IGCSE CHEMISTRY DEFINITIONS

Here is a list of important terms that you need to know and understand the meaning of in
Chemistry. Terms or words you are commonly asked to write out as a definition or an explanation
are marked with an asterix (*). Note that words in bold and underlined are usually required on
IGCSE papers in order to gain marks for the question if you are asked to write out the definition.

ATOMS, MOLECULES AND IONS

Diffusion * The spreading out and mixing of particles

This can mean several things, depending on the context:-
• Electrons, protons and neutrons in an atom
Particle • Atoms, molecules or ions, e.g., in discussing diffusion experiments
or collision theory of reaction rates
• Pieces of solids used in reactions, e.g., marble chips or powder
The smallest particle of an element which shows the properties of that
Atom * element. (Atoms have equal numbers of protons and neutrons and are
electrically neutral.)
Two or more atoms joined together by covalent bonds (sharing
Molecule electrons). These have no electrical charge.
An atom or molecule that is electrically charged because it has gained
Ion or lost electrons.
Cation A positive ion (electrons missing)
Anion A negative ion (extra electrons)
Atomic Number * The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
Mass Number * The total number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Atoms of the same element (same atomic number) but with different
mass numbers (different numbers of neutrons)
Isotopes *
Isotopes have identical chemical properties because they have exactly
the same electron configuration (arrangement)
Abundance (of Often quoted as % values, these are the proportions of each stable
isotopes) isotope in the naturally occurring elements
The average mass of an atom of an element (a weighted average that
takes into account the mass numbers and abundances of all the stable
isotopes of the element). You need to know how to calculate this from
Relative Atomic isotope data.
Mass, Ar
Atomic masses are measured relative to the carbon-12 isotope (which
is taken to be exactly 12 units)
Relative Formula The average mass of a molecule (or “formula unit” for ionic
Mass, Mr compounds). It is the sum of all the individual relative atomic masses.
 Avogadro’s number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons).
(Avogadro’s Number is the number of 12C atoms in exactly 12 grams of
The mole (mol) the carbon-12 isotope.)
In mass terms, the mole is also the relative mass expressed in grams.
The volume occupied by one mole of any gas. It varies with pressure
and temperature. RTP is Room Temperature and Pressure (25OC and
Molar gas volume normal atmospheric pressure) and STP is Standard Temperature and
Pressure (0OC and normal atmospheric pressure).
SYMBOLS, FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

A one or two letter symbol which represents an element, as given in

Symbol (element) the Periodic Table, e.g., C = Carbon and Na = sodium
A small letter written in brackets next to a name or formula to show
what physical state the substance is in: (s) = solid, (l) = liquid, (g) =
State symbols gas and (aq) = in solution in water.
(Try not to confuse pure liquids with solutions in water!)
For most elements the formula is the same as the symbol. There are a
few exceptions (H2 ; N2 ; O2 ; F2 ; Cl2 ; Br2 ; I2)
Formula (used in For compounds, the formula shows the number of atoms of each
chemical equations) element in a molecule or the ratio of ions. Remember to use small
subscript numbers, e.g., CO2, Ca(OH)2 or CuSO4
For ions, you need to include the charge as well, e.g., Mg2+ or CO32-
Empirical Formula The simplest (whole number) ratio of atoms of each element in a
* compound.
The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the
Molecular Formula compound. (The molecular formula is always a whole number times
* the empirical formula, e.g., C3H6 is 3 times CH2)
An equation representing a reaction where the names of all the
substances are used. (If you write an equation using symbols when the
Word Equation question asks for a word equation, you will get no marks, even if your
symbol equation is correct!)
An equation representing a reaction where the chemical formulae of all
the substances are used. It must be balanced (the same number of
Balanced chemical every type of atom on both sides of the equation). Remember that the
or symbol Equation balancing numbers are the mole ratios of reactants and product when
it comes to doing calculations.
Electrode These equations use ion formulae with charges and electrons to
(ionic/half) represent the gain or loss of electrons at the electrodes in electrolysis.
Equations

STRUCTURE AND BONDING

There are two types of structure: Giant lattice (a very large number or
Structure atoms or ions forming one huge crystal) or Simple Molecular
A giant lattice of close-packed metal ions (+ve) surrounded by a “sea”
Metallic bonding of delocalised valence (outer) electrons. Electrostatic attraction of the
cations for the negatively charged “sea” of electrons is strong.
Ionic compounds are formed between metals and non-metals and they
Ionic bonding form giant lattices. The strong electrostatic force of attraction between
+ve and –ve ions is called ionic bonding.
 A pair of electrons shared between two atoms. Simple molecules have
Covalent bond * one or more covalent bonds in them. There are a few giant covalent
lattices, most importantly diamond and graphite.
Different structural forms of the same element, in particular you need
Allotropes * to know about diamond and graphite as allotropes of carbon.
ORGANIC (CARBON) CHEMISTRY AND CRUDE OIL

A family of carbon compounds which:-

• have the same general formula.
• differ from each other by a –CH2 each time.
Homologous Series • have the same functional group
* • have similar chemical properties (because same functional group).
• show a trend in physical properties (e.g., boiling points).

(Examples are the Alkanes, the Alkenes and Alcohols)

For Homologous Series it shows the relationship between the number
General Formula of C atoms and H atoms in the compounds, e.g., for Alkanes it is
CnH2n+2
Displayed or This means drawing out the molecule using sticks to represent the
Structural Formula bonds between atoms so it is clear how the atoms are joined up.
Compounds (or molecules) which have the same molecular formula,
Isomers * but have different structural formulae (the atoms are joined up to
give different structures).
Hydrocarbon * Compounds containing ONLY the elements carbon and hydrogen.
Saturated Carbon compounds where all the C-C bonds are single
Unsaturated Carbon compounds containing one or more C=C double bonds
Burning. It means reaction with oxygen.
Combustion • Complete combustion of carbon compounds forms only CO2 + H2O
• Incomplete combustion forms CO and soot (carbon)
A process which PHYSICALLY separates out the different
Fractional components of crude oil. It works because the different components
distillation have different boiling points.
A process which CHEMICALLY breaks up larger molecules into
Cracking smaller ones.
A reaction where C=C double bonds open up to allow another
Addition reaction molecule to join across it. The product has C-C single bonds.
A very long chain molecule formed when many individual molecules
Addition polymer containing C=C double bonds (monomers) join together.

ACIDS, BASES & SALTS

A substance which has pH < 7 and produces hydrogen ions (H+) in

Acid solution in water.
The opposite of an acid. It is a substance which will neutralise an acid
Base to form a salt and water. (Bases are metal oxides, metal hydroxides,
metal carbonates and ammonia. Most are insoluble in water.)
A base which is soluble in water. (The oxides, hydroxides and
Alkali carbonates of Group I metals and ammonia gas, NH3.)
Salt The type of substance formed when an acid is neutralised by a base.
Neutralisation The process of forming water from an acid and a base.
The solid formed when solutions are mixed together. (It makes the
Precipitate solution go cloudy and opaque.)
GENERAL

Oxidation The gain of oxygen or the loss of electrons.

Reduction The loss of oxygen or the gain of electrons
Exothermic A reaction which gives out heat energy - the temperature will rise.
A reaction which takes in energy - either the temperature will drop or
Endothermic the reaction needs a constant input of energy (heat or electricity).
A measure of the energy change in a reaction. Usually given in units
Heat change, ∆ H of kJ per mole. A negative sign means an exothermic reaction. A
positive sign means an endothermic reaction.
The amount of energy needed to break 1 mole of covalent bonds in a
Bond Energy molecule. (Remember that breaking bonds requires energy input and
making bonds gives energy out.)
A substance which speeds up a chemical reaction, but is not chemically
Catalyst changed itself or used up in the reaction.
A state of dynamic equilibrium is reached for reversible reactions
Dynamic when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. Both
equilibrium reactions continue, but the concentrations of all products and reactants
in the mixture remain unchanged.
Le Chatelier’s This states that “a system at equilibrium will respond in such a way as
Principle to oppose any change made to it.”