Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
NOTES
PHILIPPINE GEOGRAPHY
B. Archipelago’s Name
1. Filipinas
• The name given to Philippines in 1543 by the ill- starred
Spanish explorer, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, in honor of Prince Felipe of Austria who later became
Philip II, the greatest king of Spain.
• This name first appeared on a rare map published at
Venice in 1554 by Giovanni Battista Ramusio.
2. Philippine Islands
• The anglicized name of Filipinas during the American colonial regime.
3. Republic of the Philippines
• The name given to Philippines after the decolonization in 1946.
4. Ma-yi/ ma-i
• The name given to Philippines by the early Chinese traders such as Chau Ju Kua and Wang
Ta- Yuan.
• Same names such as Mintolang for Mindanao, Makilu for Manila, and Pishoye for Visayas
were also dubbed to Philippines by the Chinese.
• Ma- i is generally accepted to refer to the island of Mindoro in Luzon because of its gold
and proximity in the Chinese mainland.
5. Rizaline Republic
• The name proposed by the Katipunan General Artemio Ricarte in honor of Dr. Jose Rizal.
6. Maharlika
• It was proposed by former President Ferdinand Marcos after his dream of making the
Philippines great again.
7. Pearl of the Orient Seas
• The most romantic name of the Philippines.
• It was originally given in 1751 by father Juan J. Delgado as a name of Manila (Pearl of the
Orient) and was also mentioned by Manuel De Azcarraga y Palmero.
• It was also grunted by Dr. Jose P. Rizal in his published article in the Hong Kong Telegraph.
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 2
NOTES
5. Regions
6. Natural Resources
• Soil is the most important natural resources in the Philippines primarily of most people
earn a living from tiling the land. Filipinos are fortunate of having a highly fertile land.
• The country has rich plant life. Agricultural experts believed that 8,120 species of plants
grow in the country, that is, about 1,000 varieties of orchids, 1,000 species of rice, and 3,000
species of trees.
• 850 species of birds are found in the Philippines. Carabao is the most useful animal for it
serves as farmer’s best friend.
• At least 2,000 species of fish are found in the waters of the Philippine archipelago.
• Philippine forest lands have a total area of 16,633,000 hectares which represents 55
percent of the total land area. The Philippines rank third in forest reserves.
• Philippines is one of Asia’s great gold producing regions.
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 3
NOTES
• Energy in the Philippines is used to supply electricity and fuel to run factories, light
homes, and offices.
7. Beauty Spots
• The Banaue Rice Terraces was built more than 2,000 years ago by hardy Ifugaos using
only their bare hands and crude stone tools.
• The Mount Mayon is the Crowning Glory of the Philippine Natural Wonders.
• Manila Bay is one of the Enchanting Wonders of the Country.
• Other beauty spots are being rediscovered.
8. Historical Places
• Luneta Park- It was a beautiful setting built in honor of the Philippines greatest hero, Dr. Jose
P. Rizal. It is used to be called Bagumbayan Field where Rizal was executed by a
Spanish military firing squad at early dawn of December 30, 1896.
• Corregidor- It is a national shrine nicknamed as “The Rock”. This was the vlast bastion to fall
to the invading Japanese in 1942. Such made it the symbol of the determined
resistance of its Filipino and American defenders.
• Paoay Church- It was built in 1694 commissioned by the Augustinian friars led by Fr. Antonio
Estavillo. It was declared as one of the national treasures by former president
Ferdinand Marcos.
• Intramuros (Fort Santiago)- It was the old capital of Manila which was built in 1571. It was
used to be the seat of colonial powers of both Spain and the United States of
America. It was also a dreaded prison under the Spanish regime and the scene of
countless military police atrocities during the Japanese occupation. Here, too, Dr.
Jose Rizal spent his last hours before his execution at Bagumbayan.
• Aguinaldo Shrine- It was here where Emilio Aguinaldo declared Philippine independence from
Spain on June 12, 1898. This was where the Philippine flag first raised.
• Cavite Shrine- It was in this place where Emilio Aguinaldo was declared the first president of
the Philippine republic. The republic of which the first in Asia.
• Barasoain Church- It was here where the constitution of the republican government was
drafted on September 15, 1898. this constitution was also known as the Malolos
Constitution because the church is located in Malolos, Bulacan.
• Mount Samat- It is situated at Pilar, Bataan. It is in this mountain that the gigantic cross
named as “Dambana ng Kagitingan” (Altar of Valor) was erected on April 1942.
the cross symbolizes the heroic and courageous defense made by fatigue, hungry,
and sick Filipino and American soldiers in regaing our freedom during world war II.
ago
Characteristi Thickly Black skin tall shorter medium
cs Haired 5 ft tall slender bulky body height
Brawny dark kinky light dark slim but well
hair complexion complexion built
round black thin lips thick lips brown skin
eyes high large nose black hair
flat noses aquiline dark brown
nose eyes
Ways of Life He lived by Nomadic They had permanent They
means of They lived dwellings. introduced
gathering through They wore clothing and iron metal,
wild plants, hunting, personal ornaments. smiting,
by fishing, fishing, and They knew agriculture, pottery
and foraging for mining, and copper tools. making,
hunting wild plants. cloth
They wore weaving,
little and jewelry
clothing. making.
They have
crudest
religion.
They were
among the
world’s best
archers and
herbalists
• Critiques
a. Prof. Beyer used the 19th century scientific methods of progressive evolution and
migratory diffusion as the basis for his hypotheses, which have now been proven to be
too simple and unreliable to explain such theory.
b. The empirical archaeological data for this theory was based on surface finds and
mere conjecture, which lot of imagination and unproven data included.
c. There are no evidences of the existence of the Dawn Man. So far, the oldest human
fossil in the Philippines is the skull cap of a stone aged Filipino about 22,000 years ago
which was excavated by Dr. Robert B. Fox inside Tabon Cave in Palawan on May 28,
1962.
d. Undue credit is given to the Malays as the original settlers of the lowland regions and
the dominant cultural transmitters.
e. The migration theory does not agree with the real character of Filipinos, who are
adaptive and highly creative people because it suggests that the Filipinos were only
passive receptors of outside culture.
• Evolution Theory- The discovery in a Tabon cave in Palawan in 1962 of a skull cap and a
portion of a jaw, presumed to be those of a human being, shows conclusively that
man came earlier to the Philippines than to the Malay Peninsula where, according
to the old theory, the Filipinos came from. As to the present Filipino, Indonesians,
and Malays of Malaysia, Jocano maintains that they are the “end results of both
the long process of evolution and the later... movements of people. They stand co-
equal as ethnic groups, without any one being the dominant group, racially or
culturally. The differences, according to Jocano, are due to the differences in their
responses to their environment. On the other hand, the similarities found among
them are due to the adjustment to their environment..
B. Filipino Traits
1. Strengths of the Filipino Character
• Family Orientation- It refers to a genuine and deep love for the family. For the Filipinos, the
family, as the basic social institution, includes not only the father, the mother,
their brothers and sisters, but also the grandparents, the aunts, the uncles, the
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 5
NOTES
cousins, and even the ceremonial relatives. Concern for the family is eloquently
manifested in the honor and respect given to parents and the elders, in the care
given to children, the generosity extended to a kin in need, and in the great
sacrifices one endures for the welfare of the family.
• Hard Work and Industry- It refers to one’s willingness to risk taking jobs in a foreign land with
a different culture, not to mention the social cost.
• Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity- Filipinos have the capacity to adjust and to adapt
to conditions and circumstances in a given environment, both physical and social.
They have the ability to improvise and make use of whatever is on hand in order
to create and produce new things out of discarded scraps, for survival.
• Pakikipagkapwa- tao- It refers to a deep sense of concern for one’s dignity and respect. This
is manifested in a basic regard for justice and fairness to others. “Pakikiramay”,
the sensitivity to people’s feelings- “pakikiramdam” and “pagtitiwala” are bonds
that promote feelings of closeness to one another and become the foundation of
unity.
• Joy and Humor- It refers to propensity to cheer and laugh and have a fun loving approach to
the ups and downs of life. Laughing at themselves and the mess they are in is an
important coping mechanism.
•Faith and Religiosity- Filipinos have a deep faith in God. Their innate religiosity enables them
to comprehend and genuinely accept reality in the context of God’s will and plan.
Filipinos live very intimately with religion and prayers have been important part of
their lives.
2. Weaknesses of Filipino Character
• Extreme Personalism- It refers to the extent to which one is able to relate personally to things
and people determines the recognition of their existence and the value attached
to them. This extreme personalism often leads to graft and corruption and other
malpractices in our government institutions.
• Extreme Family Centeredness- The extreme excessiveness of family centeredness becomes
detrimental to the welfare of a larger community. The use of one’s office and
power to promote the interest of one’s family results in the utter lack of concern
for the common good.
• Lack of Discipline- This results in the use of shortcuts or the “palusot” syndrome, “nakaisa”,
“nakalamang”, and “nakadaya”, in the Filipino vocabulary, words loaded with
implied values. In several instances, Filipinos are guilty of the “ningas- cogon”
tendency. They start their projects with full enthusiasm and interest, which
abruptly die down, leaving things unfinished. What a waste!
• Lack of National Consciousness- A proper understanding of one’s history is a very important
factor in the development of national consciousness because it will serve to
demonstrate how the present is influence by the past.
• Colonial Mentality- These conditions are attributed to two dimensions- lack of patriotism and
national integration and the strong preference for imported goods, foreign ideas
and ways.
• Passivity and Lack of Initiative- While it is true that Filipinos can adjust to circumstances in
a given environment and posses some creative talents; they are generally passive
and lacking in initiative. One has to be told what has to be done. They can tolerate
inefficiency, poor service, and even violation of human rights. In many ways, it
can be said that Filipinos are too patient for long suffering (“matiisin”), easily
resigned to one’s fate, even if they are oppressed or exploited.
• Kanya- kanya Syndrome- It refers to a selfish and self- serving attitude that generates a
feeling of envy towards others, particularly when one’s peer has gained honor or
prestige because of hard work. They demonstrate some hostile attitudes and
feelings by recoursing to unfounded and malicious criticism “tsismis” and “intriga”
to bring others down. This crab mentality that characterizes many Filipinos is
counter productive. One evident manifestation of kanya- kanya syndrome is one’s
personal ambition and the drive for power and status that is completely
insensitive to the common good. It often results in the non cooperation of
members of the community.
• Lack of Exhaustive Study and Self-analysis- The Filipinos have a tendency to be superficial
and sometimes even somewhat flighty. Confronted with serious problems, both
personal and social, there seems to be no deliberate and intelligent alternative
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 6
NOTES
plan to solve the problem. In most cases, they joke and laugh about serious
problem affecting them. Anyway, these problems are not mine alone. If there are
strategies to solve these problems, they are only panacea. They easily accept and
are even satisfied with the superficial explanations and hasty solutions to the
problems. Another factor related to this issue is that Filipinos give too much
emphasis on form, “maporma” rather than on the substance. In most cases, they
have a tendency to be satisfied with rhetoric and substitute this for reality.
ASIAN HERITAGE
The Philippines was never ruled by the Sri Vijayan and Majapahit Empire due to ff:
There are plenty of historical materials on Sri Vijaya as a maritime power and its relation
with China in the annals of Tang, Yuan, Sung, and Ming Dynasty. Of those materials, there
is no mentioned about Philippines being a vassal state of the Sri Vijaya Empire.
Chau-ju-kua in his chronicles, listed fifteen vassal states of the Sri Vijaya and the
Philippines is not one of them.
Contemporary authorities on the history of Southeast Asia never claimed that Philippines
was a vassal state of the Sri Vijaya Empire.
The claim of Prapanca in his eulogistic poem, Negarakertagama, that ninety- four vassal
states of Majapahit Empire includes Solot which he referred as Sulu of the Philippines is
not real. Most likely, Solots are the tiny island in the lesser Sundas which still bears the
name Solot and the northeastern part of Borneo.
Evidences:
An evidence of the Philippine intercourse with the Indianized countries of southeast Asian
nations is found in the manuscript entitled, Suma Oriental, which was written by Tome
Pires. According to this Pire Codex, the Lucoes (People of Luzon) annually sent trading
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 7
NOTES
vessels to Borneo and Malacca and the Bornean traders used to sail to Luzon to buy gold
or food stuffs.
Also of Hindu origin was the belief of the ancient Filipinos that the universe is alive
with devas and hantus, good spirits and evil spirits or demons, through whom all good
and evil are done in this world.
• Mythology and Folk Literature
Bantugan, the mythological hero of the Maranaos and Lumawig, the
legendary savior of the Bontoc are identified with Indra of Hindu mythology.
The Darangan of Lanao, the Lam-ang of Ilokandia, and the Ibalon of
Bicolandia and the Ilim and the Hudhud of the Muontain Province were inspired by the
Mahabharata and other Hindu epics.
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 8
NOTES
• Fables
The Tagalog story of the monkey and the turtle, the
tale of the race between the deer and the snail, and the Visayan anecdote of the hawk
and the hen.
The hilarious adventures of Juan Tamad reveal
traces of Hindu influences.
• Customs and Traditions
Placing of a fresh flower garland
around the neck of the visitor upon his arrival or departure, symbolic of hospitality and
friendship.
Before marriage, a groom gives
dowry to bride’s parents and renders personal services in the house of his future
parents- in- law.
After the wedding ceremony, the
guests throw rice upon the bride and the groom.
The offering of a buyo (a mixture of
betel nut, ikmo leaf, and lime) to a guest as an expression of hospitality.
A childless couple goes on
pilgrimage to a holy shrine, whose deity is believed to have the power to grant the
virtue of fertility to those not blessed with children.
• Superstitious Beliefs
A maiden who sings
merrily before a stove while cooking will marry an old widower.
A comet is a bad
omen, for it is a harbinger of famine, war, or some other calamity.
A pregnant woman
who eats twin bananas will give birth twins.
When a cat wipes off
its face with paws, a visitor is coming to the house.
If a sleeping person
dreams that one of his teeth falls out, somebody close to him will die.
• Mode of Dressing
Of Indian origin were putong (turban) of the men and sarong (lower garment) of the
women in pre-Spanish Philippines.
The Muslim men in Mindanao and Sulu wear tight- fitting trousers which resemble
the Indian putees and their women use embroidered shawls which are suggestive of the
Indian sari.
• Industries
Quicklime mining in Masbate
Boat building
Weaving of cotton clothes
Metal works
• Musical Instruments
Kudyapi (Guitar)
• Language
Gunpowder
The method of placer gold mining
The art of metallurgy
The use of porcelain, gold, silver, tin and other metals
Blacksmithing
Goldsmithing
Kite flying
Gambling- jueteng, kuwaho, pangginggi
• Manner of Dressing
The sleeved jackets (kangan) of the pre-Spanish Filipino males, the loose trousers
of the Muslim and the dresses of women of Sulu and Minadanao.
The use of slippers, bakya(wooden Shoes), fans and umbrellas.
Of Chinese introduction was the yellow garb of native nobility, the blue dress of
the commoners, and the wearing of white clothes for mourning.
• Culinary Art and Diet
Roasting of pigs for a delicious meat
Brewing of tea for drinking
Cooking of such dishes as lumpiya, pansit, mami, tsapsoy, and
ukoy
Appetizers such as tahuri, heko, toyo
Edible vegetables including bataw, petsay, and upo
• Social Customs
Fixed marriage
Hiring of go-between in marital negotiations
Employment of professional mourners during
the funeral and the veneration of departed ancestor.
The filial respect accorded by children to their
older brothers and sisters, parents and elders.
The explosion of firecrackers on the advent of
new year and other festivals
The collection of tong (percentage fee) by the
owner of a gambling joint.
The haggling between the merchant and
customer to arrive at the final fix price of commodity
The beating of gongs to celebrate a feast among
pagan Filipinos of northern Luzon, the Muslim Filipinos of Sulu and Mindanao.
• Language
A. THE BARANGAYS
• Well organized independent villages.
• It originated from balangay, a Malayan word meaning “sailboat”.
• It is a self- sustaining community ruled by a datu.
• It consisted of from 30- 100 families while some having a population of more than 2,000.
D. MODE OF DRESSING
Men Women
Upper Garment Kangan Baro
Lower Garment Bahag Patadyong
Head Dress Putong Ipit (Itawes), punggos (Ilocano)
Accessories Kolombigas (gold armlets) Samul- Ilocano, Balitok- Itawes (gold
Samul- Ilocano, Balitok- Itawes (gold between teeth), aritut- Itawes
between teeth) (earrings), dusaru- Itawes (necklace),
purselas- Itawes (bracelet)
Footwear Barefooted
E. TATTOES
• It serve two purposes
a. To enhance their bodily beauty
b. To show their war record
• Men were more tattooed than women. Children were not tattooed at all.
• The Visayans are the most tattooed Filipinos. They were called pintados or painted people.
• When a man and a woman walked together, the man was always behind the woman. It was
considered impolite for a man to walk ahead of his woman companion. Whenever the entire family went
out, the mothers and daughters walk ahead, while fathers and sons walk behind.
H. FAMILY LIFE
• It is the basis of the society, hence, family ties, as they are today, was close and strong.
• The children were given considerable attention, affection and discipline by their parents. They
were trained to be loyal to the ancestral god, to respect the elders, to love their parents and to obey the
datu and barangay rules.
• The father was the head of the family, thus, his words were law to children.
• The mother was the housekeeper. She enjoyed the sole privilege of naming the children.
Kinds of Slaves
1) Aliping Namamahay- they lived in their houses. They owned their property. They could marry
without their master’s consent. They could not be sold.
2) Aliping Saguiguilid- they owned no property. They lived in their master’s house. They could not
marry without their master’s consent. They could be sold anytime.
Slaves could emancipate themselves and become a freeman in various ways of emancipation as
follows:
1) Marriage
2) Purchase
3) Voluntary action of the master
Hence, a slave woman who married a freeman or a noble automatically becomes free. A slave man
could become free by paying his master a certain sum of gold. A slave- owner, according to
customary laws, might emancipate his slave for saving his life in the war or for having served his
family faithfully for many years.
• There was no caste system unlike in India. Hence, a noble could become slave, a freeman
could rise to nobility, and a slave could become a freeman.
J. WOMENS’ POSITION
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 12
NOTES
K. AMUSEMENTS
• They held banquets to celebrate a good harvest, a wedding, a religious
sacrifice and a victory in war. Such are celebrated with much eating, drinking, singing and dancing.
Though they drink too much, this does not mean losing their senses rather, they will only become
talkative and livelier.
• They had games such as carabao races, wrestling, fencing, boat races and
stone-throwing contests.
L. MUSIC
• They were lovers of music.
• They had various musical instruments as follows:
• Their songs expressed all aspects of life. Among these are the following:
M. MARRIAGE CUSTOMS
• Before marriage, the groom gave a dowry to the family of the bride (bigaykaya). It consisted
of gold, land, slaves or anything else of value. The groom had to work in the house of his bride for a
certain period of time to do the following:
Carrying water and firewood to the house
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 13
NOTES
4) Cruelty
5) Insanity
6) Childlessness
N. BARANGAY GOVERNMENT
• Barangays were virtually independent village- kingdoms.
• Each barangay was ruled by a chieftain called Datu. The
rulers of bigger barangay kingdoms assumed the title of raha, hari or lakan.
• Datu- he was the chief, executive, legislator, and judge of
the barangay and in time of war, he was the commander of the barangay warriors. He obtained his
position by inheritance, being a son or daughter of a datu. In case the datu died without any legitimate
son or daughter, the people of barangay choose their new datu who should be the strongest, richest, or
wisest man in the barangay. Despite his great powers, he was not an absolute ruler. The datu should
consult the barangay elders in their approval of the following matters:
Declaration of war with the enemy barangay
The marriage of the barangay lakan (prince) or
lakambini (princess)
The negotiation of a political alliance with another
barangay.
Making new laws for the barangay.
• The barangay elders also took part in judicial
trials of persons accused of certain crimes and the datu’s decision could not be binding without their
approval.
• There were also confederations of barangays.
The causes of these emergence were the following:
For better protection against
enemies
The marriage of a lakan of a
barangay with the lakambini of another barangay
O. BARANGANIC RELATIONS
• Barangays concluded treaties of alliance and friendship with each other, sealed by a traditional
ceremony of the blood compact called sandugo (one blood).
• Sometimes wars broke up between barangays. Such according to Captain Miguel Loarca were
caused by the following:
When one goes to another village and was put to death without any reason
When one’s wives were stolen from them
When one went to any village and he was badly treated or aggrieved
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 14
NOTES
P. LAWS
• The early Filipinos had both oral and written laws.
• The oral laws were their customs (ugali) which had been handed down orally from generation to
generation.
According to legend, the lawgiver of the pre- Spanish Philippines was a woman
named Lubluban, the great granddaughter of the first man and the first woman of the world.
• The written laws were promulgated by datus with the help of the barangay elders
and announced to the people by a barangay crier known as umalohokan.
• Take note that the much known Kalantiaw Code of the Philippines has been
proven to be suspect of origin and contents. Hence, it should be believed in.
Q. RELIGION
• The early Filipinos were pagans except that of Moros in Minadanao and Sulu.
• The following were their gods and goddesses:
Bathala- supreme god and the creator of heaven and earth
Idianale- Tagalog goddess of agriculture
Lakampati- Tagalog god of harvest
Sidapa- Visayan god of death
Apolaki- Pangasinan war god
Kidul- Kalinga god of thunder
Dal’lang- Ilocano goddess of beauty
Malyari- Zambal god of power and strength
Poko- Tagbanua god of sea
Kolyog- Ifugao god of earthquakes
• They worshipped ancestral spirits called anitos (Tagalog) or diwatas (Visayan). To these anitos
the sacrifices called, maganito, were offered. The ritual was performed by a priest or priestess called
katalona or babaylan.
• They also worshipped nature in the belief that such natural objects were the habitats of the
spirits.
• They also believed in life after death. The good soul would go to heaven, called kaluwalhatian
(Tagalog) or Ologan (Visayan), while the bad soul would go to hell called, kasamaan (Tagalog) or Solad
(Visayan).
S. SUPERSTITIONS
• Early Filipinos believed in witches as follows;
Asuang- assumed the form of a dog, a bird, or any animal and devoured human
flesh
Mangkukulam- caused people to die or be sick by pricking a toy with his magic pin
Tianak- sucked the baby’s entrails by means of his elongated proboscis
Tigbalang- appeared in a form of a dog, a horse or an old man to deceive his
victims.
• They believed in the magical power of amulets and charms such as;
Anting- anting- believed to make its possessors invulnerable
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 15
NOTES
T. LANGUAGES
• The early Filipinos had different languages and dialects which
were originated from a common linguistic form, the Malayo- Polynesian language.
• Tagalog was regarded by the early Spanish writers as the best.
U. WRITING
• The ancient Filipinos had their own writing system following their alphabet called baybayin which
was originated from the asokan alphabet of India.
• A sharp- pointed iron instrument called sipol was used as pen.
• They engraved words in a bamboo tubes, wooden boards, or leaves of plants which were used as
paper.
• The ancient writing is still preserved by the Mangyans of Mindoro and the Tagbanuas of Palawan.
V. LITERATURE
• Early Filipino literature consisted of bugtong (riddles), awit (songs), salawikain (proverbs), myths,
legends and poetry.
• The following folk epic have been preserved:
Ifugao Alim and Hudhud
Ilocano Lam-ang
Bicol Handiong
Kalinga Ullalim
Maranao Bantigan
Maguinadanao Indarapatra and Sulayman
Illanon Agyu
Taosug Parang Sabil
W. EDUCATION
• Early Filipino education was both academic and vocational.
• The father trained his sons to be warriors, hunters, fishermen, miners, lumbermen, and
shipbuilders. The mother, on the other hand, trained her daughters in cooking, gardening, sewing, and
other household chores.
• There was an ancient barangay school in Panay termed as Bothoan under the charge of a teacher,
usually an old man. 3R’s were taught in this school- arithmetic, reading, and writing
X. ARTS
• Architecture was expressed in the bahay- kubo style of dwelling.
• They early painting was that of tattoo.
• Sculpture was manifested in their anitos.
Y. SCIENCES
• Filipinos had knowledge of medicine since they knew the curative power of many medicinal
plants. There were herbalists.
• There was some crude knowledge of astronomy such as:
Tala (morning star) by the Tagalog
Poyo poyo (Pleiades) by the Bagobos
Monbunkol (Dipper) by the Ifugaos
Mamacta (astrologer) by the Ilokanos
Introduction and Pre-Colonial Philippines 16
NOTES