Chapter 3: The Biological Bases of Behavior

3A- Neural Processing and the Endocrine System

I. Introduction
A. biological- having to do with the body
B. phrenology- theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal out
mental ability and character traits.
C. biological psychologists- concerned with the links between biology and
behavior
D. subsystems- smaller parts of a system,which is part of an even larger
system
i. biopsychosocial- (what humans are a part of) to understand our
behavior, we need to study how biological, psychological, and social-
cultural systems interact
II. Neurons & Neural Communication
A. Types of Neurons- nerve cell, basic building block of the nervous system
i. Sensory- carry information from sensory receptors to the brain and
the spinal cord.
ii. Motor- carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to
the muscles and glands
iii.Interneurons- neurons within the brain and spinal cord that
communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs
and motor outputs.
B. Parts of a Neuron
i. Dendrites- bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive
messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
ii. Cell Body- contains nucleus
iii.Axon- extension of a neuron, ending in the branching terminal fibers,
thorough which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or
glands
iv.Myelin Sheath- layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of
many neurons, enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural
impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
C. Action Potential- a neural impulse, a brief electrical charge that travels
down an axon
D.Resting Potential- when a positive charge outside and an axon and
negative charge inside axon. The axon is selectively permeable,
meaning that it's selective about what it decides to let in
E. When a neuron fires, the axon opens its gates and the positively
charged sodium ions flood through, which depolarizes the axon and
allows its next channel to open.
F. Neuron Signals
i. Exitatory- signals that “push a neuron's accelerator”
ii. Inhibitory- signals that “push a neuron's brake”
iii.Threshold- level of stimulation to required to trigger a neural impulse
G.All or None Response- either a neuron fires or it doesn't
H. Synapse- the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and
 the dendrite o the cell body of the receiving neuron
i. Synaptic Cleft- the tiny gap at the junction between the axon tip of
one neuron and the dendrite of another.
ii. Sir Charles Sherrington noticed that neural impulses were taking a
long time to travel a neural pathway and decided that there was an
interruption in transmission (synapse)
I. Neurotransmitters- chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps
between neurons. When released by the sending neuron,
neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on
the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will
generate a neural impulse
i. Atoms flow in channels unlocked by neurotransmitters and excite or
inhibit the receiving neuron's readiness to fire.
ii. Top Five Most Common Neurotransmitters
a) Acetylcholine (Ach)- plays role in learning and memory. Messenger
at every junction between a motor neuron and a skeletal muscle
J. Reuptake- a neurotransmitter's reabsorbtion by the sending neuron.
K. Endorphins- “morphine within”, natural opiatelike neurotransmitters
linked to pain control and pleasure
L. How Drugs and other Chemicals Alter Neurotransmission
i. An Agonist molecule may be similare enough to a neurotransmitter to
bind to its receptor and mimic its effect.
ii. An Antagonist
iii.Receptor sites- where neurotransmitters bind to
iv.Opiate- lessens pain and boosts mood
a) Heroin
b) Morphine
v. Curare- South American poison that makes neurotransmitters unable
to affect muscles, leading to paralysis
III. The Nervous System
A. Nervous System- the body's speedy, electrochemical communication
network consisting of all nerve cells of the central and peripheral nervous
systems
i. Central (CNS)- the brain and spinal cord
ii. Peripheral (PNS)- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the
CNS to the rest of the body
a) Somatic- controls body's skeletal muscles, glands, and sense
organs
b) Autonomic- controls glands and muscles of the internal organs,
such as the heart.
• Sympathetic- arouses the body, mobilizing it's energy in
stressful situations
• Parasympathetic- calms the body, conserving its energy
B. Neural Networks- work groups made up of clusters of the brain's neurons.
C. Reflexes- simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the
knee-jerk response (which can be exhibited without feeling a tap)
i. Neural activity excited by heat travels via sensory neurons to
interneurons in the Spinal Cord
 ii. Sensory information must reach the brain to produce Pain
IV. The Endocrine System
A. Endocrine System- the body's “slow” chemical communication system
made up of a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
B. Hormones- chemical messengers that are manufactured by the
endocrine glands that travel through the bloodstream and affect other
tissues
C. Adrenal Glands- pair of endocrine glands that secrete Epinephrine and
Norepinephrine that help arouse the body in times of stress
D.Pituitary Gland- the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the
influence of the Hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other
endocrine glands.

3B- The Brain

I. The Tools of Discovery: Having Our Head Examined
A.Lesions- tissue destruction (Brain lesion= naturally or
experimentally caused brain tissue destruction)
i. Clinical Observations revealed brain-mind connections
B.Electroencephalogram (EEG)- an amplified recording of the waves
of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface.
Measured by electrodes that are placed on the scalp
C.CT Scan- series of x-ray photos taken from different angle and
combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice
through the body (CAT scan)
D. PET Scan- visual display of brain activity that detects where a
radioactive form of glucose goes when the brain performs a given
task.
E. MRI- uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer
generated images of soft tissue. (Shows brain anatomy)
F. fMRI- reveals bloodflow and brain activity by comparing sucessive
MRI scans. (Shows brain function)
i. Researchers watch the brain “light up” with increased oxygen-
laden bloodflow while person performs mental functions
II. Older Brain Structures
A.Brainstem- oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning
where spinal cord swells as it enters the skull. Responsible for
autonomic survival functions
B.Medulla- base of brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing. Sits
under Pons.
C.Reticular Formation- nerve network in brainstem that plays an
important role in controlling arousal
D. Thalamus- the brain's sensory switchboard (for all except
smell), located at top of brainstem. Directs messages to the
sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to
cerebellum and medulla.
 E. Cerebellum- “little brain” at the rear of brainstem. Processes
sensory input, coordinates movement output and balance
F.
III. The Cerebral Cortex
IV. Our Divided Brain
V. Right-Left Differences in the Intact Brain
VI. The Brain and Consciousness