from LED2. Assemble the circuit on a
common PCB and enclose in a suitable cabinet. Connect the piezo element to the PCB
using single-core shielded wire. Enclose the piezo element inside a rustproof, small
aluminum box. The piezo element should be firmly glued to the enclosure facing the fine
side towards the case. Fix the sensor assembly on the back side of a ceramic tile or granite
tile with good adhesive. Fix the tile (or bury it in the earth) near the entrance with the
sensor assembly facing downwards. Whenever a pressure change develops near the sensor,
the circuit will be activated.

APPLICATIONS OF SEISMIC SENSOR

1. It can be used at all the places where we require a lot of security eg in Bank lockers,
in jeweler showrooms etc
2. It can also be used at the areas where human or any animal enrty is not allowed (eg.
Danger zones).

45
 CONCLUSION

This project “SEISMIC SENSOR” can detect the vibrations produced by human beings or
animals. We use a piezo device here to detect them. We can place these piezo devices
inside the floor of the area, so that it will not be visible to the strangers.
And when they (animals or humans) step on the floor tile having a piezo device it will
detect the vibrations or we can say it will convert the mechanical energy into electrical
energy and the piezo buzzer will get turn on.
This is a low budget project so any one can use it easily.
It can be used at the places where the interruption of human or animal is not allowed for
example in the bank lockers, jeweler showrooms, high voltage areas and many more.
It will help in many ways if we use a high efficiency piezo element and piezo buzzer.
This project can also be extended into the seismometer or the earthquake detectors.

46
 REFRENCES

• www.google.com

• www.wekipedia.com

• Microsoft Encarta encyclopedia standard

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