School of Business Academic Research and Writing Skills TABLE OF CONTENTS 4. Avoiding plagiarism 3 2. Essay writing .. 6 3. Write a first draft. oe 16 4, Edit your essay... 18 5, Strategies for reducing wordiness 22 6. Whatis an abstract, 26 7. Quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing 29 8. Referencing: APA style..... 30 9. Referencing: Harvard style .. 36 410. Avoiding gender bias in pronouns 42 | 11. Surviving exams ... 45 source: http://www jrob.unsw.edu,au/htmllessay_ auide, htm!AVOIDING PLAGIARISM WHAT IS PLAGIARISM? Plagiarism is using the words or ideas of others and presenting them as your rag lagiarism is a type of intellectual theft. It can take many forms, from Geitberate cheating to accidentally copying from a source without acknowledgement. Whenever you use the words or ideas of another person in your work, oe: must acknowledge Viere they came from. You can avold plagiarism by following the suggestions outlined in this guide. ne ofthe contradictions of academic writing is that while you are expected a read, research ens refer to experts and authorities, you are also expected to produce "original work. and ofe o erat to recognise thal all scholarship involves uncersiandng, researching sos expanding on the work of others to some degree, Most of the acaremle work a ergraduate students do at university wil be based on the words, information and ideas of oreo tars In this case, en orginal contribution might consist mainly of solecthG, ordering, one rising and interpreting what others have sald. So, tis important fo eat how to SSference properly - that is, how to specify clearly and exactly what out debis are and how to iererwieage them. Then your own contribution can be clearly identified and appreciated COMMON FORMS OF PLAGIARISM Downloading an assignment from an online source and submitting it as your own work. Buying, stealing or borrowing an assignment and submitting it as your own work. Copying a section of a book or an article and submitting it as your Sk work. Gupting from a source word for wore!, without using quotation marks is plagiarism. Copying, cutting and pasting text from an electronic source and submitting it as your ‘own work. Using the words of someone olse and presenting them as your own- Using significant ideas from someone else and presenting them as your ent Putting someone else's ideas into your own words and not acknowledging the source of the ideas is plagiarism. Copying the written expressions of someone olse without proper acknowledgement. Lifting sentences or paragraphs from someone else, even wit! proper acknowledgement, tives the impression thatthe idea or information comes from the source cited, but that the Bhrasing the choice of words to express I, s your own contribution. Relying too much on other people's material see peated use of long quotations. Too many direct quotations (even wih quotation a ep ath proper acknowledgement) result in your sources speaking for vou, Meeing Your own contribution is minimal, Use your own words more and rely less on quotations. source: hitp:/iwww.irob.unew.edu.awhimilessay_quide,htm!source: PLAGIARISM & THE INTERNET The internet can be a great source of information and an effective research tool. However, Just because electronic information is easily available does not mean itis ree’, Remember that the information you find online should be referenced, just like any other source. Online Sources should be used with care, fully acknowledged and evaluated in the same way you would any print-based source of information. Warning! There are an increasing number of websites that feature university assignments that students can access and download. Downloading an assignment from one of these sites and ‘Submitting it as your own is plagiarism and carries heavy penalties, including exclusion from the university. If you are tempted to do this, please remember that academics are experts in the words and ideas of their discipline and are thoroughly familiar with the latest research - this is why they are teaching! They are also aware of these ‘cheat’ sites and have developed Strategies to identify internet plagiarists. Remember, if you found the paper, so can your lecturer or tutor! Resist the temptation to ‘cut and paste’ text directly from an electronic resource into your assignment. You should rewrite any information in your own words. When using the intemet, Gite the source of anything that you borrow, including material from web pages, email, and newsgroups. These materials are the words and ideas of people who deserve to be given credit. For referencing purposes, always make a note of the ‘address' or URL of web pages and the date you accessed the material. If possible, print out the web pages, HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM BE AWARE OF WHAT CONSTITUTES PLAGIARISM Plagiarism is using the words or ideas of others and presenting them as your own. Many Students plagiarise unintentionally. Unintentional plagiarism can result from not knowing how {0 acknowledge or incorporate sources of information, or from careless note-taking or ‘cutting and pasting! of electronic sources. Both intentional AND unintentional plagiarism are Violations of UNSW regulations, PLAN YOUR WORK. ae Plan ahead and begin writing your assignments well before they are due. Leaving work unt the last minute doesn't give you enough time to read, digest, form your own ideas and write information in your own words. When students rush to meet a tight deadline, they are more likely to plagierise unintentionally or succumb to the temptation to ‘cut and paste’ information directly from electronic resources. LEARN TO HOW TO ACKNOWLEDGE YOUR SOURCES OF INFORMATION The Golden Rule: Make sure your assignments are referenced correctly. Referencing allows you to acknowledge the contribution of other writers in your work. Whenever you use words, ideas or information from other sources in your assignments, you must cite and reference those sources. tp: //www.trob.unsw.edu.au/htmilessay guide,source: bi Why Reference? Wy eter er erances of - worse stil -no references etal can be regarded a plagiarism. All vriversiy assignments must contain references; an unreferencod essigr™ ert implies every eave end facts your own work. Referencing is 2 way to provide evidence to support the yor fons and claims In your own assignments. By citing experts in your field, you are aaa er irating the extent of your reading and research, Referencing is elso a way to give Gredlt to the writers from whom you have borrowed words and ideas. References should always be accurate, allowing your readers to trace the sourres of eee rertnn you have used. The best way to make sure you reference accuralely is 10 keepa vrorestall tne sources you used when reading and researching for an assignment Referencing Methods Pere are several different referencing methods. Short referencing guides for three commonly used styles: «the Oxford (footnote/bibliography) © the Harvard (in-text) method * the APA (American Phsychological Association) sre avelable from The Library. Commonwealth Style Guides for other referencing systems are available at many libraries and bookshops. Follow the referencing style recommended by your School. Many schools within the University offer guides indicating how referencing should be done, Check with your lecturer or tutor about their preferred method, uhimilessssource: ESSAY WRITING INTRODUCTION The ability to communicate with other people in written form is an extremely important skill, which you can use at work and in your personal life. Written ‘communication, particularly in the form of essay writing, is a competency which can be acquired. Although writing is a creative process and uniquely individual, there are some established forms that will help you to express your ideas more effectively. Essays allow your teachers to assess your ability to: ~ complete effective research on topics - assess sources + think critically + organise your ideas * structure an argument in response to a question * coherently transfer the results of your research onto paper This guide provides some guidelines that will help you to become a skilled and confident essay writer. It is divided into easy-to-follow steps which, although treated separately, are obviously related. Interpreting the Question At university level, essay questions invariably ask for more than mere description - the emphasis will be on analysis Questions will look for evidence of analysis in two key areas: - whether you understand the argument of the authors you read - whether you can use their work, and your personal judgement, to make a reasoned argument of your own You are often asked to assess theories and their relationship to the real world - this might involve outlining the theory and then testing it When addressing an essay question, make sure you do what the question asks you to do - look at the general area of content ~ use the kind of analysis being requested Key Terms - These verbs are often used in essay questions. Interpret your question using this table. If you are still not sure, check with your lecturer or tutor. VERB: What you should do... ANALYSE By examining the components of the whole, determine the relationships between them. Jweww rob .unsw.edu.au/htmile wide, htmlCOMPARE Find similarities or differences between ideas, events or interpretations. Make you sure understand exactly what you must compare. CONTRAST Similar to ‘compare’, but concentrate on the differences. CRITICISE Express your own critical and reasoned evaluation of ideas, Yfacts' or events. Discuss both strong and weak points. Also outline the criticisms of others. DEFINE Give clear, concise and authoritative meanings. DESCRIBE Outline the main features of a story, theory. However, you will rarely De asked to do this in isolation -is there another verb in the question? Discuss Present a reasoned point of view, involving description and analysis. Outline evidence to support your point of view. EVALUATE Consider a range of arguments and reach a judgement. ILLUSTRATE Give (written) examples. ‘SUMMARISE A brief outline of the main points, usually without comment or criticism. Getting Started Often you wil be given an essay topic at the beginning of the session, with some time before itis due. Don't Panic! [All questions are likely to seem hard before you start reading - but they are set with your level of university study in mind. ‘Take advantage of ALL the time that is allocated to you - do not ‘plan to write the essay the day before it is due - it shows! Don't expect to be able to write the essay in one go - you will need to construct it as you leam, piece by piece. All work requires re-reading for improvementcorrection. [Approach the task in.a logical fashion, using the following steps and remembering that there are no short cuts to good marks. Reading Tips: pe elerenoes in the course guide are your REQUIRED starting point ignore these listed readings at your peril! Your lecturer has set these readings BECAUSE you are being asked fo engage with the ideas in them. IF these authors are assuring knowledge that you do not have, try consulting the most recent general survey of the topic from the library catalogue. If your essay “Iwwve irob,unsw, Imileseay auide. btsource: question is about industrial conflict, you should pick a title that seems CLOSELY related to the topic e.g. Industrial Conflict in Australian Society (2000), and not the first book that came up on the library index when you typed ‘conflict’ in the SUBJECT field. Use the references of the authors you have read. Use notes from your lectures and tutorials as a guide. {tis sad but true that university students do not have all day to ponder the meaning of life. Therefore, unless it is compulsory reading, you may not need to read every reference from start to finish. Use the contents page, chapter headings etc. to focus your reading. ‘Skim read the opening and closing sentences of each paragraph. If something seems particularly relevant, read in closer detail. However, do not carry this advice too far - generally speaking, students who read more widely achieve better results, Note-taking tips Note-taking style can be personal but you MUST: Record all the necessary bibliographical detalls, Record all page numbers for internal references. Clearly identify all quotes, using quotation marks. Ensure your notes relate to the topic and don't simply copy or paraphrase the reading. Later, you may accidentally use this as your own work and put yourself at risk of plagiarism (more on this below). Get the most out of your note-taking - it helps you to: ‘+ concentrate and discourages your mind from wandering, unlike passively underlining understand what you are reading and to evaluate the merit of the work -Store_information for ater-us@———————— form links between what you are reading and what you already know collate information, making thematic organisation of your work easier ‘The Process of Writing ‘Writing an essay can seem like an enormous task. An important way of dealing with this is to break it down into a set of smaller sub-problems which are more manageable. Make a list of all the things the essay must include to answer the question. Once you have done this, you can make a plan, Planning and Structuring Your Essay - Topic, Thesis, Themes Consider this sample question. Evaluate the role of industrial conflict in capitalist society. Should it be regarded as inevitable? rob, unsw.edu.au/html/esea inlWorking out the TOPIC is relatively straightforward. In this case, the topic is workplace conflict and the nature of capitalist society However, you can only arrive at a THESIS (i.e. your argument in response to the question) after you have done some reading. ‘Assume that your argument is this - Industrial conflict has been, and will remain, an inherent feature of industrial society because of the unequal nature of the employment relationship under capitalism. Once you have decided upon your thesis, or argument, all your material can be subjected to a simple test - DOES THIS MATERIAL HELP ME TO MAKE MY ARGUMENT «Ifthe answer is ‘no’, put the material aside. Ifthe answer is 'yes', try to organise this material into themes that will support your overall contention. To answer our sample question, Clarify the key concepts to demonstrate to the marker you understand the central issue(s), then the following THEMES could be used to substantiate the argument - what various authors argue about the nature of work in industrial society reasons for the development of trade unionism arguments made by Human Relations scholars regarding conflict the work of radical writers who criticise their approach examples of recurring conflict in industrial society ‘As you research your essay topic, try to identify and note down the important themes discussed by the authors. To fashion your essay into a convincing argument, there are several important structural forms that must not be overlooked. The Introduction This should: «+ focus attention on the relevance of the essay topic and express a clear point of view (your thesis) that RESPONDS DIRECTLY TO THE QUESTION. «not simply list topics that will be covered - you MUST make an argument in response to the question. + briefly suggest the order in which your ideas are going fo be developed. 2 address any limitations of your essay e.g. show that you are aware that there re many forms of industrial conflict but, for reasons of space, you have decided to concentrate solely on strikeS Jiwwry.irob,unsw,10 discuss and define key terms (perhaps in the following paragraph). Paragraphs Use paragraphs to group a collection of related ideas and to organise them thematically. Begin with a sentence which contains the main theme of the paragraph. Follow with several sentences that prove or elaborate on that theme. Round off the paragraph with a reiteration of the main argument. Avoid single-sentence ‘paragraphs’. The Conclusion Don't just stop writing when you can't think of anything else to say. All the themes of your essay should be woven into a brief restatement of the argument that you made in your introduction. ‘Sometimes, the process of writing an essay can clarify your views. If the argument in your introduction no longer matches your concluding remarks, rework your introduction and check for any other contradictory passages. Deadlines Assignments must be submitted by the date specified by the lecturer-in-charge. Requests for extensions will be considered for medical reasons which must be Supported by a doctor's certificate, or for other special reasons which must be fully documented. These requests, where possible, should be made prior to the due date. The grade for late assignments will be adjusted on a basis fo be determined by the lecturer-in-charge. Impress your marker - use the following as a checklist: Make your essay relevant to all aspects of the set question. Your essay should demonstrate that you understand the question, have answered it and have not drifted off into a spate of irrelevant waffle. Base your-essay-on-wide-and-critical-reading- Read-as widely as possible around the topic, always subjecting the reading to a critical eye. Describing ‘What is in the relevant literature is a start, but not sufficient in itself. Evaluation is required. Present a reasoned and tightly structured argument. The marker should be able to follow your argument in a logical sequence as they read. Avoid statements of opinion or ‘common sense’ arguments that are unsubstantiated, Avoid anecdotal ‘evidence’ like '! should know, | used to work there." Write for a specific audience. You should discuss ideas/arguments that your lecturer has raised. However, you should always fully explain these ideas, and not assume that the marker ‘will know what you mean.* Avoid colloquialisms and ‘first person’ usage - develop an academic style and tone that is not conversational. Show that you are familiar with any source: http://www. irob.unsw.edu.au/html/ess ido.specialist terminology by using itn the correct context, but avotd jargon (@ ‘winlwin situation is an example), Do not construct ‘your’ essay by stringing together a series of quotes. Use quotes to illustrate your point, not to make it for you. Do not use point form and make limited use of subheadings. An essay is otike a high school project, where the student is asked to amass detail. Instead using complete and grammatical sentences, your text should flow from ore idea to another in a seamless argument (unlike this page!) Don't pad your bibliography out with work you haven't assessed - your essay wil fell he marker what you have read and understood. Do not cite lecture notes - they are not verifiable. If you want fo use particular idea, ask your lecturer for a written source, Do not pretend that other authors’ references are your own. Cite only your source (see below for citation form). Gratuitous sexist, racist andlor homophobic statements are offensive sand should have no place in your work, unless you are citing them for the purposes of debate or analysis. Avoid using masculine pronouns when you pre not specfically discussing men. Try non-gender specific alternatives. Stand out from the crowd. The majority of average students will use the Sinimum number of sources (mostly textbooks) and will not go beyond the pet obvious arguments. Demonstrated extra effort brings joy to the heart of Ben the most jaded marker. For this, you will be justly rewarded! Format “Text must be double-spaced and surrounded by a large margin (Scm at least) - space for your marker to give you feedback where necessary Number pages Observe the word limit (10% under or over is acceptable). Do not put each page in a separate plastic protector - they make giving feedback a nightmare. A simple staple will do. ilegible assignments are useless. Itis recommended that al assignments are typed but, if this is not possible, your writing must be legible. Also use @ dictionary or spelichecker (UK or Aust, not US, version) When you submit your paper, attach the School cover sheet and get the rosipt signed by a School staff member. If your paper is misplaced, you wil be asked to produce this receipt as evidence of prior submission. keep a copy of each assignment. You may be asked to produce this copy if the original is misplaced. Do not place assignments under doors - hand fo your teacher or place in the essay box. source: http://www. Job,unsw.edu.aulhtmi/essay_avide. him! crt12 Bibliography and Referencing The most common form of bibliography consists of a list of sources consulted in the course of research. A work might have been highly influential in shaping one's views but, for various reasons, may not appear as a specific reference in the text. Such a work could be included in the bibliography. To format your bibliography, place each source in alphabetical order according to the author's last name. Page numbers are included only when the entry is a journal article or part of book. Remember, referencing is to academic writing what indicators are to driving. Failure to do either may result in heavy penalties! The School recommends the Harvard Method of referencing, which looks like this: A recent model of work design with important implications for industrial democracy has been proposed by Smith (1986:12). This incorporates the Concept of redundancy of functions proposed by Jones (1967:12-14), the Principle of requisite variety formulated by Brown (1952, 1960) and the Principle of deutero leaming developed by Green (1972b:88-95). Morgan is realistic about implementation difficulties. He notes that the leaming orientation demanded in the model ‘requires a degree of openness and self Criticism that is foreign to traditional modes of management! (Morgan 1986:208). Here are some other examples for you to follow - the first example shows how a source should appear in your bibliography; the second, how your source should be noted in the text. There is a simple test to check your referencing - ask yourself, "Could the marker easily find this material using my citation?” SINGLE AUTHOR BOOK Smith, A. (1996). Australian industrial relations. (2nd Ed.). London: Macmillan, ~ Appears in text as (Smith 1996:1) or Smith (1996:1) THREE AUTHOR BOOK Smith, A., Jones, B. and Brown, C. (1996). Australian industrial relations. London: Macmillan, 7 Appears in text as (Smith, Jones and Brown 1996:1) when first cited, and thereafter (Smith et al. 1996:1) —~ CHAPTER IN A BOOK WITH TWO EDITORS ‘Smith, A. (1996). Who Framed Roger Rabbit?’, in B. Jones and C. Brown. (eds), Australian industrial relations. (2nd Ed.) London: Macmillan, pp.40-55, ~ Appears in text as (Smith 1996:40) JOURNAL ARTICLE Smith, A. (1996). 'Why Was Jessica Rabbit Drawn That Way?,, Journal of Industrial Relations 1 (3): 40-55. ppears in text as (Smith 1996:40) NEWSPAPER ARTICLE ‘Smith, A. (1996). ‘Why Industrial Relations Academics Talk Rabbits', Sydney Source: http://www, [rob,unsw.edu,au/htmilessay_quide. htm!Morning Herald, 19 March. ~ Appears in text as (Smith 1996:3) QUOTING SOMEONE ELSE'S QUOTE ‘Jones, A. (1996). The Unionisation of Toons, Toontown: Warner. “Appears in text és (Smith in Jones 1996:12) AUTHOR IN EDITED COLLECTION Stowart, A. (1993) ‘Federal regulation and the Use of Powers Other than the industrial Power, in P. Ronfeldt and R. MoCallum (eds), A New Province for Legalism: Legal issues and the Deregulation of Industrial Relations, ACIRRT Monograph No. 9, University of Sydney, pp. 86 - 100 Appears in text as (Stewart in Ronfeldt and McCallum 1993:90) INSTITUTION OR ASSOCIATION AS AUTHOR Wald Commission Environment and Development (1987) Our Common Future, Oxford University Press, Oxford. ~ Appears in text as (World Commission Environment and Development 1987:35) INTERNET SOURCE (see below for more information) University of New South Wales web site - ittp://www.le.unsw.edu.au/ontibiplag. html ~ Appears in text as (University of New South Wales, hitpswww.e.unsw.edu.aulonibplag.htm|, accessed 12/08/01) PLEASE NOTE: Page numbers are ESSENTIAL for in-text citations An impressive essay will incorporate ideas and arguments from a wide range of sources. Itis therefore essential that writers distinguish the work of others from their own contribution. Failure to do ths is called PLAGIARISM, even i committed inadvertently. Plagiarism involves COPYING exactly and/or PARAPHRASING significant words, phrases or whole sentences from a source and/or NOT ACKNOWLEDGING the author, thereby pretending that the plagiarised sections are your own work. Plagiarism of 200 words or more will attract heavy penalties - ie. failure of essay, failure of subject or exclusion from university. Note these examples and avoid this serious error. The original source writes: Interactions take place in what will be described as obits of interaction. A myriad of different orbits can be distinguished; their membership, composition and type is only limited by the imagination and ingenuity of interactors to find each other.” (Dabscheck 1996:12) A plagiarised use of this material might look like this: source: hitp:/www.irob,unsw. himl/essav_quide, htm 13In this essay | will argue that interactions take place in what will be described as orbits of interaction. A myriad of different orbits can be distinguished; their membership, composition and type is only limited by the imagination and ingenuity of interactors to find each other. (Dabscheck 1996:12) This is a direct quote but no quotation marks have been used. Adding a citation does not avoid plagiarism - the absence of quotation marks suggests to the reader that these are the student's own words, but they are not. Here are some illustrations of non-direct copying that are still regarded as plagiarism: Industrial relations can be explained using the model of an orbit made up of a myriad of interactors. The above is plagiarised because it does not acknowledge that Dabscheck developed orbit theory. Or this: Interactions happen in orbits of interaction. A lot of different orbits can be identified; their membership, composition and type is only restrained by the dream and artifice of interactors to come across one another, (Dabscheck 1996:12) Changing the words around, or using a Thesaurus to change the appearance of a sentence is not an acceptable practice. Its stil not your work and citing the source does not get you off the hook. The following is an example of an acceptable way to discuss Dabscheck's material. :12) has developed a model of industrial relations where he describes various ‘interactions’ occurring within ‘orbits of interaction’. In this model, he argues that an infinite number of ‘orbits! exist within the system and can be identified by the nature of the variety of ‘interactors' that constitute each ‘orbit. Remember! An essay marker will ALWAYS prefer a slightly ungrammatical Paper that is the student's own work, to a plagiarised paper masquerading as genuine effort. For those students who find writing difficult, simply do your best. If you read the marker’s feedback and leam from your mistakes, each essay should be a litle easier than the last. source: httn://wuw.irob.unsw.edu.au/html/essay_auide.htmt15 Using the Internet “The intemat has enabled a vast array of information to be, quite Iiterally, at our fingertips. We can now access all sorts of information from company reports, TSatice, journal aticles and newspapers without even leaving our desks. Although this is an exclling development, students need to be very careful about what they use fromthe Internet and how they use it. When you read an article in a refereed journal, you can be assured that the article has been read by experts in the particular field who can vouch for the validity and importance of its contents. This does not mean thot the article is completely objective - it does, however, suggest that the article has been assessed as worthy of publication. Material from the Internet does not Recessarly come with this guarantee. Any individual can set up @ Web site and there fe no quailty control on the information displayed. Check out the web site of the Flat Earth Society if you are not convinced! However, you can avoid Internet pitfalls. Use the Intemet as an adjunct to, not a replacement for, course guide reading, When you have read several of the recommended texis, you will be in @ better position to judge the relative merit of Internet material. Be wary about using Internet material as ‘fact’. However, you may use It as an ilustraton, For example, you have downloaded a transcript of a speech made by the Prime Minister to the National Farmer's Federation. The Prime Minister told his audience, If we have a Federal Labor Government and five out of six state Labor Governments the landscape will be ripe with a dramatic resurgence of union power in this country and a reversal of most of the fundamental reform that my Government has carried out over the last five years. (John Howard, Media Centre Speeches, htto://wm.pm.gov.au/news/speeches/2001/speech1 05 5.htm, accessed 22/6/01) It would be acceptable to use this excerpt as an indication of the Prime Minister's views on the future industrial landscape. It would not be acceptable to present this as an independently researched prediction for the future of trade unionism in Australia. Sadly, Schoo! staff have noted an increasing trend towards Internet plagiarism. Students should note that the School has a number of facilities for tracing the Sources of this material and that severe penalties apply to offending students. This is especially so for those who submit more than one plagiarised paper. source: hitp://vww.jrob.unsw.edu.awhimilessay_avide. btm16 WRITING A FIRST DRAFT ‘Your first attempt at writing an essay will be your draft copy. Writing a draft essay will help you work out: what you need to say how you will answer the question Which evidence and examples you will use whether you have enough information Write a first draft to try out the structure and framework of your essay. Once you have a draft, you can work on writing well. Structure Structure your essay in the most effective way to communicate your ideas and answer the Question. All essays should include the following structure: 1. Introduction ‘Answer the question and provide a summary or ‘toad map’ of your essay. Tell the reader what you are going to talk about ‘and what you believe the answer to be. Keep It brief, but mention all your main ideas, 2. Body ‘The body of your essay is where you answer the question by developing a discussion. Here, you show your knowledge and grasp of material you have read. f your question has more than one part, structure the body into sections that deal with each part of the essay question. The body is where you offer exposition and evidence. Use relevant examples and quotes to support your argument, Conclusion The conclusion counds.off he-essay.Relate-it back-to your ‘main ideas or points and reiterate your answer to the Question. NEVER introduce new information in your conclusion. The conclusion moves from specific to general, Essay Paragraphs Each paragraph in the body of the essay should contain a topic sentence (or main idea sentence) that states your point. It should be followed by an explanation of the point youre ‘making, and (most of the time) it should be supported by some form of evidence from your reading, or by an example drawn from the subject area. Don't just leave the evidence hanging there - analyse it! Comment on the implication/significance/impact and finish off the paragraph with a critical conclusion you have drawn from the evidence, source: http:/iwww.irob.unsw.edu.awhtml/essay_quide.htm|Tips for Effective Writing Start writing early - the earlier the better! Starting cuts dow on anxiety, beats procrastination, and gives you ime to develop your ideas. Don't try to write an essay from start to finish Begin vith what you are ready to write ~2 plan, @ sentence, Stor with the body and work paragraph by paragraph. Write the introduction and conclusion after the body Oroe you know what your essay is about, then write the introduction and conclusion. Koop the essay question in mind roe sor what you need to doin your essay and don't lose track of the question or task. Keep it in mind as you draft and edit and work out the best way to answer ® question. Revise your first draft extensively reek at the whole essay, make sure it flows and that the paragraphs are In 2 logical order. Put the essay aside for a few days ‘This allows you to read your essay with a fresh eye. Proof-read your final draft carefully source: hitp:/hwww. irob,unew.edu.awhimilessay aude, htmlsource: 18 EDIT YOUR ESSAY Most essays are dramatically improved by careful editing. Good essays are the product of writing and rewriting. If you have time, put your essay aside for a few days before you begin to edit. This gives you time to gain a perspective on what you have written and to think further about your answer and arguments. QUESTIONS To ASK YOURSELF: Have | answered the question as fully as possible? 4s my essay clearly structured? Does my argument make sense? Is it well balanced and researched? ‘Are my paragraphs and arguments clearly connected and coherent? ‘Are my examples and quotes relevant to and supportive of my answer? Have | used a consistent referencing style, and have | referenced all my quotes and paraphrases? Have I remained within the set word limit? Don't despair if you find faults in your essay this is part of the editing process. If you find that you need more information, or your argument has holes in it, Keep calm and methodically go ‘about fixing it up. ‘Once you have a well-organised and fairly complete draft: Revise sentences. Make sure the words you use mean what you good dictionary is @ useful tool Check transitions - be sure that a reader can follow the sequences of ideas from sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph. ‘Check punctuation and speling. they mean. A W.lrob.unsw.edu.au/html/essay guide. htmlsource: 19 WHEN REVISING AND EDITING YOUR ASSIGNMENT, ASK YOURSELF... Have | answered the question or task as fully as possible? What is my thesis! central proposition/ main assertion? Do | make a clear argument or take a position about the topic? Do | state that position in my introduction? Does my introduction or opening paragraph prepare the reader for whal follows? Is my essay clearly structured? Does my assignment have a clear introduction, a body and a definite conclusion? Does the assignment advance In logical stages? ‘Ave the major points connected? Are the relationships between them expressed clearly? Do the major points all relate to the topic and contribute to answering the task or question? ‘Are my paragraphs clearly connected and coherent? Does each paragraph begin with a topic sentence? Do the sentences flow smoothly and logically from point to point? Does each sentence clearly follow on from the one before? Does each paragraph state Its case clearly and completely, or should there be more evidence! detail? ‘Are there adequate transitions between sentences and paragraphs? Are transitions varied or are they all the same kind? ‘Are all examples and quotes relevant to and supportive of my answer? ‘Are facts and opinions supported with examples or explanations where necessary? Is my writton expression appropriate? Have | used direct and clear language? Have | explained my ideas clearly and explicitly? Have | kept my audience in mind? Have | said all I need to say so that my reader can understand, or am I assuming they will"know what | mean"? Have | written complete, grammatically correct sentences? infong sentences, have | separated related ideas with commas or semicolons for eesier understanding? Jur. iro uns Jnimilessay_quide.20 1s my use of tenses correct? Have | used non-discriminatory language? HAVE | FULLY REFERENCED MY SOURCES OF INFORMATION? Have | referenced all the words, ideas and information sources I have used in my assignment? Have | used a consistent referencing style? Is there a clear distinction between my thoughts and words and those of the author(s) I've. read and cited? ‘Are quotations properly introduced? Are they accurate? Are they formatted correctly? Do the quotations add evidence or provide an authoritative voice, or am I letting the author(s): speak for me? Would writing it in my own words be more effective? Have | remained within or exceeded the set word limit? Idon't have enough words: * Have | fully answered the question or task? * Do! need to read more? Should | include more information or discussion? ‘* Have | provided enough evidence to support my argument/s? Ihave too many words: * Have | included only relevant information? 's there any unnecessary repetition in my assignment? ‘+ _ Is my written expression as clear and concise as possible, or is it to ‘wordy’? Have | proof read and revised my assignment for errors? Have | checked my spelling? Have I read through my assignment and not Just relied on a ‘computer spelichecker? Is all my bibliographical information correct? Have | used correct punctuation? Have | ended every sentence with a full stop? Is my assignment well presented? ‘Does the presentation follow any guidelines set by my lecturer or school? Have | included a cover sheet? (assignment cover sheets are available from your school office) source: http://www,lrob.unsw.edu,qu/html/essay_quide. htm)source: hito://www.jrob.unsw.edu.au/htm lle 21 Have | made sure my assignment is legible? Is i typed or written neatly? Have | used double-line spacing? Have | numbered pages and used wide margins? Have | kept an extra copy? FURTHER READING Bemid) Stale University Writing Resource Center 1997, How to Prooffead and Eclt Your Writing: A Guide for Student Writers, Intemet, Htpdfeal bemid) msus.edulwremandouts/ProofAndEdit.ntmi, (27 August 2001) Bamett, S. and Cain, A. 1997, A Short Guide to Writing About Literature, Harper Collins, Cuba, |. 1988, A Short Guide to Writing About Social Science. Harper Collins.STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING WORDINESS Wordiness results from many sources, Many of us have leamed to pad our writing with all sorts of empty phrases to reach length requirements for academic writing. Wordiness also tends to occur when we're struggling to clarify our ideas or when we'te tired and not thinking clearly. Regardless of the reason for padded writing, we can achieve concise writing if we incorporate several strategies during the writing process and if we're aware of the individual pattems of wordiness typical of our own writing. Strategies for Eliminating Wordiness You can eliminate wordiness in your writing if * you mark sections of your writing that you struggled to produce. If you had a hard time getting your ideas down on paper, chances are you included some “false starts" or filler phrases in your writing, something like the "ahems," “uhs," and "okays" that occur when we're speaking and formulating our ideas at the same time. This is natural. Don't worry about fillers when you're writing, But after you're done with your draft, pass through your paper ones, focusing only on eliminating unnecessary language. Pay particular attention to sections you struggled to get out. + Before editing, give yourself a breather. Even if you just get yourself a cup of coffee or work on something else for a while, getting away from your paper will help give you the distance you'll need to see whatlanguage is needed and What's not. + Learn what wordiness patterns are typical of your writing. Most people tend to fall into two or three pattems of wordiness when they write. Learn what your Patterns are, and edit with those patterns in mind. Patterns of Wordiness As you read the following list, consider which patterns are typical of your writing: G Omit the filler phrases "it is," “there is," and “there are" at the beginning of sentences; these often delay the sentence's true subject and verb, + Wordy itis expensive to upgrade computer systems. * Concise Upgrading computer systems is expensive. O Omit “this” from the beginning of a sentence by joining it to the preceding sentence with a comma. + Wordy source: http://www. lrob.unsw.edu.au/htmV/essay qulde.htmt23 Chlorofluorocarbons have been banned from aerosols. This has lessened the ozone layer's depletion. + Concise Chlorofluorocarbons have been banned from aerosols, lessening the ozone layer’s depletion. 0. Change "which" or "that" constructions to an "-ing" word, * Wordy The committee, which meets monthly, oversees accounting procedures and audits. * Concise The committee, meeting monthly, oversees accounting procedures and audits. 1D Omit "which" or "that" altogether when possible. + Wordy Because the fluid, which was brown and poisonous, was dumped into the river, the company that was negligent had to shut down. | + Concise | Because the brown, poisonous fluid was dumped into the river, the negligent | company had to shut down. | 1 Replace passive verbs with active verbs. In passive constructions, the | subject of the sentence is being acted upon; in active constructions, the subject is the actor. + Wordy => Rain forests are being destroyed by uncontrolled logging. + Concise | * Uncontrolled logging is destroying rain forests. 1D Change “is” or "was" when they occur alone to a strong verb. | * Wordy | Anew fire curtain is necessary for the stage. + Concise ‘The stage needs a new fire curtain. www rob unsw.edu. aul24 O Replace is," “are,” "was," “were,” or "have + an -ing word" to a simple present or past tense verb, + Wordy The South African government was undergoing significant changes. + Concise The South African government underwent significant changes. 0 Replace "shoul ‘would," or “could” with strong verbs. + Wordy The environmental council could see several solutions. + Concise The environmental council saw several solutions. 0 Substitute strong verbs for "-tion” and "-sion" words whenever possible. + Wordy | submitted an application for the job, * Concise | applied for the job. 0 Replace prepositional phrases with one-word modifiers when possible. Prepositional phrases, those little relationship words like “of,” "from," "after," etc., tend to bring in a lot of "-tion” and "-sion" words too. + -Wordy- The President of the Student Senate was in charge of the lobbying against the merger at the Minnesota Congress. + Concise The Student Senate President oversaw lobbying the Minnesota Congress against the merger. O Use a colon after a statement preceding a sentence of explanation, and leave out the beginning of the next sentence + Wordy source: htto:/lwww.irob.unsw.edu.awhtml/essay_quide.htmlsource: 25 ‘The theater has three main technical areas. These areas are costumes, scenery, and lighting + Concise ‘The theater has three main technical areas: costumes, scenery, and lighting, 1D Combine two closely related short sentences by omitting part of one. « Wordy ‘The director is concerned about problems. Typical problems may occur with lighting, sound, and props. * Concise ‘The director is concerned about typical problems with lighting, sound, and props. Jiwyw.irob unsw.edu.sulhtmilessay guide. htm!26 WHAT IS AN ABSTRACT? An abstract is a condensed version of a longer piece of writing that highlights the major points covered, concisely describes the content and scope of the writing, and reviews the writing's contents in abbreviated form, What types of abstracts are typically used? ‘Two types of abstracts are typically used: 1. Descriptive Abstracts © tell readers what information the report, article, or paper contains. include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or Paper. © do not provide results, conclusions, or recommendations. © are always very short, usually under 100 words. © introduce the subject to readers, who must then read the report, article, or paper to find out the author's results, conclusions, or recommendations. 2. Informative Abstracts © communicate specific information from the report, article, or paper. © include the purpose, methods, and scope of the report, article, or paper. © provide the report, article, or paper's results, conclusions, and recommendations. © ae short - from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the length of the original work being abstracted. Usually informative abstracts are 10% or less of the length of the original piece. © allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report, article, or paper. Why are abstracts so important? The practice of using key words in an abstract is vital because of today's electronic information retrieval systems. Titles and abstracts are filed electronically, and key words are put in electronic storage. When people search for information, they enter key words related to the subject, and the computer prints out the titles of articles, Papers, and reports containing those key words. Thus, an abstract must contain key words about what is essential in an article, paper, or report so that someone else can retrieve information from it. Qualities of a Good Abstract An effective abstract has the following qualities: * uses one or more well developed paragraphs: these are unified, coherent, concise, and able to stand alone. ‘source: http://www. irob.unsw.edu,qu/htmi/essay guide. htm!27 «uses an introduction/body/conclusion structure which presents the article, paper, or feport's purpose, results, conclusions, and recommendations in thet order. follows strictly the chronology of the article, paper, or report. provides logical connections (or transitions) between the information included. ‘adds no new information, but simply summarizes the report. is understandable to a wide audience. oftentimes uses passive verbs to downplay the author and emphasize the information. Check with your teacher if you're unsure whether or not to use passive voice. Steps for Writing Effective Abstracts To write an effective abstract, follow these steps: + Reread the article, paper, or report with the goal of abstracting in mind. © Look specifically for these main parts of the article, paper, or report: purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendation. Use the headings, outline heads, and table of contents as a guide to writing your abstract. co Ifyou're writing an abstract about another person's article, paper, or repor, the introduction and the summary are good places to begin. These areas generally cover what the article emphasizes. «After you've finished rereading the article, paper, or report, write a rough draft without looking back at what you're abstracting. > Don't merely copy key sentences from the article, paper, or report: you'll put in too much or too litle information. © Dor't rely on the way material was phrased in the article, paper, or report: summarize information in a new way. «Revise your rough draft to ‘© correct weaknesses in organization. improve transitions from point to point. drop unnecessary information. add important information you left out. eliminate wordiness. © fix errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation. + Print your final copy and read it again to catch any glitches that you find. source: hitp:/Awww.irob.unew.edu.au/himl/essay_quide.htm!source: 28 A Sample Abstract Wallace, J. C., Vodanovich, S. J. & Restino, B. M. (2003), Predicting cognitive failures from boredom proneness and daytime sleepiness scores: an investigation within military and undergraduate samples. Personality & Individual Differences, Vol. 34 Issue 4, p635 - 635, The current study examines the relationship between cognitive failures, daytime sleepiness, and boredom proneness within two populations. A military and a university sample completed the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire, Boredom Proneness Scale, and the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Results indicated that higher daytime sleepiness and boredom proneness scores are predictive of higher cognitive failure scores. The military sample had significantly higher daytime sleepiness and cognitive failure scores as compared to the university sample. Possible implications and applications for using scores on these measures to assess individuals in educational and industrial settings are discussed, as well as possible treatments for individuals scoring high on these measures. (1996). Development of leader-member exchange: A longitudinal test. Academy of Management Journal. 39 (6) 1538 ~ 1567. AA longitudinal study examined the development of leader-member exchange (LMX) relationships via a model that extends and tests ideas presented but not yet fully tested in past theoretical models. New subordinates (205) and their supervisors (112) provided the data that were used to test hypotheses stating that dyadic gender and personality similarity, member performance, and leader delegation would be incrementally and cumulatively related to LMX development, Support was found for relationships between the quality of leader-member exchange and positive affectivity similarity, performance and delegation, but not for a relationship with gender similarity. In addition, it appears that good member performance may precede leader delegation, oa : W. [rob un au/himilessay_quide,htm!29 QUOTING, PARAPHRASING AND SUMMARISING INTRODUCTION ‘Much of the work you produce at university will involve the important ideas, writings and discoveries of experts in your field of study. The work of other Writers can provide you with information, evidence and Ideas, but must be incorporated into your work carefully. Quoting, paraphrasing and summarising are all different ways of including the works of others in your assignments. tf your work is only made up of copied (plagiarised) passages from books or journals, you ate likely to be penalised by your lecturers. They expect you to demonstrate an understanding of the major ideas/concepts in the discipline, Paraphrasing and summarising allows you to Gevelop and demonstrate your understanding and interpretation of @ text. They are powerful fools for reshaping information to suit the many writing tasks that will be required of you. They also require important analytical and writing skis which are crucial to success at university, What are the Differences? Quotations: + match the source word for word + are usually a brief segment of the text + appear between quotation marks + must be attributed to the original source Paraphrasing: + does not match the source word for word + involves putting a passage from a source into your own words + changes the words or phrasing of a passage, but retains and fully communicates the original meaning + must be attributed to the original source hitoutwww.trob unew.edu.aurhtmllessay quide,htm! ‘Summarising: + does not match the source word for word + involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, but including only the main point(s) + presents @ broad overview, so is usually much shorter than the original text + must be attributed to the original sourcsourco: hi 30 REFERENCING AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) STYLE OR ‘IN-TEXT' METHOD Referencing is a system that allows you to acknowledge the contributions and work of others in your writing. A feature of academic and professional writing is that it contains references to the words, information, and ideas of others. ‘Whenever you use any words, ideas or information from any source in your written work, you must reference those sources. If you do not reference your sources you may be charged with ‘plagiarism’ and your work can be failed. This guide presents an introduction to the APA style. There are other similar styles (eg. Harvard) that other courses and lecturers may require. Once you master the APA style, you will have the skill and patience to learn and use other referencing styles when required. 1. IN-TEXT CITATIONS ‘Three important pieces of information about the source are included in the body of your text. © The sumame of the author or authors ‘©The year of publication of the information © The page number (if the information can be located on a particular page). Citations may be placed at the end of a sentence (before the concluding punctuation) in brackets: Paraphrase or Summary of the Source (in your own words) Encouraging students to memorise facts and rules and then testing their memory has been a consistent criterion of pedagogy (Broudy, 1998, p. 8). Broudy (1998) explains that memorisation does not result in an ability to solve problems (p.8). Quotation (exact words from the source) Broudy (1998) believes that “on the common criteria for schooling, our sample citizen has failed because he cannot replicate the necessary skill or apply the relevant principles" (p. 9). ‘An example of a paragraph using the APA Style is given below. However, as Aronowitz and Giroux (1986) point out - and it is an important area of criticism of the notion of resistance - there is the possibility of confusing resistance with all forms of oppositional behaviour, and it is not always a response to domination. As an example of this latter point they refer to the much quoted article by McRobbie (1978) on "Working Class Girls and ttn: lw, aufhtmUessay_ guide, htm!31 the Culture of Femininity". Although McRobbie refers to the girls’ activities Which include combing their hair under the desk lids, or carving their boyfriends’ names under their desks as oppositional, Aronowitz and Giroux 'seé it in terms of conformation to sexual conventions which require "developing a sexual and ultimately successful marriage” (p. 100). Contrary then to such behaviour constituting oppositional tactics, they see it as a form of "sexism that characterised working class life and mass culture in general" (p.108). Figure 1. Example paragraph showing in-text citations From Within school walls, (p. 60), by Wolpe, A. (1988), London: Routledge. (Copyright 1988 by A. Wolpe.) DIFFERENT IN-TEXT CITATIONS Here are additional examples of different in-text citations and their conventions. ‘Two authors (always mention both authors) Dixon and Leong (1996) describe the Gothic influence on Wiliam Morris's work and | his philosophy. | ‘William Mortis was inspired by Gothic art (Dixon & Leong, 1996). Up to five authors State all authors when first mentioning the source. Subsequent references to the source are shortened to the first surname followed by ‘etal.’ (et al. = and others), + First entry: | ‘Smith, Jones, Banks and Ho (1995)... + Subsequent entries: | Smith ot al, (1995)... More than six authors (only mention first author in the body of the text) Warner et al. (1995) define design as a process of problem solving (p.2). Organisations or associations as author fan abbreviation is commonly used write out the full name first with the abbreviation in brackets. For subsequent entries, use the abbreviation. + First entry: | source: hitp://wwy.trob,unsw.edu au/html/essay_quide.htm!32 In 1995, The University of New South Wales, College of Fine Arts (UNSW COFA), ‘School of Design Studies continued its successful Partners in Design Project. + Subsequent entries: ‘Twenty-one industry partners were involved in the project (UNSW COFA, 1995). No author For an article or chapter put the title in "double quotation marks" followed by the year. For a Journal, book, brochure or report, underline the title. According to the Code of Ethios for Research in Education (1995), “what constitutes legitimate, and therefore morally acceptable, moral reasoning is the subject of dispute" (p.1). Creative works If you wish to cite a specific performance, art show, poetry reading, etc., you need only cite the specific date and location in the text-no reference list entry is needed. For example: ‘When several works of Georgia O'Keefe were displayed together for the first time (The Phillips Collection, Washington, DC, March 1999) . . Classical works This includes ancient texts and very old works. Many will be translated and will not have page numbers or a date of publication. oT licate you referred to a translated text: (Aristotle, trans. 1931) + To indicate you read a subsequent version of the original. Put the original version first: (James, 1890/1983) indicate.a.verse, line.or.chapter-in-a-classical-text{Usually-eonsistentacross-allversions——————~~ and translations): 1 Cor.13:1 (Revised Standard Version) Personal communication This includes letters, memos, a telephone conversation etc.; usually information which is not recoverable or easily verified. Do not include an entry in the list of references. if you wish to refer to lectures, public talks or unpublished plenaries, seek the permission of the speaker or ‘convenor before including their words or ideas in your assignment. Give initials, sumame, and date. (B. Smith, personal communication, March 13, 2001) Internet, CD ROM, Database source: http://w du. aw/html wide ntConventions for electronic and non-print sources are still being formalised by the APA. For current advice on referencing electronic sources visi http://www.apa.oraljournals/webref.htm! Judy Chicago's monumental work, "The Dinner Party" was originally conceived as @ permanent exhibition (http:/fudychicago.com), ww. irob.unsw.edu.aulhtmi/essay_qulde,htm!| 34 2. LIST OF REFERENCES At the end of an essay or report you must provide a List of References: This is a list of all the books, journal articles, catalogues, web sites, government publications etc. that you have referred to in your essay or report. Consistency and accuracy in setting out the list is important. Readers may use your lst of references to locate sources of particular interest for their own research. Ifin doubt, the general rule Is to provide more rather than less information. When taking notes for your assignment remember to collect the following information: | Books Journal Articles Non- print Sources | «Author sumame and | ¢ Author sumame | Collect simitar information for books and journals. initial and initial «Year of publication | + Year of Also collect: * Book Title | publication * City where published | + Article title ‘Type of medium (eg. oniine image, internet page, CD + Publisher * Jouralname | ROM, film, video) © Volumeand i I you take notes from a issue numbers For internet: the address (URL) and the date you | | chapter in an edited book, © Firstandlast | visited the web site ! | then also collect the Page of the | | authors and titles of article | ‘individual chapters end the ‘or E-mail: discussion list name and list address. first and last page numbers | of the chapters. | For database: the name of the database, any fel document! report codes that may help in locating the source When making the list of references: ‘Begin your references list on a new page. * Label the list References’. Centre the heading. ‘+ Sort the list alphabetically by author's sumiame (if no author, put the ttle before the year). ‘+ Double space the reference list entries. ‘+ _ Follow the sequence and punctuation in the example reference list provided on the next page of this"guide- ‘+ _ Ifthe information exceeds one line of text, then the following line would have a hanging indent (usually a tab space). References Gelfand, H. & Walker, C. J. (1994). Mastering APA style: Instructors’ resource quide, (4th ed.). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Wolpe, A. (1988). Within schoo! walls, London: Routledge. source: http:/www.irob.unew.edu.au/htmilessay quide htm!35 3, EXERCISE Here is a sample reference list. What do you notice about the sequence of items in each entry? What else do you notice about the punctuation and use of upper-case and lower-case letters? References Chicago, J (February 27, 2001). Judy Chicago; Through the flower homepage fonline} Avaliable: hitp!ijudychicago.com Dixon, C. & Leong, R. (1996). Wiliam Morris & frends. [Brochure]. Canberra, Australian Capital ‘Territory; National Gallery of Australia, Hunter, |. (1994). ,e school: Subjectivity, bureaucracy, orlticism, St. Leonards, New South ‘Wales, Australi: Allen & Unwin, Joyce, B, & Weil, M, (1986). Models of teaching. (3rd ed.) New Jersey, NY: Prentice-Hall “Thomas, D. (1948). Do not go gentle into that good night [Poem]. nD, Jones (Ed.), The poems of Dvian ‘Thomas. New York: Norton, ‘Traudi, A., & Traudi, P. (Producers and Directors). (1998). Roarl Melbourne Expressionism in the 19808, [Videotape], Bendigo, Victoria, Australia: Video Education Australia. University of New South Wales, College of Fine Arts. (1905). Adaptabiliv. Sydney, Australia: Author, ‘Van Fenema, J, (1996). A critical look at Malaysian art. In S. Jones. (Ed.), Southeast Asian art today, {pp 62-118). Roseville, New South Wales, Australia: Roeder Publications. Wemer, N., Owen, R., Taylor, H., Bamett,A., Riley, M., Hindle, K., Watson, M., & Florey, J. (1995), ‘studies In senior design, Mion, Queensland, Australia: The Jacaranda Press. Woods, C. & Griffiths, A. (1995). The real McCoy. Desian World. 42 (3), 2-13. In the above list can you locate? Abook by one author? ‘A jourel article? An exhibition brochure? Avideo? ‘Aweb page? A book that has more than 1 edition? Apoem? ‘Abook with multiple authors? ‘An organisation as author? Achapter in an edited book? wy. irob.unsw.ed36 REFERENCING THE HARVARD. OR ‘IN-TEXT' METHOD Referencing is a system that allows you to acknowledge others’ contribution to your writing. Whenever you use ANY words, ideas or information from ANY ‘source in your assignments, you must reference those sources. A feature of academic writing is that it contains references to the words, information and ideas of others. Many Schools at The University of New South Wales have Style Guides indicating how referencing for assignments should be done. The Learning Centre strongly suggests that you ‘check the preferred methods with your tutor. General Principles of the Harvard System Within the Text - in-text citations ‘The Harvard system of referencing requires you to include three pieces of information about a ‘source within the text of your work. This information the name of the author or authors the year of publication the page number (if the information/idea can be located on a particular page; ‘especially when directly quoted) At the End of the Text: ‘At the end of your text, you must include a List of References. This is a list ofall the books, joumal articles and other sources of information you have referred to in your assignments. Full bibliographical information must be included, How to Cite 'In-Text' Citations may be placed at the end of a sentence (before the concluding punctuation) in brackets: The theory was first developed by Browne(Gibbs 1981). Another way of including a reference in your text is to integrate the author's sumame into your sentence, followed by the year of publication, in parentheses: Gibbs (1981) states that Browne was the first to develop the theory of. For Example: ‘The following essay is an example of an essay using the Harvard system: Criticisms aside, Durkheim's work in The Elementary Forms was an extraordinary contribution to the sociology of religion, perhaps more specifically to a greater understanding of the origins of collective morality. Gardner makes an extremely important point about Durkheim when he writes "Durkheim had a lifelong interest in morality .. . For Durkheim morality Was ‘the centre and end of his work’ and society itself was ‘the end and source of ‘moraiity"(1987, p.74). For Durkheim, the nature of morality was the nature of social solidarity, In The Elementary Forms Durkheim defined religion as the main expression of the deep moral source: http://www. irob,unsw.edu.aul wide, htm37 sentiments inspired by society in individuals. His interest in the moral substratum of the modem social order expressed concer with the moral consequences of modemization (Toles 1993). In-Text Citations: a guide to citing different sources ToCite... How to Tocite adirect Write the texi word for quotation word and place inverted ‘commas at the beginning and end of the quote. The author, date and page number must be included, a quotation You must acknowledge oridea from an —_ both sources in your text author who attributes it to another source the overall You do not need to content of a include page numbers work. because itis the entire work you are referring to froma journal If the page number is required, as itis for direct quoting more than one Separate the references work either with a semicolon or the word and more than one —_use both names author more than three Use the surname of the authors, first author and et al. (rand others") authors with the Use their initials to same surname __ indicate different people who have published in the same year more than one Arrange citations in work by the chronological order same author source: hitp://www jrob.unew.edu.auhhtml/essay_ quide.html For Example “Australia is a settler society" (Hudson & Bolton 1997, p. 9) Graham Gibbs, in his 1981 study into student learning wrote that "because students are aware of their tutor’s mastery of the subject ‘matter, itis quite common for them to assume that their reader has no needs at all" (Gibbs 4981, p.39, quoted in Bowden 1986, p.25). Larsen and Greene (1989) studied the effects of pollution in three major cities... (Entwhistie 1977, p. 23) for an idea only: (Entwistle 1977) (Entwistle 1977; Haddon 1969) or: Entwistle (1977) and Haddon (1969) both demonstrated that... (Sontag and Paglia 1987) Browne et al. (1987) argued that... or: (Browne et al, 1987) ‘The theory was first developed in 1978 (Smith, AK. 1978, p.664), but later many of its elements were refuted (Smith, J.A. 1979, p.123). (Smith 1981, 1984, 1985)an author who published more than one work in the same year from newspapers froma privately obtained rview or other personal communication a CD-ROM an internet source a film or video Attach an a, b, ¢, d etc. after the year List the name of the newspaper, the date, year and page number Include the abbreviation ‘pers. comm.'in your reference Include the full tile and year of publication In-text citations usually require page numbers, but Internet documents, rarely contain them. Use the author name and the date created Inolude the ful tite and year of release 38 Dawkins (1972a, 1972b) completed a number of studies on... (Sydney Morning Herald 7 Mar. 1994, p.8) (Daly, B. 1994, pers. comm., 7 Aug.) (CD-ROM, Microsoft Encarta, 1995) (Cogdill 1996) If the author's name is unknown, cite the website URL: (http:vwww.aaa.unsw.edu.au) (Three Colours Red, 1995) source: http://www irob.unsw.edu.au/htmi/essay quide.htm!source: The List of References The List of References in the Harvard system is a list of all the books, journal articles and other sources you have referred to throughout your assignment. Compiling a List of References Books «Lay out your list of refererices alphabetically by author’surname,— ~ & The tite of the book should be either underlined or in italics. Itis up to you which style ‘you choose, but you must be consistent. Every main Word in the book's title should begin with a capital etter. ‘The title of an article appears between single quotation marks and is written in sentence case - only capitalise the first word of the arlicle heading/subheading and proper nouns (eg. Australia) If bibliographic information exceeds one line of text, then the following lines should have a hanging indent. «If there is more than one author or editor, all must be listed in the List or References. Don't use et al. The Information You Need Bibliographical Details (or Information about a book) Include full bibliographic deta, presented in the following order: 4. author surname(s) and initials) 2. year of publication 3,_ tile of publication 4. edition (if applicable) 5. publisher 6. place of publication Examples: Smith, G. and Brown, J. 1993, Introduction fo Sociology , UNSW Press, Sydney. Leeder, $.R., Dobson, A. J., Gribberd, R. W. & Patel, N. K. 1996, The Australia Film Industry, Dominion Press, Adelaide. Articles from a Book Collection When a book is a collection of articles, each by different authors, but with an editor(s), use the following layout: Marton, F., Hounsell, D. & Entwistle, N. (eds.) 1982, The Experience of Leaming, Scottish ‘Academic Press, Edinburgh. ‘When you use an article from a book collection, the title of the arficle appears in quotations; the title of the book is elther underlined or italicised. Here is an example: Curthoys, A. 1997, ‘History and identity’ in Creating Australia: Changing Australian History, eds W. Hudson & G. Bolton, Allen & Unwin, Australia, When listing an article from a book collection, place the information in the following order: 4. author name and iniial(s) 2. year of publication 3. name of article (between single quotation marks) www jrob unsw.edu.au/himilessa ts40 4. in 5. name of collection (underlined or in italics) 6. ed(s) 7. initials) and sumame(s) of editor(s) 8. publisher 9. place of publication, if applicable Journal Articles, When referencing journal articles you need to place the information in the following order: author name and initial(s) year of publication tile of article (between single quotation marks) title of journal or periodical (underlined or in italics) volume number, if applicable issue number, or month (if applicable) Page numbers NOM RON Examples: Kozulin, A. 1993, Literature as a Psychological Toot’, Educational Psychologist, vol. 28, no. 3, ‘Summer, pp. 253-265. Souban, J.C., Kouzman, T.H., and Whitman W. 1991, ‘A Sociological Survey into Enterprise Bargaining’, Journal of the Australian Sociological Association, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 23 45, Internet Sources ANote About Internet Sources ‘There are some special problems and demands when referencing Internet sites. In ‘comparison to print material, electronic sources can easily be changed, or vanish altogether. This makes full and accurate information essential. Methods for referencing electronic ‘sources are changing and developing rapidly, so the above are suggestions only, Always ccheck with your lecturer or tutor about their preferred referencing method. ‘+ fan Internet source has no author, use identifying words from the ttle (e.g. “Australian Government Official Websit ‘+ Avoid dividing an electronic address. Place the Intemet address on a single line when Possible. ‘A World Wide Web Page ‘Author Known: 1, author name and initial 2. year of publication © tite of site/page (underlined or in italics) © [Online] © Available: © URLor Intemet address © year, month and day the material was accessed (between square brackets) ‘Author Unknown: 1. tile of site/page (underlined or in italics) 2. [Online] 3. year of publication unsw.edu, ay quide. htm!4 4, Avaliable: 5. URL or Internet address 8. year, month and day the material was accessed (between square brackets) Examples: a web page with an author: Winston, J. 1998, A look at referencing, (Online), Available: http/www.aaa.edu.au/aaa htm! [2000, October 20). ‘an unauthored web page: [Online} 1999, Available: http:/Wwww.aaa.edu.aulindex.htm! [2000, October 20). More Examples ‘A foreign language title: Put the translation in parenthesis after the original ttle: Jung, C.G. 1964, Der Mensch und seine Symbole (Man and his Symbots) ‘Anewspaper article with a named author: Donaghy, B 1994, ‘National meeting set to review terliary admissions’, Campus News, 3-9 Mar, p. 3. An unattributed newspaper article: UNSW gains top ranking from quality tear’, Sydney Morning Herald, 30 February, 1994, p2t ‘Government publications: Give the name of the ministry or agency that has issued the report Department of Education, Employment & Training 1982, Annual Report, 1991-92, AGPS, Canberra. Off-Air Recordings: Channel Four, 1992, Cutting Edge: Neighbours, Off-air recording, 4 May 1992, Video. How Do |...? Depending on the assignment, there may be times when you use sources of information outside strict ‘academic text’ boundaries. When in doubt about how to reference ‘a source, ASKI! Ask your lecturer or tutor. to:/hwwy. rob unew,edu.awhtmi/ess: tm42 AVOIDING GENDER BIAS IN PRONOUNES, iased language can cause your reader to focus on how you say something rather than what you say. If your language is free of bias, it should offend no one; ideally, no one should even notice that you have made an effort to reduce sexually biased words and phrases." ‘Source: Jameson, D. A. (1997). Reducing Sexually Biased Language in Business Communication. In R.D. Gieselman (Ed.) Readings in Business Communication. Champaign, iL: Stipes, 170-178. Achieving unbiased language so that readers will concentrate on what you have to say rather than how you say it is an admirable goal. I's also, | might add, a necessity. For example, businesses and individuals have been sued because job descriptions used "he" and seemed to exclude women — whether or not the exclusion was intended. Therefore, gender free language is a requirement of the workplace and the university. tt may be easy to avoid gender-biased nouns by replacing sexist nouns with more neutral ones: chairman with chair, mailman with paper carrier, and congressman with senator or representative. But how can you avoid the pronouns he, him, and his when you refer to nouns meant to include both genders? The following five options will enable you to revise your writing so that your use of pronouns is both gender-free and correct. As you review this list, compare the biased language of the original sentences with the gender-free phrasing of the revisions. 1. Use the plural form for both nouns and pronouns. Biased Language ‘Studying the techniques by which a celebrated writer achieved his success can stimulate any writer faced with similar problems. Gender-free-Langetage Studying the techniques by which celebrated writers achieved their success can stimulate any writer faced with similar problems. 2. Omit the pronoun altogether. Biased Language Each doctor should send one of his nurses to the workshop. Gender-free Language Each doctor should send a nurse to the workshop. source: http://www, irob,unsw.edu.au/htmVessay quide.htm!3. Use his or her, he/she, or s/he when you occasionally need to stress the action of an individual. Such references won't be awkward unless they're frequent. Biased Language I you must use a technical term he may not understand, explain it. Gender-free Language Ifyou must use a technical term he-or she may not understand, explain it. If you must use a technical term he/she may not understand, explain it. 4, Vary pronoun choice when you want to give examples emphasizing the action of an individual, Ideally, choose pronouns that work counter to prevailing stereotypes. Growing Child Newsletter (1982) decided to use this strategy throughout its publication, which focused on children's developmental levels. Biased Language Gradually, Toddler will see the resemblance between block creations and objects in his world, and he will begin to name some structures, like "house," "choo choo,” and “chimney.” Gender-free Language Gradually, Toddler will see the resemblance between block creations and objects in her world, and she will begin to name some structures, like "house," "choo choo," and "chimney." Biased Language ‘The kitchen can serve as a center for new experiences, an interesting place where important things happen, and where she has a chance to learn about the way big- people things are done. Gender-free Language The kitchen can serve as a center for new experiences, an interesting place where important things happen, and where he has a chance to learn about the way big- people things are done. 5. Switch from the third-person (he) to the second-person (you) or a (you) understood when this shift is appropriate for what you're writing. Biased Language Each manager should report his progress to the undersigned by May 1. Gender-free Language You should report your progress to me by May 1 Jaw irob unsw.edu.awhimllessay_quide. bi44 Report your progress to me by May 1. Biased Language The kitchen can serve as a center for new experiences, an interesting place where important things happen, and where she has a chance to learn about the way big- people things are done. Gender-free Language The kitchen can serve as a center for new experiences, an interesting place where important things happen, and where he has a chance to learn about the way big- people things are done. ‘source: http://www. irob.unsw.edu.au/himVessay auide, htm!45 Surviving Exams Exam writing is a skill you can learn - doing well can have as much to do with technique as with preparation. The following may seem like common sense, but common sense can be the first thing to go when looking down, the barrel of exam week, The Hours Before... Make sure you have a good night's sleep This is the most important thing by far. If you are well rested, you will think more clearly, remember better, and will be more able to solve problems and think creatively. Don't pull an all-nighter; you'll be fuzzy, stressed and irritable, Being alert is your greatest asset. Arrive at the exam venue ahead of time Establish the location of the exam venue well ahead of fime. Make sure you know how to get there with the minimum of stress. Visit the exam venue a few days before and familiarise Yourself with the physical surroundings. Knowing where you need to be and arriving on time will allow you to remain calm and relaxed. Bring all the materials you need Pack your bag the night before. For an open book exam, bring your materials neatly organised; a jumble of notes isnt useful-effective organisation (thematic, topic-based, chronological, etc.) is. Bring several pens in case one runs out in the midst of a brilliant thought! Avoid panic talk! For some perverse reason, many students seem to enjoy stressing each other out just before the exam. A suggestion: stand apart from the main scrum of students. Eat something Your stomach might be in knots and you feel you couldn't eat a thing. But if you don't eat, halfway through the exam you'l find yourself feeling tired and hungry, and losing concentration. Compromise: eal some easily digestible, solid food like rice, bread, savoury biscuits or bananas. Keep coffee and chocolate to a minimum as these will only give a short boost. What you need is staying power. Oh, and Study Of course, a major aspect of being prepared is studying (see page 4-8). Confidence is all. . . Confidence is a state of mind; calm, collected, and able to handle challenges. So, you've arrived at the exam with good preparation, a good night's sleep and having Zaten something. You are on time, and have actively avoided panicky chit-chat. What now? Don't rush-relax The calmer, more relaxed you are, the more alert you'll be. Panic only gets in the way; if you are too nervous, you'll be {oo agitated to concentrate. On the other hand, if you are too casual, you won't be alert. The target is somewhere in the middle: the right amount of stress source: hitp://www.jrob.unew.edu.au/htmilessay quide, html46 keeps you on your toes, helping you think clearly and effectively. Focus on relaxing yourself: Take a few long, slow deep breaths ‘As you slowly exhale, relax your shoulders, hands, face and jaw Stay quiet for a few moments, then go back to what you were doing, only more slowly and smoothly. This technique is useful either before or during the exam. If your exam has a reading period, use it to your advantage Itis extremely important to understand the questions. Read carefully and slowly, and consider what you are being asked to do. Few questions require you to write everything you've ever read about a certain topic, so look for the clue words (see page 6-7) in the Question. These will give you a strong indication of how they want you to answer the question. Using Clue Words Ifyou are allowed to hold a pen during the reading period, underline the clue words (see age 6-7) in short answer and essay questions. Doing this will provide guidelines for answering when you retum to the question later. If the exam does not have a reading Period, still spend the first few minutes reading the questions. Getting a feel for the exam as a whole Read through the entire exam before you start. This gives you a feel for what you need to do and the time constraints involved. ‘Another common sense-ism which cannot be overstated: Read the directions! There is, nothing worse than getting to the end of the exam and suddenly realising that you were ‘supposed to answer two questions in Part A when you had instead written just one masterpiece. Exam writing is a game - you are being tested as much for your ability to follow directions as for your handling of the material itself. | read-through, locate the ‘easy’ and ‘hard’ questions. The golden rule is to start with the easy ones. Don't do the hard ones frst to get them out of the way. What you'll find is that the hard ones get in your way, slowing you down and stressing you out. -Answering-an-easy-question-increases-your-confidenoe, helps-get-you-thinking-and-triggers————— your memory. This might help you to remember information for those ‘difficult’ questions. Exam Time management Allocate Your Time ‘As you read through the exam, look at how marks are allocated. The number of marks given oa particular question will give you an indication of how much time to spend on it. For ‘example, in a 90-minute exam with 90 multiple choice questions, you should average one question per minute. You may be able to answer some questions more quickly, buying extra time to devote to the trickier ones. Use a similar system with essay answers. Look at the number of marks per question, how they are distributed, how many questions you have to answer and ration your time accordingly. It may be helpful to make a note of how much time you should give to each question. Once you decide on your time outline, stick to it. Watch the clock, and once the ‘source: http://www, irob.unsw.edu.au/htmi/essay_quide. htm!source: 47 allocated time has elapsed, stop there and move onto the next question. If you havent finished, leave lots of space in the exam booklet. Sometimes, you will answer the questions more quickly than the time allocated. If you have any extra time at the end (or during the revision period) you can return and answer it more fully. Here's another tip: don't leave the exam early. If you have extra time, use it to revise or to think more deeply about one of the harder questions. Make use of all he allocated time-I's worth In the End . Exam writing is an active process. You are there to think, assess, make judgements, and to concisely answer questions. Simple regurgitation will only get you so far. Remember the Golden Rules Get some sleep the night before Eat something ‘Avoid ‘panic talk’ with other students Read the directions Make a time management plan and stick to it Watch the clock Start with the easy ones Build in revision time Don't leave the exam early Take control of your stress and make It work for you! Essay Exams Essay exams are designed to test your ability to synthesise information and to organise your thoughts on paper. The following points are designed to help you prepare for essay style examinations. Be familiar with the terminology used in essay exam questions Make sure you understand the question and are clear about what you are being asked to do, Terms like: compare trace strate evaluate all have different meanings and will require a different style of answer. ‘Take time to read the exam paper thoroughly Make sure you read each question carefully and be sure you understand exactly what the question is asking, A common mistake made in essay exams is not reading the question properly. ww irob.unsyedu ide, birt48 If the question is ambiguous, unclear or too broad, clearly write your interpretation of the question before answering Before you begin writing, jot down all your ideas and organise them into an essay plan Don't write your essay off the top of your head - it will end up disorganised and incoherent. First draw up a plan. You can do this on the exam paper itself, or on any spare paper you have with you. Begin by thinking about how you will answer the question, Jot down the main information in point form. Doing this will also help you think about your answer, If you have to write more than one essay, always indicate the number of the essay You don't have to answer questions in the order in which they appear in the exam paper. Start with the easiest one first and do the hardest last. This approach reduces anxiety and can facilitate clear thinking. However, write the essay question number at the top. Make sure you time yourself on each question Another common mistake made in essay exams is running out of time. Allocate time for each question. If you need to write two essays in two hours, then allocate 1 hour per question. Start with the easiest one first and do the hardest last. This approach reduces anxiety and helps you think more clearly. Always give your answer in the first sentence ‘A good technique is to use the wording of the question in your answer. For example: "How do the goals of strategy and vision differ?" You could begin your essay with: "The goals of strategy and vision differ in three main ways..." This approach makes sure you answer the question, and makes the exam easier to mark. Make sure you structure your essay ‘You should include: An Introduction ‘An introduction should explicitly state your answer and the organisation of the essay. For ‘example: “The goals of strategy and vision differ in three main ways. The first is that . .., The second is... and the third main area of difference lies in the . .. This essay will argue that although these differences exist in approaches, the practices of strategy and vision have become very similar’. The Body ‘The Body of your essay should include supporting material and appropriate details for your answer. Make sure you structure the body of the essay as you indicated in your introduction. Use transitions to tie your ideas together. This will make your essay flow. If you feel you are. losing the plot, go back and reread the question and your introduction. The Conclusion source: http://www.irob.unsw.edu.au/html/essay quide. htm!49 In your Conclusion, re-answer the question and refer briefly o the main points in the body. Show HOW you have answered the question, For example: "In conclusion, itis clear that although strategy and vision originally held differing views on how to attain their goals, a realistic assessment now shows that their practice has become vory similar. This is most clearly ilustrated by. . . (give your best example and end the essay). Leave space in between answers Thisis-in-case you have time to add any information you didn't include in your essays. Ifyou run out of time, answer in point form Markers will often give you some marks for this. Try to write as legibly as possible Print your answers instead of using cursive writing. Be aware of grammar, spelling and punctuation. If you are using exam booklets, write on every second line. if you have time at the end of the exam, proof read your essay for grammatical and spelling errors. Exam Skills: Clue Words What are Clue Words? in exams featuring essay or short-answer questions, most questions contain @ Clue Word. Clue Words are the words that the lecturer uses to indicate the angle to take when you answer the question, Clue Words tell you exactly what to do in an essay, so they are extremely important in essay exams. Finding Clue Words in Exam Questions ‘An exam is like a mental game in which the lecturers tell you whiat they want. To play the ‘game successfully you need to be aware of the precise wording of questions and the precise meanings of the clue words. Once you have found the clue words and worked out exactly what they mean, you can answer the question as clearly as possible. Exam Question: Compare the goals of strategy and vision Clue Word: The clue word in this question is compare. Ifthe question asked you to "Evaluate the goals of...", a completely different answer would be required. The following is a list of the most common clue words and their meanings in ‘exam questions to help you prepare for essay exams. Because the list is long, itis a good {dea to read through past exam papers to familiarise yourself with the most commonly used Clue words in your discipline. Many schools have past exam papers in the library. Clue Word. Meaning i aa Analyse To find the main ideas, how they are related and why they : ‘are important. i " ae ww Irob.ur wide,50 Comment on To discuss, criticise, or explain its meaning as completely as possible. Compare To show both the differences and the similarities. Contrast To compare by showing the differences. Criticise ~_ Togive your judgement or reasoned opinion of something, showing its good and bad points. However, itis not necessary to attack. Define To give the formal meaning by distinguishing it from related terms. This is often a matter of giving a memorised definition, Describe To write a detalled account or verbal picture in a logical Sequence or story form. Diagram To make a graph, chart or drawing. Be sure to label it and ‘add a brief explanation if necessary. Discuss To describe, giving the details and explaining the positives ‘and negatives of something. Enumerate To list. Name and list the main ideas one by one. Evaluate To give your opinion or some expert's opinion of the truth or importance of a concept. Show the advantages and disadvantages, Mlustrate To explain or make clear by concrete examples, comparisons or analogies. Interpret = 5 To give the meaning using examples and personal ‘comments to make something clear. : Justify —_____________To give-a-statement-of why-youthink-something-is ‘easons for your statertent or conclusion. To} eine ‘of words, sentences or comments. Sa ss enuimeral : se To give a general summary. It should contain a series of main ideas supported by secondary facts. Show the ‘organisation of the idea. tha ue eae ‘However, the word ‘prove! has a ‘maths and physics, To show the connection between things, tel 1g how one causes oris like another. tow jrob.unsw.edu.aufh ide.ntmt51 Review To give a survey or summary in which you look at the important parts and criticise if necessary. State To describe the main points in precise terms, Use brief, clear sentences. Omit details or examples. ‘Summarise To give a brief, condensed account of the main ideas. Trace To follow the progress or history of the subject, Good Luck source: hitp:/iwww.\rop unew.edu.au/himVessay quide.htmt