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ECE208: UNIFIED ELECTRONICS LAB-II

LABORATORY MANUAL
ECE 208
UNIFIED ELECTRONICS LAB-II
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S. No. Title of the Experiment Page No.

1 Simulation using pSpice for zener diode used as voltage regulator. 3-7

2 Simulation using pSpice for operational amplifier used as summer 8-12

3 Simulation of network theorems using pSpice 13-15

4 To perform convolution between two continuous time signals using 16-17

MATLAB.

5 To perform correlation and autocorrelation using programming in 18-21

MATLAB.

6 To perform Fourier Series Analysis and Find Fourier coefficients from a 22-23
complex signal in MATLAB.
7 Generation of White Noise and To perform noise cancellation for signal 24-27
buried in white noise in MATLAB.
8 Design and analyse a differentiator circuit whose minimum frequency is 28-32
100Hz.
9 Design and analyse a integrator circuit whose maximum frequency is 33-36
100KHz.
10 To analyse the functionality of triangular wave generator using IC 741. 37-38

11 To determine the frequency response of two stage RC coupled amplifier 39-39

using complementary symmetry push-pull amplifier

12 To determine frequency response of cascade amplifier Darlington pair 40-41

13 To implement phase shift oscillator 42-43

14 To analyse the functionality of Hartley oscillator on output frequency 44-46

15 To analyse the functionality of colpitt oscillator on output frequency 47-48

16 To analyse the frequency response of tuned amplifier 49-50

17 To analyse the charteristics of instrumentation amplifier 51-52

18 Design analog computer using different modes of operation of IC 741. 53-55

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Experiment1: Simulation of operational amplifier used as summer using p-spice.

Equipments Required: PSPICE simulator, Power supply, Digital multi-meter

Material Required: IC741, 6 Resistors of 1K each

Learning objective: The main objective of this experiment is to design an application of Operational amplifier
as a summer by using a PSPICE simulator. A simulator is a software tool used to verify the behaviour and
functionality of a circuit without actually implementing it on hardware. This experiment is designed to verify
the output (Vo) of a non-inverting summer with three inputs Vin1, Vin2 and Vin3.

The expression of Vo for a non-inverting summer is given as:

Vo = [(1+RF/R1)(Vin1+Vin2+Vin3)]/3 ---- equation I
Thus, for the given values of V in1, Vin2 and Vin3, the simulator will verify the value of Vo as per the above
expression.
Outline of the Procedure:
1. Start up the PC and select Programs  PSPICE  Schematics
2. Now from Menu bar, select Draw  Get New Part  Advanced
3. To create the circuit as shown in above schematic, we need a µA741 op-amp, 6 Resistors (R), 3 input
voltage sources (VSIN), 5 ground terminals (AGND), 4 interfaces (GLOBAL) and 2 dc supplies (VDC)
4. Select all the above parts one at a time and place them in the workspace. Now close the Get New Part
option by clicking on Place and Close.
5. Arrange the parts in the workspace as they appear in figure-I by simply selecting & dragging them to the
particular position. Interconnect the parts using Draw  Wire. To rotate or Flip the part, use CTRL+R
/ CTRL+F.
6. The parts in this circuit that requires new attributes are the 2 dc supplies, the ac input amplitudes and
frequencies of 3 VSIN sources, GLOBALs, values of feedback & load resistances and the labels of
connecting wires. So, to change them, follow the following steps:
a. GLOBAL: Double click on the GLOBAL connected at 4th pin of op-amp and name it as –Vee.
Similarly, Double click on the GLOBAL connected at 7th pin of op-amp as +Vcc. Also, label the
GLOBALS connected to dc supplies with same names.
b. DC supplies: Double click on DC supply connected to +Vcc and label it +15V. Similarly, label
–Vee with -15V.
c. VSIN source: Double click on first VSIN source, and fill as follows,
VAMPL  2V  Save Attr  Change display  Both name and value  OK
Freq  100Hz  Save Attr  Change Display  Both name and value  OK
VOFF  0V  Save Attr  OK
Similarly, follow for rest two sources. Set 2nd source at VAMPL of -3V and 3rd at VAMPL of
4V.
d. Resistors: Double click on RF & RL and label it as 2k and 10k respectively.
e. Similarly, Label the connecting wires by double-clicking on them.
7. Open Analysis  Probe Setup and click on automatically run Probe after simulation.
8. Open Analysis  Setup  Transient. Enable it and click on it. Set Print step to 10 µs and final time
to 2 ms. Click on OK and then Close the setup box.
9. Save the file as summer.sch.
10. Use Analysis  Simulate to execute the program. A summer.dat file with black window as shown in
figure-II will open.
a. From the menu bar, Click on Trace  Add Trace
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b. A sub-window as shown in figure-III will appear. Now uncheck the currents, Alias names and
sub-circuit nodes from the right panel of window.
c. Now from the left panel, Click on V(Vin1), V(Vin2), V(Vin3) and V(Vo). And Click ok.
d. The resultant window will appear as shown in figure-IV.

Schematic diagram of summer on PSPICE:

(Figure I)
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Figure-II
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Figure-III

Figure-IV

Result Analysis:
The amplitude (VAMPL) of Vin1 was set as 2V,
The amplitude of Vin2 was set as -3V,
The amplitude of Vin3 was set as 4V and
The value of RF= 2K, R1 = 1K.
So according to the given formula for amplitude of Vo (Refer equation-I),
Vout should be = [(1+ (2/1)) (2-3+4)]/3 = [(3) (3)]/3 = 3V

Now verify this theoretical result with the output waveform of simulator. It is shown with yellow colour in
Figure-IV. All other input waveforms are also there with different colours to easily distinguish between them.

Note the amplitude of Vout on simulation window. It is also 3V.

This verifies the correctness of circuit using simulation.

(Various other inputs can be verified in similar way by just changing the VAMPL of Vin sources)
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Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.

Viva question:
1. What is the full form of pspice?
2. What is Simulation?
3. Why we use simulation?
4. How a summer perform addition?
5. How can you change component attributes using pspice?
6. What is the difference between VSIN, VSRC and VAC in pspice?
7. What is the use of PROBE, CHECKPOINT and GLOBAL?
8. How can you perform transient analysis using pspice?
9. How can you change axis variables in pspice?
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Experiment 2: Simulation of Thevenin and Norton theorems using p-Spice.

Equipments Required: PSPICE simulator, Power supply, Digital multi-meter

Material Required: Resistors R1=1.8kΩ; R2=3.6kΩ; R3=820Ω; R4=R5=100Ω; RL=180
Learning objective: Practical verification of network theorems
Circuit Diagram:

Outline of the Procedure:

(a) Thevenin’s Theorem :

1. Measure the supply voltage and resistance of each resistor. Record these values. Select RL
as the resistor where it is proposed to determine the current value.
2. Construct the circuit in Figure. Do not turn on the supply.
3. Remove resistor RL from the network.
4. Turn on the supply. Measure the voltage between the points A and D of the network.
This is the Thevenin’s voltage. Record the value.
5. Switch off the power supply. Replace the power supply V1 with a short circuit.
6. Measure the resistance between terminals A and D. This is the Thevenin’s resistance.
Record the value.
7. Place back the resistor RL in circuit with an ammeter is connected between terminals A
and B or C and D.
8. Remove the short circuit connection and place back the supply in the circuit.
9. Turn on the supply. Read and record the current value flowing in the resistor RL.
10. Draw Thevenin’s equivalent circuit inclusive of resistor RL.

(b) Norton’s Theorem :

1. Construct the circuit as shown in Figure. Do not turn on the supply
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2. Remove resistor RL from the network. RL is selected as the resistor where it is proposed
to determine the current value.
3. Turn on the supply. Read the current shown by the ammeter between terminals A and D.
This is Norton’s current, IN. Record its value in Table
4. Switch off the power supply. Replace the supply with a short circuit.
5. Measure the resistance between terminals A and D. This is Norton’s resistance, record
the value in Table
6. Place back the resistance RL in circuit with an ammeter is connected between terminals
A and B or C and D.
7. Place back the power supply in the circuit and remove the short circuit connection.
8. Read and record the current value flowing in the resistor RL.
9. Draw Norton’s equivalent circuit inclusive of resistor RL.

Pspice Analysis
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Using the measured values of the supply voltage and the resistors; draw two Pspice schematics.Simulate them
to find the theoretical values of Thevenin’s resistance, thevenin’s voltage and current through RL.

Schematic 1 is to find the value of Thevenin’s resistance and Thevenin’s voltage. Theoretically, a large value
of RL say 1E8 is equivalent to open path AD. Get the part VIEWPOINT and enable display results on
schematic under Analysis tab, Recall that V12 = V1 – V2 to find Vth. In the Analysis - > Setup, select transfer
function and assign V(RL) and V1 respectively for output variable and input source. Save and simulate your
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circuit. Study the scripts by examining the output and find your input and output resistance (Rth). Submit the
output file as given below.

Schematic 2 is to find the value of current through RL; Disable the previous settings. Get PROBE under get
new part to find the branch current. Save and simulate your circuit. Display the results on the schematic. Using
the measured values of the supply voltage and the resistors, draw a Pspice schematic and simulate it to find the
theoretical values of short circuit Norton’s current. Norton’s resistance is equal to Thevenin’s resistance, and
the same goes for current
through RL.

Table: 1

Table: 2

Table: 3
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Table: 4

Result:

Compare both the results to verify the theorems as explined above.

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
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Experiment 3: Simulation using p-Spice for zener diode used as voltage regulator.

Equipments Required: PSPICE simulator, Power supply, Digital multi-meter

Material Required: Resistors R1=1.0kΩ; Zener Diode D1N750
Learning objective: To obtain the V-I characteristics of zener diode and application of zener diode as a voltage
regulator.
Circuit Diagram:

Outline of the Procedure:

1. Construct the above schematic and label the output node as V out.
2. Select the setup from the analysis menu; click the DC Sweep dialog button. The DC sweep dialog box
appears. For the Sweep variable type select the voltage source, and set its name to V1.
3. Using the sweep type linear, set the starting value to 0, end value to 20 and increment to 0.05.
4. When simulation is complete probe graphic window appears. From the Plot pull-down menu select X
Axis Settings, click the Axis Variable button to open the variable list, and select V(Vout) to be the
horizontal axis.
5. Click OK button and the Zener diode i-v characteristic is displayed as shown.

Analysis using pspice:

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Result:

The VI characteristics of the Zener diode volatage regeulator haas been verified using pspice simulator as
shown above.

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
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Viva question:

1. What is zener diode.

2. How it can be used as a regulator?

3. What are the different applications of regulators?

4. What is function of regulator?

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Experiment No.4
Title- To perform convolution between two continuous time signals using MATLAB.
Software Used:- MATLAB
Learning Objective: - Through this students will learn about that how a convolution
is performed and what is the result of the convolution.

Procedure:-

Matlab code :
t=[0:8]/8;
a= sin(2*pi*t);
b= cos(2*pi*t);
C = conv2(a,b);
Subplot(3,1,1), plot(a), title('input a');
Subplot(3,1,2), plot(b), title('input b');
Subplot(3,1,3), plot(C), title('convolution');
This conv2 function finds the convolution of the input signals A and B.
Result: The following figure shows results.

input a
1

-1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
input b
1

-1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
convolution
5

-5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
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Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
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Experiment No.5
Title:- To perform correlation and autocorrelation using programming in matlab.
Software: MATLAB
Learning Objective: - Through this experiment the correlation of the two signal and
autocorrelation phenomena will be understood.
Procedure:
The autocorrelation function of a random signal describes the general dependence
of the values of the samples at one time on the values of the samples at another time.
Consider a random process x(t) (i.e. continuous-time), its autocorrelation function is
written as:
Where T is the period of observation. Rxx(t) is always real-valued and an even
function with a maximum value at 0 .

Matlab Code:
N=1024;% Number of samples
f1=1;% Frequency of the sinewave
FS=200;% Sampling Frequency
n=0:N-1;% Sample index numbers
x=sin(2*pi*f1*n/FS);% Generate the signal, x(n)
t=[1:N]*(1/FS);% Prepare a time axis
subplot(2,1,1);% Prepare the figure
plot(t,x);% Plot x(n)
title('Sinwave of frequency 1000Hz [FS=8000Hz]');
xlabel('Time, [s]');
ylabel('Amplitude');
grid;
Rxx=xcorr(x);% Estimate its autocorrelation
subplot(2,1,2);% Prepare the figure
plot(Rxx);% Plot the autocorrelation
grid;
title('Autocorrelation function of the sinewave');
xlable('lags');
ylabel('Autocorrelation');

Matlab Code for Correlation:

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Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
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Experiment No.6
Title- To perform fourier series analysis and find fourier coefficients from a
complex signal in MATLAB.
Software Used:- Matlab

Learning Objective: - Through this experiment students will learn about the fourier
series analysis and will find the fourier coefficients.

Procedure
Code:

N = 2000;
x = [0:100]/100;
f = ones(1,101)*1/2;
for i = 1:2:N
a = 2/pi/i;
f = f+ a*sin(2*pi*i*x);
end
plot(x,f)

we can plot the Fourier series representation using MATLAB and see how
the series does at reproducing the original signal. If we plot the first 20 terms in the sum, we see the general
shape of the original function but we see also fringing. As
we plot more terms, we see the original function is represented quite accurately. In
general Fourier series can reconstruct a signal with a small number of modes if the
original signal is smooth. Discontinuities require many high frequency components
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to construct the signal accurately.

Matlab code for finding fourier coefficients in fast manner than the previous one
>> t=[0:7]/8;
>> f=sin(2*pi*t);
>> plot(f)
>>fft(f)

Result:- The following fourier coefficients will be obtained.

Columns 1 through 6

0.0000 -0.0000 - 4.0000i 0.0000 - 0.0000i 0.0000 - 0.0000i 0.0000

0.0000 + 0.0000i

Columns 7 through 8

0.0000 + 0.0000i -0.0000 + 4.0000i

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
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Experment No. 7

Title- Generation of white noise and to perform noise cancellation for signal buried
in white noise in MATLAB.
Software Used:- Matlab

Learning Objective: - Study the effect of white noise on signal.

Theory : White Gaussian noise (WGN) has a continuous and uniform frequency
spectrum over a specified frequency band and has equal power per Hertz of this
band. It consists of all frequencies at equal intensity and has a normal (Gaussian)
probability density function. For example, a hiss or the sound of many people
talking can be modeled as WGN. Because white Gaussian noise is random, we can
generate it in MATLAB using the random number generator function, random.
Procedure:

To generate N samples of zero-mean white noise use either

rand(N, 1)-0.5
randn(N, 1)

depending on whether the noise should be normally or Gaussian distributed.

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This program show the effect of Gaussian filter. The output are four subfigures
shown in the same figure:
 Subfigure 1: The initial noise free "lena"
 Subfigure 2: The noisy "lena"
 Subfigure 3: Filtered the initial "lena"
 Subfigure 4: Filtered the noisy "lena"
 The matlab codes:
 %%%%%%%%%%%%% The main.m file
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
 clear;
 % Parameters of the Gaussian filter:
 n1=10;sigma1=3;n2=10;sigma2=3;theta1=0;
 % The amplitude of the noise:
 noise=0.1;

 [w,map]=gifread('lena.gif');
 x=ind2gray(w,map);
 filter1=d2gauss(n1,sigma1,n2,sigma2,theta);
 x_rand=noise*randn(size(x));
 y=x+x_rand;
 f1=conv2(x,filter1,'same');
 rf1=conv2(y,filter1,'same');
 figure(1);
subplot(2,2,1);imagesc(x);

subplot(2,2,3);imagesc(f1);
subplot(2,2,4);imagesc(rf1);
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colormap(gray);
%%%%%%%%%%%%%% End of the main.m file
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

%%%%%%% The functions used in the main.m file %%%%%%%

% Function "d2gauss.m":
% This function returns a 2D Gaussian filter with size n1*n2; theta is
% the angle that the filter rotated counter clockwise; and sigma1 and
igma2
% are the standard deviation of the gaussian functions.
function h = d2gauss(n1,std1,n2,std2,theta)
r=[cos(theta) -sin(theta);
sin(theta) cos(theta)];
for i = 1 : n2
for j = 1 : n1
 u = r * [j-(n1+1)/2 i-(n2+1)/2]';
 h(i,j) = gauss(u(1),std1)*gauss(u(2),std2);
 end
 end
 h = h / sqrt(sum(sum(h.*h)));

 % Function "gauss.m":
 function y = gauss(x,std)
 y = exp(-x^2/(2*std^2)) / (std*sqrt(2*pi));
 %%%%%%%%%%%%%% end of the functions
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
These demos show the basic effects of the (2D) Gaussian filter: smoothing the
image and wiping off the noise. Generally speaking, for a noise-affected image,
smoothing it by Gaussian function is the first thing to do before any other further
processing, such as edge detection. The effectiveness of the gaussian function is
different for different choices of the standard deviation sigma of the Gaussian filter
You can see this from the following demos.
Results: Smoothing non-noisy image

filtered with sigma =1 ,Noise cancelling

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noisy lena filtered with sigma = 3

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EXPERIMENT:8

Title: Design and analyse a differentiator circuit whose minimum frequency is 100Hz.

s.no. apparatus specifiaction quantity tolerence

1 LM348 01
Operational
amplifier

2 1k ohm,2k ohm 02 5%
Resistor
3 0.1µF 01
Capacitor
4 01
Bread Board
5 01
Power Supply
6 AS PER
Connecting REQUIREMENT
wires

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

1) WE GET AWARE OF VARIOUS FUNTIONALITY OF IC 741

2) DIFFERENT FUNCTION PERFORMED BY OPAMP

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Rin= 1KΩ, RF= 2KΩ

Procedure
1. Using power supply voltages of ±15 VDC for the op-amp, construct an inverting amplifier circuit with a gain
of -3.9 using an input resistor of 1 K Ohms. Install the 0.1 μF capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistor as
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seen in Fig. 1. Calculate the cutoff frequency (fc) for the circuit using the measured values of the components. It
should be around 400 Hz. Add two extra 0.1 μF capacitors to the circuit. One should be connected between the
+ DC supply(pin 4) and ground the other should be connected between the - DC supply(pin 11) and ground.
These capacitors are to help prevent oscillation in the amplifier circuit due to interaction between the circuit and
the power supply. They should be placed as close to the Op-Amp itself as physically possible. Make sure that
the circuit is correctly connected before turning on the power supply voltages. Failure to do so may cause the
op-amp to saturate and in some cases cause permanent damage to the op-amp.
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2. Set the signal input, vin, to zero. That is replace the signal source, vin, with a short circuit to ground.
Carefully measure the DC output voltage. Make sure you record the proper sign, It should be between +50 mV
and -50 mV, usually very small. This output with no input is called the output offset voltage. It is an error in the
output of the circuit. It can be treated as an equivalent input offset voltage applied to the non-inverting input of
the op-amp. The equivalent input offset is calculated by dividing the measured output offset by the gain of the
amplifier from the non-inverting input, Av = (1 + Rf /Rin). This offset has no effect on the ac operation of the
circuit, but can cause errors in dc measurements of small voltages.
3. Use a signal input voltage, vin, of 0.1 VDC and connect it to the amplifier signal input as Vin. Using a digital
Multi-meter, measure and record both Vin and Vout as accurately as possible. Calculate the DC voltage gain
both with and without correcting the output voltage by subtracting the output offset voltage measured in step 2
from the measured output voltage. Be sure to use the correct sign on the offset voltage. Repeat this
measurement and calculation with Vin = 1.0 VDC.
4. With an oscilloscope connected to both the signal input and the output, apply an A.C. signal such that the
output voltage has amplitude between 5V and 10V. Then measure Vin, Vout, T, and t(for phase measurement)
at your calculated cutoff frequency and at each of the following frequencies: 20Hz, 50Hz, 100Hz, 200Hz,
500Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz, 5kHz and 10kHz, 20kHz, 50kHz. Print a copy of the waveforms at 20 Hz and 10 kHz, and
at your calculated cutoff frequency. As the gain starts to drop increase the input voltage trying to keep the
output voltage amplitude between 5V and 10V until you reach the maximum output of the signal generator.
Also take these measurements at your calculated cutoff frequency. If the output waveform starts to look like a
triangular wave instead of a sine wave your amplifier has reached the slew rate limit and you will have to
reduce the input voltage until this effect is eliminated to get accurate gain measurements
5. Calculate the AC voltage gain and phase shift of the circuit at each frequency.
6. Set your signal generator to square wave output at 100 Hz with amplitude of 1 V. With this input observe and
record the output waveform. Repeat at a frequency of 500 Hz.
CALCULATIONS / GRAPHS:
Gain(dB) = 20 log (Vo/Vi)
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. FREQUENCY Vi(v) V0 GAIN(DB)

OBSERVATION TABLE CONSIDERING ERRORS DUE TO MEASURING EQUIPMENTS: (CRO)

S.NO. FREQ(HZ)2%
Freq.(Hz) Vo(V) Vo(V) Vi(V) Gain(dB)min Gain(dB)max
-2% +2% -2%
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Calculations considering component errors:

2) Calculate RFmax=RF±10%, R1min= R1±10%.

3) Calculate Vo min and Vo max

Vo min = - (RFmin / R1min)Vi min

Vo max = (1+ RFmax / R1max) V i max

4) Find theoretical avg. gain and practical average gain.

5) Then find %age error = (theoretical gain – practical gain)/theoretical gain.

Plot the graph between

1) Min. frequency and min gain

2) Min. frequency and max. gain

3) Max. frequency and min. gain

4) Max. frequency and max. gain

Conclusion:-Drawn from the results of the experiment.

Cautions:

1. All connection must be proper.

2. All connections must be tight.

3. Use the correct IC.

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
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EXPERIMENT:9

Title: Design and analyse a integrator circuit whose maximum frequency is 100KHz.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.NO. APPARATUS SPECIFICATION QUANTITY TOLERENCE

1. LM348 01
Operational
amplifier

2. RESISTOR 1K OHM,2K 02 5%
OHM
3. CAPACITOR 0.1µF 02
4. BREAD 01
BOARD
5. POWER 01
SUPPLY
6. CONNECTING ACCORDING
WIRES REQUIREMENT

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

1) WE GET AWARE OF VARIOUS FUNTIONALITY OF IC 741

2) DIFFERENT FUNCTION PERFORMED BY OPAMP

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Rin= 1KΩ, RF= 2KΩ
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Procedure
1. Using power supply voltages of ±15 VDC for the op-amp, construct an inverting amplifier circuit with a gain
of -3.9 using an input resistor of 1 K Ohms. Install the 0.1 μF capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistor as
seen in Fig. 1. Calculate the cutoff frequency (fc) for the circuit using the measured values of the components. It
should be around 400 Hz. Add two extra 0.1 μF capacitors to the circuit. One should be connected between the
+ DC supply(pin 4) and ground the other should be connected between the - DC supply(pin 11) and ground.
These capacitors are to help prevent oscillation in the amplifier circuit due to interaction between the circuit and
the power supply. They should be placed as close to the Op-Amp itself as physically possible. Make sure that
the circuit is correctly
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connected before turning on the power supply voltages. Failure to do so may cause the op-amp to saturate and
in some cases cause permanent damage to the op-amp.
2. Set the signal input, vin, to zero. That is replace the signal source, vin, with a short circuit to ground.
Carefully measure the DC output voltage. Make sure you record the proper sign, It should be between +50 mV
and -50 mV, usually very small. This output with no input is called the output offset voltage. It is an error in the
output of the circuit. It can be treated as an equivalent input offset voltage applied to the non-inverting input of
the op-amp. The equivalent input offset is calculated by dividing the measured output offset by the gain of the
amplifier from the non-inverting input, Av = (1 + Rf /Rin). This offset has no effect on the ac operation of the
circuit, but can cause errors in dc measurements of small voltages.
3. Use a signal input voltage, vin, of 0.1 VDC and connect it to the amplifier signal input as Vin. Using a digital
Multi-meter, measure and record both Vin and Vout as accurately as possible. Calculate the DC voltage gain
both with and without correcting the output voltage by subtracting the output offset voltage measured in step 2
from the measured output voltage. Be sure to use the correct sign on the offset voltage. Repeat this
measurement and calculation with Vin = 1.0 VDC.
4. With an oscilloscope connected to both the signal input and the output, apply an A.C. signal such that the
output voltage has amplitude between 5V and 10V. Then measure Vin, Vout, T, and t(for phase measurement)
at your calculated cutoff frequency and at each of the following frequencies: 20Hz, 50Hz, 100Hz, 200Hz,
500Hz, 1kHz, 2kHz, 5kHz and 10kHz, 20kHz, 50kHz. Print a copy of the waveforms at 20 Hz and 10 kHz, and
at your calculated cutoff frequency. As the gain starts to drop increase the input voltage trying to keep the
output voltage amplitude between 5V and 10V until you reach the maximum output of the signal generator.
Also take these measurements at your calculated cutoff frequency. If the output waveform starts to look like a
triangular wave instead of a sine wave your amplifier has reached the slew rate limit and you will have to
reduce the input voltage until this effect is eliminated to get accurate gain measurements
5. Calculate the AC voltage gain and phase shift of the circuit at each frequency.
6. Set your signal generator to square wave output at 100 Hz with amplitude of 1 V. With this input observe and
record the output waveform. Repeat at a frequency of 500 Hz.
CALCULATIONS / GRAPHS:
Gain(dB) = 20 log (Vo/Vi)

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO. FREQUENCY(HZ) Vi(V) VO GAIN(db)

1.
2.
3.
4.

OBSERVATION TABLE CONSIDERING ERRORS DUE TO MEASURING EQUIPMENTS: (CRO)

S.NO.
 36

Freq.(Hz)+2% Freq.(Hz) Vo(V) Vo(V) Vi(V) Gain(dB)min Gain(dB)max

-2% +2% -2%

Calculations considering component errors:

6) Calculate RFmax=RF±10%, R1min= R1±10%.

7) Calculate Vo min and Vo max

Vo min = - (RFmin / R1min)Vi min

Vo max = (1+ RFmax / R1max) V i max

8) Find theoretical avg. gain and practical average gain.

9) Then find %age error = (theoretical gain – practical gain)/theoretical gain.

Plot the graph between

5) Min. frequency and min gain

6) Min. frequency and max. gain

7) Max. frequency and min. gain

8) Max. frequency and max. gain

Conclusion:-Drawn from the results of the experiment.

Cautions:

1. All connection must be proper.

2. All connections must be tight.

3. Use the correct IC.

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
 37

EXPERIMENT-10
Title- To analyse the functionality of triangular wave generator using IC 741

Equipments Used :

S.NO. APPARATUS SPECIFICATIONS QUANTITY TOLERENCE

1. LM348 02
Operational
amplifier

2. 1K OHM,2K OHM 03 5%
Resistor
3. Capacitor 0.1µF 01
4. 01
Bread Board

5. 01
Power Supply

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

1) WE GET AWARE OF VARIOUS FUNTIONALITY OF IC 741

2) DIFFERENT FUNCTION PERFORMED BY OPAMP

Circuit Diagram:
 38

Procedure: 1) connect the pin 2 of the operational amplifier IC 741 (i) with a resistance r1 and pin 6 of the
operational amplifier IC 2nd .
2) Connect a capacitor C1 between pin 2 and pin 6 of the op-amp IC 1st.
3) Connect the pin 6 of op-amp 1st to the oin 2 of op-amp 2nd through a resistance R2.
4) Connect a resistance R3 between pin 2 of op-amp 1st and pin 6 of op-amp 2nd.
5) Connect the pin 3 of op-amp IC 1st to ground.
6) Connect the pin 3 of op-amp IC 2nd to ground.
7) The output pin 6 of op-amp 1st will generate the triangular wave.

Observation:

S.NO. R1 C1 TIME CONSTANT

1.
2.
3.

Result: - The output of the first op-amp will be triangular wave .

Precautions:

4. All connections must be correct.

5. Use correct IC .
Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
 39

Experiment 11

TOPIC: To determine the frequency response of two-stage RC coupled amplifier using complementary
symmetry push pull amplifier.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Transistors, Diodes (1N4007), Resistors, Capacitor, Bread board, Power supply module, CRO and connecting
wires.

PROCEDURE:

1) The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2) Apply the input voltage at particular frequency.
3) Observe the output using CRO.
4) Find the voltage gain.
5) Plot the graph between the frequency and gain.

Circuit Diagram

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
 40

Experiment 12

TOPIC: To determine the frequency response of cascade amplifier Darlington pair.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Transistors, Resistors, Capacitor, Bread board, Power supply module, CRO and connecting wires.

PROCEDURE:

1) The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2) Apply the input voltage at particular frequency.
3) Observe the output using CRO.
4) Find the voltage gain.
5) Plot the graph between the frequency and gain.

Circuit Diagram
 41

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
 42

Experiment 13

TOPIC: To implement phase shift oscillator and to plot the frequency response of the phase shift oscillator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Transistors, Resistors, Capacitor, Bread board, Power supply module, CRO and connecting wires.

PROCEDURE:

1) The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2) Note down the values of R and C.
3) Apply the input voltage Vcc.
4) Observe the output using CRO and calculate the frequency.
5) Compare the output frequency with theoretical frequency.
6) Change the value of R.
7) Repeat the steps from 2 to 5.
8) Change the value of C.
9) Repeat the steps from 2 to 5.

Circuit Diagram
 43

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
 44

Experiment No. 14

Title: To analyze the functionality of Hartley oscillator on output frequency.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerance

1 Transistor BC348 01
2 Inductor 50H 02
3 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 03 5%
4 Capacitor 0.1μF 04
5 BreadBoard 01
6 Power supply 01
7 Connecting As per
Wires requirement

Procedure: -
1) Draw the circuit as below mentioned.
1) Apply the input voltage at particular freq.
2) Change the value of L1.
3) Change the value of L2.
4) Then observe the output .
5) Find the gain.

Circuit diagram
 45

Observation Table:

Change the value Value of L2 is Frequency Frequency % error in

of L1 constant Calculated Observed frequency
 46

Change the value Value of L1 is Frequency Frequency % error in

of L2 constant Calculated Observed frequency

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
 47

Experiment number-15

Title: To analyze the functionality of Colpitt oscillator on output frequency.

Apparatus Required:

S.No Apparatus Specification Quantity Tolerance

1 Transistor BC348 05
2 Diode Varactor diode 02
3 Resistor 1KΩ, 2KΩ 08 5%
4 Capacitor 0.1μF 02
5 BreadBoard 01
6 Power supply 01
7 Connecting As per
Wires requirement

Procedure: -
1) Draw the circuit as below mentioned.
2) Apply the input voltage at particular freq.
3) Change the value of C
4) Change the value of L.
5) Then observe the output .
6) Find the gain.

Circuit Diagram:-
 48

Observation Table:

Change the value Value of C2 is Frequency Frequency % error in

of C1 constant Calculated Observed frequency

Change the value Value of C1 is Frequency Frequency % error in

of C2 constant Calculated Observed frequency

Caution:
1) There should not be any loose connection.
2) Proper power supply is to be given.
3) There should not be any short circuited.
 49

Experiment 16
Title: To analyze the frequency response of tuned amplifier

Equipments required:
Quantity
1) Bread board 1
2) Power supply 1

Material required:
Quantity
1) MOSFET 1
2) Resistor(1KΩ) 1
3) Resistor(2KΩ) 1
4) Capacitor(0.1µF) 2
5) Inductor 1
6) Connecting wires

Learning Objectives:
To study frequency response of tuned amplifier by designing the circuit on bread board and also
simulating on PSpice

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
1) Draw the circuit as given in diagram.
1) Apply the input voltage (Vi) at particular freq.
2) Observe the output (Vo).
3) Find the gain.

Observation table:

Frequency Output voltage Input voltage Gain 20log(Vo/Vi)

(f) (Vo) (Vi) (Vo/Vi)
 50

Results:
The expected frequency response will be

Cautions:
1) Mounting of components on bread board should be proper.
2) Check power supply voltage value before applying to the circuit.
 51

Experiment 17
Title: To analyze the characteristics of instrumentation amplifier

Equipments required:
Quantity
1) Bread board 1
2) Power supply 1

Material required:
Quantity
1) Op-Amp(IC741) 3
2) Resistor(1KΩ) 8
3) Resistor(2KΩ) 8
4) Connecting wires

Learning Objectives:
To learn characteristics of instrumentation amplifier by designing the circuit on bread board and also
simulating on PSpice

Circuit diagram:
 52

Procedure:
1) Draw the circuit as shown in diagram.
2) Apply the input voltage at particular freq.
3) Observe the output.
4) Find the gain.

Results:

Frequency Input voltage Input voltage Output voltage 20log(Vo/Vi)

1 K Hz (V1) (V2) (Vo)

Cautions:
1) Apply positive and negative supply to IC 741 properly.
2) Make proper connections on the breadboard.
 53

Experiment 18
Title: Design analog computer using different modes of operation of IC 741.

Equipments required:
Quantity
1) Bread board 1
2) Power supply 1

Material required:
Quantity
3) Op-Amp(741) 1
4) Resistor(1KΩ) 4
5) Resistor(2KΩ) 4
6) Capacitor(0.1µF) 2
7) Connecting wires

Learning Objectives:
To learn the use of Opamp IC as different functional circuitry such as integrator, differentiator,etc.

Circuit diagram:
1) Inverting and non-inverting amplifier circuit-

The gain of inverting amplifier is given by

 54

The gain for non-inverting amplifier is given by

2) Integrator circuit-

3) Differentiator circuit-

Procedure:
1) Connect the circuit as shown in diagrams.
2) Apply +12V to pin 7 and –12V to pin 4. Connect common terminal of power supply to ground on the
breadboard.
3) Apply a dc voltage of 0.1V to the pin-2 of IC. Measure the output.
 55

4) Increase voltage in steps of 0.1V up to 1.0V and measure the output.

5) write down percentage error of inverting and non inverting amplifier.

Results:

Vo Vi Gain(dB)

Cautions:
1) Apply positive and negative supply to IC 741 properly.
2) Make proper connections on the breadboard.