Experiment No.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND VISCOSITY OF LIQUID FUELS

OBJECTIVES:

1) To determine the specific gravity of liquid fuels by means of

pycnometer and hydrometer method.

2) To be able to determine the viscosity of any liquid.

THEORY / HYPOTHESIS:

The specific gravity of a substance is defined as the ratio of the weight

of that substance to the weight of the water having equal volume. This is
merely a ratio or an abstract number. Actually, it is quantitatively the same
as density as in the case of metric system since the standard unit, a cubic
centimeter of water, weighs exactly one gram.

Specific gravity of a liquid is determined most accurately in most

cases where a sensitive chemist balance is available by the use of a specific
gravity bottle. The bottle is provided with a small ground-glass stopper
having a capillary tube or hole drilled through it, so that when the bottle is
filled to the top of capillary tube it will always hold the same volume of
liquid.

In the determining the specific gravity, the bottle is filled with the
liquid to be tested with care being taken to avoid the formation of air
bubbles.

In commercial practice, the specific gravity of liquids is usually

determined by an instrument called a hydrometer. The hydrometer is made
usually of glass and consists of three parts:
(1) the upper part, a graduated stem or fine tube of uniform diameter
(2) bulb, an enlargement of the tube containing air
(3) a small bulb at the bottom, containing shot of mercury which causes
the instrument to float in a vertical position.
The graduations are figures representing either specific gravities or the
numbers of arbitrary scale as Baume, API, Twadell or Beck.

Fuels are all combustible substances obtained in bulb which may be

burned in atmospheric air in such a manner that the heat evolve is capable of
being automatically applied to domestic and industrial uses for heating and
the production of power. Fuels may be primary (natural occurring) or
secondary. Both categories include solid, liquid, and gases.

The different liquid fuels used in these experiments in determining

specific gravity are gasoline, diesel, alcohol, oil for gasoline and diesel
engine, and kerosene.

Commercial Falling-Sphere Viscometers are non-available. One type

of which is shown in the sketch. The one available is not of the commercial
type. This viscometer makes use of the principles in case of flow around a
small sphere.

For Laminar Flow Vd ≤ 1 in which d is the diameter of the sphere.

2
The friction or the deformation drag Fd of the sphere moving at a constant
velocity V through a fluid of infinite extend is given by Stoke’s Law with
the following assumptions:

1. The particle must be a sphere.

2. The surface of the particle must be smooth.
3. The resistance to fall or drag force Fd is due to the viscosity of the
fluid.
4. The terminal velocity must be constant.

Fd = 3 π µ V d -----------------------------------------------------------
(1)
A free-body diagram of the sphere after it has acquired constant velocity or
terminal velocity is shown in the sketch where W is the weight of the sphere.
Fb is the buoyant force and Fd, the deformation drag.

Fd + Fb – W = 0 -------------------------------------------------(2)

or
3 π µ Vd + π d3 γ L - π d 3 γ S = 0 -----------------------(3)
6 6
solving for µ :

µ = d2 ( γ S - γ L ) -----------------------------------(4)
18VO
Equation (4) has to be corrected in actual practice because the extent of the
fluid is not infinite and the influence of boundary proximity on the sphere is
large. The correction is usually affected by multiplying the observed velocity
of fall VS by a certain constant “K” which is a function of d / Dm the
diameter of the sphere and medium ratio, such that

V = VS K --------------------------------------(5)

where K = 1 + 9d + ( 9d )2
4Dm 4Dm

The equation for viscosity then becomes

µ = d2 ( γ S - γ L )
18 VS K

for which the viscosity can be computed.

From the data obtained in the laboratory, compute for each run

1. (a) Ratio of sphere diameter to diameter of medium d / Dm

(b) Correction constant K

(c) The observed velocity of fall VS
 (d) Dynamic viscosity µ

2. Using the computed value of dynamic viscosity “µ ” compute

for the kinematic viscosity “υ ”.

υ = µ /ρ L

3. Plot VS versus d / Dm.

LIST OF APPARATUS:

1) Pycnometer
2) Hydrometer
3) Set of Weights
4) Table Balance
5) Falling Sphere Viscometer
6) Stop Watches
7) Thermometer
8) Caliper
9) Steel Balls
10) Meter Stick
SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
PROCEDURES:

A) By Hydrometer Method

1) Clean hydrometer and graduated cylinder.

2) Pour liquid to be tested inside the graduated cylinder SAE 10
and SAE 50.
3) Drop slowly the hydrometer inside the graduated cylinder.
4) Read value in hydrometer.

By Pycnometer Method

1) Clean the pycnometer bottle and weigh it with the table balance
and call the weight as WP.
2) Pour water inside the pycnometer up to the level of air outlet,
weigh it and call it WPW.
3) Clean the pycnometer bottle, pour the liquid to be tested: SAE
10 and 50 alcohol, diesel, gasoline, kerosene in the pycnometer
bottle and call it WPO.
4) Compute for the specific gravity by:

Specific Gravity = WPO - WPW

WPW - WP

C) By Falling Sphere Viscometer

1) Determine the temperature and specific gravity of the liquid whose

viscosity is desired.
2) Drop cautiously one of the spheres noting whether the sphere is
is guided correctly or is off-center.
3) Determine the time required for the sphere to travel a certain dis-
tance.
4) Repeat the procedure for each sphere.
DATA AND RESULTS:

I. Determination of Specific Gravity

PYCNOMETER HYDROMETER
Liquid METHOD METHOD %
to be Specific SPECIFIC GRAVITY Error
tested TRIAL Wp Wpw Wpo Gravity
SAE 10 1
2
SAE 50 1
2
Alcohol 1
2
Diesel 1
2
Gasoline 1
2
Kerosene 1
2

II. Determination of Viscosity By Falling Sphere Viscometer

Group No. Trial Y (m) t (sec) Vo (m/s) d (m) Dm (m) d/Dm K Vt (m/s) µ ν
SAMPLE COMPUTATION:
QUESTIONS:

1) What is a poise?

2) What is a viscosity?

3) What is a stoke?

4) Discuss Cetane Number and Cetane Index.

5) Discuss Octane Number and Octane Requirement Increase.

6) Find the gravity in degrees API for an oil having a specific gravity of

0.84.

7) Find the specific gravity of kerosene having a gravity of 45O API.

8) Determine the velocity of injection in an airless fuel nozzle with one

hole, when the oil pressure is 1700 psi and the pressure in the
combustion chamber is 440 psi; the oil is 32O API.

9) Determine the diameter for a fuel orifice for a four-stroke engine

developing 15 hp/cylinder at 1800 rpm using 0.44 lb/hp-hr of 32O API
oil; the desired duration of the injection is 32O of crank travel; the
other data as given in problem no. 8.
 10) Determine the partial pressure of octane for an air-vapor ratio 18:1
and a carburator pressure of 14.0 psia.

ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES:
 Experiment No. 2
FLASH AND FIRE POINTS OF LIQUID FUELS
AND GREASE DROP TEST

OBJECTIVES:
1. To be able to determine the flash and fire points of liquid fuels and
fire points of liquid fuels and lubricating oils by open cup method.

2. To able to determine the melting point of greases.

THEORY / HYPOTHESIS:

Flash point is defined as the lowest temperature at which an oil gives

off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable condition. Flash point can be
determined by passing a flame or a quantity of oil. It is observable due to
the ignition of the gas.

A knowledge of the flash point of lubricating oils, especially when

used in an enclosed surface is considered to be important. It is only
necessary to consider the flash point of lubricating oils when the
temperature of the surface to be lubricated is to close to the flash point of the
lubricating oils.

Fire point is the temperature at which the oil ignites and continues to
burn. The fire point is usually from 5 to 20 OF higher than the flash point.
There are two kinds of apparatus used in determining flash and fire point of
fuels, the open type and the closed type but it is the open type that is
commonly used.

Greases as defined by the American Society of Testing Materials is a

solid to semi-solid or semi-fluid product of dispersion of a thickening agent
in a fluid lubricant.

Greases are classified according to the kind of soap as the base or

lime-base greases. The lime-soap base greases are emulsion of mineral oils
and water, stabilized by the soap base. The presence of an amount of water
in a lime-base grease will cause a dull or cloudy appearance. If the water
content is not sufficient, the grease will exhibit a granular composition. A
lime base grease should be bright and water resistant and should be dense so
as to permit no oil to separate from the grease while in storage.

PROCEDURES:

1) Place the oil to be tested inside the cup.

2) Heat oil about 280 OF.

3) Pass a flame at about half an inch over the oil.

4) Upon doing so, greenish vapor are emitted. Get the temperature and
record it as the flash point.

5) Continue heating oil until it burns. Get the temperature when it burns
and this is the fire point.

Note:
 The test flame is ignited for each 2 OF. Use up to 220 OF. Record the
temperature as the flash point when a greenish thing flash. The true flash
should not be confused with the hollow flash sometimes surrounds the
test flame. When the oil reaches flash point, it will burn spontaneously.

6) Place the thermometer inside the apparatus.

7) Place the oil to be tested on sides of metallic cup.

8) Heat with 5 OF / min in an oil bath.

9) When the grease meets, get the temperature.

LIST OF APPARATUS:

1) Open Cup Tester

2) Bunsen Burner

3) Thermometer

4) Graduated Cylinder

5) Tripod

6) Test Tube

7) Grease Cup
 8) Beaker

9) Test Tube Holder

10) Wire Gauze

SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
DATA AND RESULTS:

I. For Flash and Fire Points of Liquid Fuels

SAE
30 SAE 10
TRIAL Flash Fire Flash Fire
Point Point Point Point
1

2
II. For Grease Drop Test

TYPE OF GREASE MELTING POINT

SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
QUESTIONS:
ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES:
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

CARBON RESIDUE

OBJECTIVE:

1) To be able to determine the carbon residue of a liquid fuel.

2) To be able to know the definition of a carbon residue test.

3) To be able to have knowledge about carbon residue of a liquid fuel.

THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS:

When an oil is heated to a high temperature in the absence of

sufficient air a portion of the oil will distill, thus leaving a carbon residue.
The amount of this residue is an index to the extent the oil is likely to
decompose in service. Under engine-operating conditions, the amount and
type of the carbon formed has an important effect upon the performance of
the engine. While no maximum residue specifications for lubricating oils are
commonly given, a relatively smaller amount in one oil compared with
another should be favorable.

Apparatus known as the Conradson carbon-residue tester is widely

used in this country. It consist of a porcelain crucible with a Skidmore iron
crucible resting upon a layer of sand in a second larger iron crucible, all of
which are supported upon a wire triangle on a metal stand of specified
dimensions. The assembled tester is shown in the figure. The crucibles are
surrounded by an asbestos block and covered by a sheet-iron hood and
chimney. Heat is applied by a Meker burner. An analytical balance is used to
weigh the sample of oil and the residue.

A clean porcelain crucible is weighed to the nearest 5mg, then filled

with a 10g sample of oil and weighed to the same accuracy. The crucible is
then placed in a Skidmore crucible. The sand in the large iron crucible is
leveled, and the Skidmore crucibles are covered, and the assembly of
crucibles is centered on a wire triangle with the asbestos insulation on a
suitable ring stand. The whole is covered with the sheet-iron hood, and heat
is applied with a strong flame from the Meker burner so that the preignition
period will be from 8.5 to 11.5 min. When smoke appears from the chimney,
the burner is moved or tilted so that the flame passes up one side of the
crucible and ignites the oil vapor. The burner is momentarily removed and
the gas flame adjusted so that the vapors burn uniformly with the high flame
above the chimney but not above the bridge on top of the chimney. The
burning period should be from 12 to 14 min.

When the burning and smoking have ceased, the burner is adjusted so
that the bottom of the iron crucible is heated to a cherry red for exactly 7
min. The total period of heating should be 28 to 32 min. The burner is then
removed and the apparatus is allowed to cool for about 15 min. The
porcelain crucible and contents are reweighed, and the percentage of carbon
residue is calculated on the basis of the original sample weight.

The Conradson Test for the amount of carbon in oil is accurate if test
is properly performed. Also through the experiment it was found out that
Carison residue is very small compared to the amount of other components
in oil. Carbon residue test determine the percentage of carbon that remains in
a sample after the volatile vapors had been driven off by heat.
LIST OF APPARATUS:

1) Meker Bunsen Burner

2) Hood Porcelain Crucible
3) Tripod
4) Wire Mesh
5) Chimney
SET – UP OF APPARATUS:
PROCEDURES:

1) Place the two glass bends provided which are about 1” in diameter in
the porcelain crucible and include their weight in the net weight of the
crucible. Then, add 10 grams of the oil to be tested accurately weighed
and free from impurities.

2) Place the crucible in the center of the Skidmore crucible. Level the
sand in the sheet-iron crucible and set the Skidmore crucible as it is in
the exact center of the iron crucible.

3) Apply the covers to both the Skidmore and the iron crucible, the one to
the later fitting loosely to allow exit of vapors that are formed.

4) Place the bare nichrome wire triangle on the metal tripod on the
asbestos block as hollow sheet metal box. Center the short iron
crucible into the block with its bottom resting on top of the triangle
and cover the whole with the sheet iron hood in order to distribute the
heat during the process.

5) Apply heat with a highly strong flame from a Meker type gas burner
so that the preignition period will be 10 and 1 1/2 minutes. When some
smoke appear above the chimney, immediately move or tilt the burner
so that the gas flame plays on the sides of the crucible for the purpose
of igniting the vapors. Then, remove the heat temporarily and before
replacing adjust the gas flame so that the ignited vapors burn
uniformly with the flame above the chimney, but not above the wire
bridge. Heat may be increased if necessary, when the flame does not
show above the chimney. The period of burning the vapors shall be 13
and 1 minutes.

6) When the vapors cease to burn and no further blue smoke can be seen,
readjust the burner to hold the heat as in the beginning so as to make
the bottom, and the cover part of the sheet-iron crucible, red and
maintain for exactly 7 minutes. The total period of heating should be 2
to 30 minutes, which constitute an additional limitation on the
tolerances for the preignition and burning periods.
7) There should be no difficulty in carrying out the test exactly or
directed with the gas burner provided, using city gas with the top of
the burner about 2” below the bottom of the crucible. The time periods
should be observed with whatever burner or gas used.

8) Remove the burner and allow the apparatus to cool until no smoke
appears, then remove the cover of the Skidmore crucible. Remove the
porcelain crucible with heated tongs, place in the dessicator, cool and
weigh.

9) The total weight of the crucible plus beads and 10 grams of oil at start
minus the weight of the crucible plus beads and carbon residue at
finish equals loss of oil on grams. The 10 grams of oil minus loss in
weight of oil equals carbon residue in grams, divided by 10 grams
equals % of carbon residue.

% of carbon residue = weight of carbon residue x 100%

weight of oil

wt. of residue = wt. of crucible and carbon residue – wt. of crucible

% carbon residue = (wt. of crucible & residue) – wt. of crucible x 100%

(wt. of crucible & oil) – wt. of crucible
DATA & RESULTS:

Weight of crucible = _______________________

Weight of oil = ___________________________

% of carbon residue = ______________________

Weight of carbon residue = ___________________

SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
QUESTIONS :
ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES:
 Experiment No.4

OXYGEN BOMB CALORIMETER

OBJECTIVES:

5) To know the different heats of combustion of different organic

compounds.

6) To know the different parts of a bomb calorimeter.

7) To be familiar with the standard procedure of operation of a

bomb calorimeter.

THEORY / HYPOTHESIS:

The heats evolved in the complete combustion of many organic

compounds in oxygen have been carefully determined. The method
ordinarily used is to burn the substance in a combustion bomb and to
measure the heat volume, the experimentally measured ∆ E's are converted
and corrected to ∆ H. The term heat combustion refers to the amount of
heat liberated per mole of substance burned.

Heats of combustion may be employed directly to calculate heats of

formation of organic compounds. If the organic compounds contain only
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the supplementary information required is
the heats of formation of carbon dioxide and liquid water, the usual final
oxidation products of such compounds.

A bomb calorimeter is an instrument for measuring the heat of

combustion of a substance in which the heat liberated when the sample is
ignited in an atmosphere, that is of oxygen under pressure, is measured. It is
used to obtain precise thermochemical data.

The primary equipment used in this experiment is the bomb

calorimeter which is made up of a bomb where the sample is ignited, the
bucket where definite volume of water is placed and the electronic system
which measures the heat of combustion of the substance burned.
LIST OF APPARATUS:

Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter

SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
PROCEDURE:

1) Pelletized about 0.5 to 1 g of sample using the pelletizer and place it

inside the sample holder.

2) Measure exactly 10 cm of the fuse wire. Lock it in its place in the bomb
electrode forming a loop at its center and its tip touching the sample.

3) Place the cover of the bomb. Be sure to tighten its cover.

4) Fill the bomb with oxygen by connecting the oxygen hose and push the
oxygen button.

5) Using the lifting handle, lower the bomb in the water, push the two
ignition lead wires into the terminal sockets.

6) Lower the bomb completely into water with its feet spanning the circular
boss in the bottom of the bucket. Carefully check for leak.

7) Press start. Input the sample ID, the bomb number and weight of the
sample.

8) Wait for the first beeping sound and move away from the calorimeter.

9) At the second beeping sound, record the heat of combustion and press
done.

10) Open the cover and remove the bomb and the bucket. Remove the
knob from the bucket and open the knurled valve. Knob as the bomb had
to release the residual pressure.

11) After all the pressure has been released, examine for unburned fuse
wire.

12) Straightened the wire and measure its length. Convert this length
calories and subtract this from the reading obtained.
Data and Results:
 Type / Name of Sample ID Bomb Weight of Heat of
Samples No. Sample Combustion

SAMPLE COMPUTATION:
QUESTIONS:
ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES:
 EXPERIMENT NO.5

ORSAT APPARATUS

OBJECTIVE:

1) To determine and analyze the flue gas or product of combustion.

THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS:

Purpose of Analysis:

The combustible elements of all fuels are mainly carbon and

hydrogen, although in some fuels a small amount of sulphur is found. When
fuels are burned in the presence of an amount of air greater than that
required for chemically complete combustion, the resulting products are
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen,
oxygen, and probably some hydrocarbons. The carbon monoxide and
hydrocarbons might appear because of incomplete combustion caused by
inadequate mixing of air and fuel even though the total oxygen present was
in excess of theoretical requirements. When only the amount of air
theoretically needed, or less, is present, incomplete combustion will surely
be obtained with a resulting loss in the energy liberated per unit of fuel
supplied to the combustion chamber. This would imply that considerable
excess air should always be supplied, but this is not the case. The air must be
heated from the temperature of the atmosphere to that of the exhaust:
therefore, if this were the only consideration, a minimum amount of air
should be supplied so as to reduce the loss due to sensible heat carried away
in the products of combustion.

The optimum supply of air, for a particular installation, may be

determined by test. In the case of steam generators, measurement of the air
supplied is not practical and resort is made to calculation based upon
analysis of the products of combustion. The sulphur content of most fuels is
so low that the amount of gaseous sulphur compounds may be neglected.
Water vapor in excess of that required to saturate the gas is condensed as the
hot gas is removed since the sample is collected over water. The analysis as
generally made results in values being obtained for carbon dioxide, oxygen,
carbon monoxide, and nitrogen.

Collecting the Sample:

The most difficult problem encountered in analyzing products of

combustion is that obtaining a truly average sample. The nearest approach to
a true average would be obtained by taking samples from different points in
the cross-section of the gas passage, the amount taken from each point being
proportional to the weight of gas passing that point. Obviously, such
procedure requires elaborate equipment and procedure, and some
compromise is usually made. At any particular instant there will be a point
in the cross-section from which an average sample can be drawn; finding
this point is a different problem. This would result in selection of a point
approximately in the center of the stream.

One method of providing a continuous fresh sample at a point

adjacent to the analyzer is shown in the figure.

FIGURE

The water trapped is used to permit observation of flow of gas. The

figure shows a means by which a sample may be collected over period of
time. To prepare this arrangement for use, fill up the upper bottle with water
up to the pinchcock and adjust the regulating pinchcock between the two
bottles so as to give the desired flow rate. Either the water must be saturated
with gas to prevent absorption of CO2 or a brine solution must be used.
Analyzing the Sample:

The apparatus most commonly used for analyzing flue gas is known
as the Orsat. Although a plant may be equipped with a recording CO2
instrument, the engineer usually uses the Orsat for calibration purposes.

The figure shows the front and rear views of the Hays Gas Analyzer
as it appears when prepared for transportation. The figure shows a front view
of the unit with the parts arranged preparatory to use. Corresponding parts of
both figures are similarly designated to facilitate the identification.

The essential parts of the apparatus are:

1. A measuring burette A, surrounded by a water-filled jacket to

maintain a constant temperature during analyzing operations.

2. Three absorption pipettes, B, C, and D which provide for the

absorption of CO2, O2, and CO respectively. The lower end of
each pipette extends almost to the bottom of its respective
chemical-storage jar. Each storage jar is fitted with a breathing
tube K, and each pipette is connected at its upper end to a
capillary-tube header which is also connected to the measuring
burette.

3. A leveling bottle E, connected to the lower end of the measuring

burette.

4. An expansion or breathing chamber J, to which breathing tubes K

from absorption pipettes C and D are connected during the use.
The purpose of this expansion chamber is to provide breathing
action and at the same time prevent absorption of oxygen from the
atmosphere.

Interpretation of Analysis:

The figures shows various aspects of the results of theoretical

combustion of selected fuels with various proportions of air.

The combustion of C8H18 with less than stoichiometric air was

calculated by assuming that the oxygen would first supply the requirements
of hydrogen, the remaining oxygen would unite with the carbon to form CO
and that any further oxygen available would unite with CO and CO2. The
calculations involving 80 percent stoichiometric air were made as follows:

FIGURE

C8H18 + 10O2 + 37.8N2 = 3CO2 + 9H2O + 5CO + 37.8N2

Thus giving the dry products of combustion as 3 moles of CO2, 5 moles of

CO and 37.8 moles of N2 with the respective percentages being 6.55,
10.9 and 82.55. The importance of the results presented in the figure
is that the highest percentage of CO2 is obtained with perfect
combustion, with the minimum amount of air needed to supply
exactly the oxygen required for combustion of the fuel.

The figure is useful for checking a gas analysis. For any given fuel the
plot of CO2 vs. CO2 + O2 lies on a straight line. The analysis of the fuels used
for plotting this chart other than the C8H18 are as follows:

FIGURE

Although the figure shows little information not presented in the

figure, the form of presentation emphasizes certain features not previously
shown. It is evident that regardless of the fuel burned the oxygen content of
the dry products of combustion is more reliable indicator of excess air than
is the carbon dioxide content.

Additional Types of Gas Analyzers:

It is often desirable to determine the percentage of certain gases

present in a mixture in addition to those discussed thus far. The amounts of
hydrogen and certain unburned hydrocarbons present in the exhaust gas of
internal-combustion engines are examples. Pipettes that fit into the common
Orsat are available in which the hydrogen and hydrocarbons are absorbed in
the same way that CO2, CO, and O2 are absorbed in the common Orsat.
 Commercial meters are available which, operating upon the chemical-
absorption principle of the Orsat, record the carbon dioxide content of
exhaust or flue gas at regular intervals of time. They operate upon a cycle
that consists of extracting a definite volume of gas to be analyzed and
passing it through a caustic potash solution, where the CO2 is absorbed. The
remaining gas passes into a displacement chamber, where its volume is
measured at the same temperature and pressure as the original sample. The
change in volume is recorded as the percentage of CO2 in the gas sample.

Another type of chemical-absorption analyzer is shown in the figure.

The gas sample is pumped into the analyzer by a hand-operated rubber bulb.
The rubber gas supply tube is then disconnected, which automatically locks
the sample in the calibrated measuring instrument. The analyzer is then
turned upside down and upright again, causing the absorbing liquid of the
analyzer to mix with the gas sample and absorb the CO2 present in the
sample. Absorption of the CO2 creates a partial vacuum in the measuring
chamber, and the absorbing liquid rises in the graduated tube to the
measuring chamber to balance the pressure. The height of the liquid is
directly proportional to the amount of CO2 present in the sample. After the
percentage of CO2 has been read, the rubber hose is again connected to the
analyzer, automatically breaking the vacuum and allowing the absorbing
liquid to flow back into its reservoir in the bottom of the analyzer and
readying it for a new gas sample. The same type of instrument is available
for the determination of the oxygen content of a gas mixture. An accuracy of
½ to 1 percent is claimed by the manufacturer.

A different type of analyzer, operating upon the catalytic-combustion

principle, can be used to determine the percentage of oxygen or
combustibles present in a given gas sample. This type of analyzer is used
extensively in the testing of internal-combustion engines. In the
combustibles analyzer, measured quantities of the gas sample and clean air
and oxygen are mixed and passed over a noble-metal catalyst filament. The
catalytic combustion that takes place heats the filament to a temperature
proportional to the combustibles content of the gas sample. The catalyst
filament forms one leg of a Wheatstone bridge, and the resulting unbalance
caused by the change in filament temperature can be indicated or recorded
by suitable electrical equipment. The instrument can be graduated to indicate
the percentage of combustibles in the gas sample analyzed. In the oxygen
analyzer measured quantities of gas sample and a standard fuel are mixed
and passed over the catalyst filament, causing catalytic combustion as in the
combustibles analyzer.
LIST OF APPARATUS:

1. Orsat Apparatus
PROCEDURE:

1. The absorbent CO2 may be made by preparing a solution of 1 part of

potassium hydroxide in 2 parts of distilled water. This solution will absorb
about twenty times its volume of CO2.

2. A satisfactory absorbent for O2 may be made by mixing 5g of powdered

pyrogallic acid with 100cc of the potassium hydroxide solution used for the
absorption of CO2. The solution for absorbing O2 will absorb only about
twice its own volume of O2. It will absorb CO2 and therefore one must be
very careful to be certain that all CO2 is removed from the sample before an
attempt is made to analyze for O2. Obviously the solution must, immediately
upon being made, be protected from deterioration by absorption of O2 from
the atmosphere.

3. Carbon monoxide may be absorbed by a solution made from 25g of

copper oxide in 500 cc of commercial hydrochloric acid to which is added
about 200 g of copper wire. The solution should immediately be protected
from the atmosphere since it will absorb O2. It will absorb CO only to the
extent of about its own volume.

4. Before using the Orsat to make an analysis, and after filling the storage
jars with their proper chemicals, the reagents must be brought up into the
absorption pipettes so as to fill them to the proper level. This level is usually
an etched line on the narrow neck of the pipette.

5. Prior to obtaining a gas sample for analysis, the apparatus must be purged
of gases remaining from a previous sample. This is done by setting the cock
H so that it provides communication to the atmosphere and then raising the
leveling bottle into the measuring burette displacing the gas. The water in
the leveling bottle should be thoroughly saturated with gas.

6. A gas sample may be obtained by adjusting cock H so that the measuring

burette is connected to the burette and bubbled through the water in the
leveling bottle E. A gas sample may also be obtained by merely lowering the
leveling bottle so that a vacuum is formed to draw in the sample.

7.The measured quantity of gas for analysis is next obtained by adjusting

cock H to connect the measuring burette to the atmosphere and then raising
the leveling bottle until the water level in bottle E and that in the measuring
bottle are on a horizontal plane through the zero mark on the burette. The
cock H should then be turned so as to connect the measuring burette to the
capacity header. Great care must be taken to avoid contaminating the gas
sample by drawing in the air. Thus in attempting to obtain the desired
sample, if the water level in the burette should rise above the zero mark, the
cock H must be adjusted so as to prevent air being drawn in when the level
is lowered.

8. Following the procedure outlined above will provide a gas sample of 100
units as measured at atmospheric pressure and at a temperature controlled by
the water jacket on the burette. The analysis is made by first passing the
sample into pipette B where the CO2 will be absorbed. To do this open valve
B and raise the leveling bottle while watching the water level rising in the
burette A. Do not let the water enter the neck of the burette. The sample,
now in pipette B will have its CO2 absorbed by the reagent film on the
surface of the pipette and the shavings. The sample should be withdrawn and
returned to the pipette several times before a reading is taken. Great care
must be taken to avoid drawing the reagent up into the header. When a
reading is to be made, the reagent level must be returned to the proper level
at the top of the pipette and valve B closed. Atmospheric pressure is then
applied to the sample by the same procedure used to obtain the sample
initially. The change in level will have been caused by the absorption of the
CO2 in the sample. In order to insure that all the CO2 has been absorbed, it is
necessary to return the sample to the absorption pipette until subsequent
measurement shows no change from the previous reading in the amount of
CO2 absorbed.

9. The above procedures should be repeated next with the O2 absorption

pipette C and then with the CO absorption pipette D. The change in the
measured quantity represents the amount of the respective gas absorbed. It is
extremely important that the analysis be made in the proper order (CO2, then
O2, and then CO) and that all of any one gas be absorbed before analysis for
the next one is started.

10. Since the gas sample is usually collected and contained above water, it is
saturated. However, the water in the original products of combustion which
came from the air supplied for combustion, from moisture in the fuel, or
from the combustion of hydrogen is condensed in the process of collecting
the sample. The analysis as thus obtained is known as volumetric dry
analysis and is assumed to consist of CO2, O2, CO, and by difference N2.
Other gases such as SO2 or hydrocarbons in the products of combustion are
usually not present in any significant quantity. If their presence must be
known, other analyzing procedures must be used.
SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
DATA AND RESULTS:
SAMPLE COMPUTATION:
QUESTIONS:

1. What principal constituents are usually found in flue or exhaust gas?

2. Why is the analysis made with an Orsat called “dry” analysis?

3. Why is the measuring burette of an Orsat water-jacketed?

4. When preparing to obtain a reading of the quantity of gas in the measuring

burette, the water level in the leveling bottle is placed on a horizontal line
with the water level in the burette. Why?

5. Why must the analysis be carried out in a prescribed order?

6. What difficulty will result if the CO absorbent is permitted to rise into the
header, where it can come in contact with a fresh sample of gas?

7. How may the gas sample be forced into or drawn out of the absorbent
pipettes?

8. After having passed the gas sample into an absorption pipette, the
absorbent is raised exactly to the zero mark before the needle valve is
closed. Why is it essential that the level be at the exact point?
ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES:
 Experiment No. 6

Calibration and Use of Pressure and Temperature Measuring

Instruments

OBJECTIVES

1) To calibrate and adjust and to know the internal mechanism of a

Bourdon Dead Weight Gage Tester.

2) To familiarize oneself with the different types of pressure and

temperature measuring devices. ( Optical and Radiation
Pyrometers)

3) To calibrate thermometers with the known melting and boiling

points.

THEORY / HYPOTHESIS

Many of the instruments used to monitor systems or processes in a

plant measure pressure. In order to understand how these instruments
operate, instrument technicians must undertsand:

1) the concept of pressure

2) the ways in which solids, liquids, and gases exert pressure

3) the standards established for measurement.

Pressure is the force applied per unit of area. Gravity is a force applied to
everything on earth. The force of gravity exerts a downward pull on all
forms of matter, causing them to have weight. It is possible to determine the
pressure exerted by solid, liquids, and gases by determining the force they
exert over a given area. In this unit, force is applied by weight due to the
effect of gravity.

The definition for pressure, that is, the force applied per unit of area,
can be expressed in terms of a mathematical formula:

P=F/A where : P = pressure

F = force A = area
 In metric system, the common unit of pressure is the PASCAL.
However, the PASCALS represent such a small quantity that pressure is
generally expressed in kilo-Pascals. The metric unit for force is Newton, and
the metric unit for area is the square meter.

Matter is considered a solid if it retains a definite shape and volume.

Liquids unlike solids, do not have a definite shape. However, liquids

do have a definite measurable weight and volume. The pressure exerted by
liquids can be divided into two groups: hydraulic pressures and static
pressures. Hydraulic pressures are the pressures exerted by liquids in
motion, such as the pressures created by a mechanical pump. Hydrostatic
pressures are pressure exerted by liquids at rest, that is, liquids that are not in
motion. Hydrostatic pressure is determined by the height of a fluid, not by
its volume. Hydrostatic pressures increase with depth, due to the weight of
the liquid pushing down from above.

Gases differ from solids and liquids in that they have neither a definite
shape nor a definite volume. Gases do have weight, however due to the force
of gravity, so gases do exert pressure.

Atmospheric pressure is factor that must be considered whenever

pressure measurements are taken, because the earth is always subjected to
some atmospheric pressure, with the amount being dependent on altitude
and weather conditions. Consequently, the scales that have been established
as a basis for pressure measurement reference atmospheric pressure,
although in different ways.

The two scales most commonly used in pressure measurements both

reference atmospheric pressure: the absolute scale references the absence of
atmospheric pressure, which the gage scale reference the presence of
atmospheric pressure.

It is possible to convert pressure measurements back and forth from

the absolute scale to the gauge scale because the basic unit of measurement
for both scales is pounds per square inch (psi). Absolute pressure equals
gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. Conversely, gauge pressure
equals absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure can be expressed in the
following equation
 Pabs = Pgauge + Patm

Pgauge = Pabs - Patm

wherein :

Pabs = absolute pressure

Pgauge = gauge pressure

Patm = atmospheric pressure

Vacuum pressure is any pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

Bourdon tube pressure elements are commonly used to measure a

wide range of pressures. They are made of many materials, including
bronze, brass, and stainless steel. The type of material used to make a
particular Bourdon tube is generally determined by:

1) the type of process it is designed to measure.

2) The range of pressures it measures.

For most part, Bourdon tubes are made of strong, rugged materials, that is
designed to handle pressure ranging from 5 psi to thousand of psi. However,
Bourdon tubes are sometimes designed and constructed to measure very
small pressure and vacuum.

The tube is made of oval thin-walled metal. One end of the tube is
open; the other end, called the tip is closed. The open end of the tube is
attached to a socket, or base, which contains an inlet passage way to the
inside of the tube. The pressure source is connected to the socket, so
pressure goes from the source through the inlet into the tube. When pressure
is applied to a Bourdon tube, the tube moves. Depending on the design of
the element and the type of pressure applied, Bourdon tube is either try to
straighten out or to coil. However, the distance that the tip travels when
pressure is applied is relatively small. In most cases, it is around 1/4 to 3/8 of
an inch. The amount of tip travel is proportional to the amount of applied
pressure. A pointer mechanism, connected to the tip by a mechanical
linkage, converts the small amount of tip travel to a larger amount of the
pointer travel that is easier to read. All thermometers are designed so that
temperature are indicated on one or more four scale: Fahrenheit, Celsius,
Rankine, and Kelvin.
 In order to compare temperature readings from different scales, it is
necessary to convert temperature readings from one scale to another. The
formula for converting from degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit is as
follows:
O
F = (1.8 x OC) + 32

This formula was derived by using the freezing and boiling points of water
as reference points. Since there are 180 degrees between the freezing and
boiling points of water on the Fahrenheit scale and 100 degrees between two
points on the Celsius scale, the ratio of degrees Fahrenheit to degrees
Celsius is 180:100. In other words, there are 1.8 times as many degrees
between freezing and boiling on the Fahrenheit scale as there are on the
Celsius scale (180/100 = 1.8). Furthermore, because the freezing
temperature of water is 32 degrees higher for Fahrenheit than for Celsius, 32
must be added to (1.8 x OC) to make both sides accurate and reliable
temperature measuring instruments help industrial facilities operate with
maximum safety and efficiency. In industry, thermometers are used to
monitor and in some cases control the temperature of process system.

An understanding of how temperature measuring devices operate

depends on understanding the concept of temperature and the ways in which
solids, liquids, and gases respond to temperature changes.

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance, as

measured on a definite scale. The relative hotness or coldness of a substance
is often determined by the sense of touch. Things feel hot if their
temperature is higher than skin temperature, or cold if their temperature is
lower than skin temperature. However, the sense of touch is not enough to
be an effective and reliable method of temperature measurement;
instruments marked with definite scales are needed. A thermometer is a
commonly used instrument that measures and indicates temperature. But
temperatures of very hot surface body like the blast furnace, bed of coal, fire
tube type boilers and the like, optical and radiation pyrometers are used.

To understand temperature completely, it is necessary to distinguish

between temperature and heat. The terms heat and temperature are often
used interchangeably, but their meanings are not the same. Heat is the
thermal energy of a substance. The addition or removal of heat is what
causes temperature to increase or decrease. Because heat is not the same as
temperature, heat is measured in units rather than degrees. Two units often
used to measure heat are the British Thermal Unit (BTU) and the calorie. A
BTU is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of
water one degree Fahrenheit. A calorie is the quantity of heat required to
raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius.
LIST OF APPARATUS

1) Bourdon Gage Tester

2) Set of Standard Weights

3) Thermometer

4) Optical Pyrometer

5) Radiation Pyrometer

6) Beakers

7) Bunsen Burner

8) Steam Bath
SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
PROCEDURE

A) Calibration of Bourdon Gage By Dead Weight Gage Tester

1) Open the handwheel fully and the valve of the oil reservoir.

2) Fill up the oil reservoir up to its desired level and open the drain valve.

3) To eliminate or remove the air trapped inside the oil cylinder, tightened
the handwheel slowly so that the oil will spill out through the drain cock.

4) Close the drain valve.

5) Twist the rotating plunger to minimize friction.

6) Close the handwheel slowly until the platform rises to approximately one
cm. Record the pressure reading.

7) Add weights one after the other with an increment stated on the data
sheet and make 12 trials repeating procedure no.6.

8) After all weights have been placed, get the difference between the
standard equivalent pressure and the gage pressure readings.

9) Compute for the percentage of error.

B) Calibration by Reference the Known Melting and Boiling Points

(a) For Melting Point

1) Place the ice into the graduated cylinder.

2) Place the mercury thermometer into the cylinder and lower the
thermometer until the bulb is near the bottom.

3) Leaving the ice to melt, read the temperature on the thermometer.

There will come a point when the temperature is stable. Record this
temperature as the melting point of the ice.
(b) For Boiling Point

1) Place a fair amount of water on the steam bath.

2) Place the thermometer in the steam bath through the desired location.

3) Make a flame with the Bunsen burner place at the bottom of the
apparatus.

4) There will come a point when the water will begin to boil. Read the
thermometer and record the result as the boiling point reading of the
thermometer.
DATA AND RESULTS:

A) 1. Increasing Weight

Trials Standard Standard Gage Difference Percent

Pressure Equivalent Pressure (psi)
(kg/cm2) Pressure (psi) Error

10

11

12
2. Decreasing Weights

Trials Standard Standard Gage Difference Percent

Pressure Equivalent Pressure (psi) Error
(kg/cm2) Pressure
(psi)

10

11

12

B) Calibration By Reference The Known Melting and Boiling Points

Melting Point = ______________OC

Boiling Point = _______________OC

SAMPLE COMPUTATION:
QUESTIONS:

1) Convert 60F to degrees Celsius, to the nearest tenth of a degree.

2) Encircle the correct answer. Mercury is commonly used in fluid

thermometers because

a) It is expensive.

b) It expands and contracts at a consistent rate.

c) It forms a convex meniscus.

d) It forms a concave meniscus.

3) If the temperature indicated on two thermometers measuring the same

process read differently, then it is likely that
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
____.

4) True or False

Ambient temperature changes have a little effect on partial immersion

thermometers.

5) True or False

Mercury freezes at a lower temperature than a mercury-thallium alloy.

6) An inclined tube manometer has an angle of 30 degrees and is calibrated

to read directly in head of water when a gauge liquid with a specific
gravity of 0.832 is used. The cross sectional area of the tank is 6 times
that of the tube and tube is 64.52 mm2. Determine the vertical rise of
liquid in the tank in terms of rise of liquid along the inclined manometer.

7) A mercury manometer is used to determine the pressure of oil with a

specific gravity of .91 in a cast iron pipe. The interface level is 500 mm
below the center line of the cast iron pipe and the level in the open leg of
the manometer is 175 mm above the interface level. Determine the oil
pressure in the pipe in kg/cm2.
8) An incline manometer has a sensitivity 10 times as great as a vertical
pipe. What must its angle be to provide this sensitivity?

9) In manometer readings, one often encounter vacuum and gauge pressure

readings. Why?

10) An incline water manometer is used to measure the pressure of gas in

a main. The open leg is included at angle of 30 degrees from the
horizontal and the reading on the inclined leg is 150 mm using the
vertical leg as datum. What is the gas pressure in kpa, psi and bar?
ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH, AREA, DIAMETER

AND SPEED

OBJECTIVES:

1. To acquaint ourselves with the use, operation and application of

different types of measuring devices.

2. To determine the area of a given figure using planimeter and compare

with the ordinate method.

3. To determine the inside and outside diameters of a given specimen

using a caliper.

4. To be able to deter mine the top speed of the motor shaft using a speed
counter and tachometer.

THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS:

In general two methods are used to obtain the cross-sectional are of

irregular figures ( example: indicator diagrams) :

a) by measuring ordinates
b) by the use of polar planimeter

The most accurate and generally approved method of obtaining the cross-
sectional area of irregular figures is by means of integrating instruments
called planimeters. Figure 10.1 is a simple polar planimeter.

FIGURE

It consists essentially of two arms pivot arm “OP” and tracing arm
“TP”, pivoted together at Point “O”. When in use, the point “P” is not to be
moved and is held in place by means of a pin point which a small weight
rests. There is a tracing point at “T” intended to be moved around the border
of the cross-sectional are to be measured. Attached to the tracing arm is a
small graduated wheel carried on a short axis which must be placed
accurately parallel to “TP”> Any movement of the arm “TP” except in the
direction of its axis will, of course, move the graduated wheel on the paper
or other surface on which it is placed in such a way that the amount of its
movement gives a record indicating the area measured. A vernier placed
opposite the graduations on the wheel assists in reading the instrument
accurately.

The path described by the tracing point “T” when the arms are clamped
is called the zero circle of the planimeter. If the tracing point is moved in
any path outside the zero circle in a clockwise direction, a positive record
will be indicated at the graduated wheel; while if it is moved in the path in
the same direction as before, but inside the zero circle, there will be a
negative record.

According to the theory of polar planimeters, these instruments are

designed so that the rolling of the wheel for a given circumferential motion
of the tracing point “T”, and the arc of the zero circle included between these
radial lines.

Cross-sectional areas obtained from the polar planimeter are taken

from the equation

A= LR

Where: A = cross-sectional area traced by the tracing point

L = length of tracing arm
R = reading on vernier wheel

In actual use of polar planimeters the instruments are adjusted in such a

way that a fixed value of L shall give an R reading which when interpreted
will yield an exact value of A.

It shall be noteworthy to include the determination of the zero circle

because readings on the vernier wheel are only areas outside the zero circle.
This can be accomplished in two ways.
 1. Pass the tracing point through circumference of two circles each larger
than the zero circle and having the fixed point of the instrument
placed in the center of the circles. Record the cross-sectional area and
apply the following formulas:

A1 = π r2 + R 1

A2 = π r2 + R 2

2 π r2 = A1 + A2 - (R1 + R2)

2. Trace two circles with the polar planimeter, one of which larger than
the zero circle. Record the readings and apply the following formulas:

A1 = π r2 + R 1

A2 = π r2 - R2

2 π r2 = A1 + A2 - (R1 - R2)

where: R1 is the vernier wheel reading of the larger circle

R2 is the vernier reading of the smaller circle

A1 is the calculated cross-sectional area of the larger circle

A2 is the calculated cross-sectional area of the smaller circle

r is the radius of the zero circle

Although both can be used effectively, the latter is recommended by

many because it gives accurate results.
 Time measurement is an important factor in the determination of
velocity, rotative speed and frequency. It should be kept adjusted and
calibrated to the standard to minimize and eliminate its error. Temperature,
position and isochronism are the factors that affect accuracy of a time
keeper. To determine this, place the time keeper in a box, vary its
temperature and note the change; second, move the timekeeper on different
positions, and lastly, note the uniformity or rate as the time keeper runs
down.

There are various types of timekeeper such as battery operated clocks,

electrically driven and spring clocks. In most cases, the errors come from the
inaccuracy of timing an interval.

The concept of time is determined by measurement of speed, whether

linear or angular. Speed is the amount of displacement covered in a unit of
time which can be a second, a minute, or an hour. Time is already
standardized and with the use of timers, watches, etc., the amount of time
elapsed is easily determined. Yet, knowledge of the speed and displacement
provides another means of determining the time elapsed during the operation
of the machinery.

For rotating mechanisms, the common method of measuring speed is

to count the revolutions made in a definite amount of time. Some of the most
common types are:

1. Revolution counter and timer. A revolution counter and timer is a

device that counts the number of revolutions made by a rotating
body for a certain period of time. Both revolution counter and
timer are involved and interact with each other to give the required
measurement.
2. Centrifugal Tachometer. The centrifugal tachometer requires an
accessible shaft for application and measurement because it
operates in centrifugal action. This type is recommended for
speeds that vary most of the time because they are very sensitive
and respond readily.
3. Tachoscope. A tachoscope is considered by many to be one of the
more precise revolution-indicating devices. It has a built-in stop
watch and motion is integrated, thus eliminating human error.
4. Resonant Reed. Problems may arise if the speed of a rotating
mechanism cannot be obtained due to inaccessibility. The
 resonant- reed type of instrument serves as the solution to the
problem because no contact with the rotating element is necessary.
It operates on resonance that quality of a body which causes it to
vibrate when subjected to rhythmic pulses at a rate equal to or
nearly equal to its natural frequency. The vibrating-reed instrument
is advantageous due to its free-of-wearing parts. It retains its
tuning accuracy for longer periods. Temperature effect vibrates
when there is a reduced frequency with a reduced temperature.
This instrument is fundamentally accurate, but the difficulty lies in
the exact interpretation by the reader of what he sees in the
vibration pattern.
5. Electric Tachometers. Electric tachometers are classified according
to electromagnetic and frequency type. They are placed some
distance from the generator. The speed will be read directly from
it. Errors may arise because of temperature changes, presence of
any direct current field around the instrument, weakening of
magnets, and changes in lead-wire resistance.
6. Strobotac. The strobotac is a stroboscopic tachometer that uses the
principle of persistence of vision when an object is viewed
intermittently. It measures speeds between 600 and 40,000 rpm
rapidly. It is useful when the rotating mechanisms are not
accessible, or when the power to drive other timing devices are
limited. It is essentially a light that can be turned on and off to its
maximum with a controlled-speed in order to produce the optical
effect to stopping motion. By adjusting the strobotac dial, the lamp
flashing rate will be equal to the shaft rotation rate, thus the shaft
rpm can be read directly from the dial.
7. Chronotachometer. Ina chronotachometer, an indicating
tachometer is present to set the machine to the speed desired. The
revolution counter and an electric timer determine the precision
speed by the use of integration method. To accomplish this, use an
electrically controlled friction clutch causes a gripping action to
actualize the counter by an electric circuit. The manufacturer
claims that it will register accurately to a one-half shaft revolution
error. Both the indicating tachometer and revolution counter are
driven by a prime mover
8.Photoelectric tachometer. Designed for use with the electronic
counter for precise measurement of shaft rotating speeds. Reading are
displayed on the counter by amplification of photosensitive signals
coming from the photo transistor picked-up through the projection of
an incandescent lamp to the input signal.
LIST OF APPARATUS:

1. Steel rule / Steel tape

2. Planimeter

3. Caliper

4. Tachometer

5. Speed Counter

6. Stop Watch

7. Specimen
PROCEDURE:

A. By Planimeter Method

1. Calibrate the planimeter by making a one inch sq. area then measure it
by using a planimeter and get the reading ( R ). Solve for the reading
factor (f) using F = A / R.

2. Measure the area of the given figure and get the reading ( R ). To
calculate the actual area, multiply the area by the reading ( R ) by the
factor (f).

B. By Ordinate Method

1. Divide the given figure using equal strips of parallel lines.

2. Measure the area by using the format:

A = W ( 0.5 Y0 + Y1 + Y2 + …….. Y n-1 + 0.5Yn )

Where:

Y = the length of each parallel line contained within the curve region.
W = is the distance between equal strips of parallel lines.
N = is the number of divisions.
SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
DATA AND RESULTS:

A.

Trial PLANIMETER

IR FR R f A

B.

Trial ORDINATE METHOD

W n Yo Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Yn YA

C.

IRM Trial Tachometer Speed Counter Difference

Motor
1

Motor
2

Motor
3
SAMPLE COMPUTATION:
QUESTIONS:
ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES:
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8

CALIBRATION OF PLATFORM BALANCE

OBJECTIVES

1. To be able to know the principle behind the principle the operation

of weighing scale.

2. To learn how to calibrate the platform scale.

3. To determine the accuracy and sensitivity of the platform scale.

4. To determine the leverage ratio.

5. To be familiar with the commercial types of weighing scale.

THEORY / HYPOTHESIS

Weight and forces are measured by comparison with know weights

with the aid of a system levers such as in a beam balance, or by reference to
the amount they deform some elastic object such as a spring, which has been
previously calibrated against standard weights.

Platform scales have been constructed to weigh a million pounds or

more, as in industrial and power plants, while the chemical balance, at the
opposite extreme, will easily weigh a millionth of a pound.

The sensitiveness of a platform scale is determined by placing a large

weight on the platform, weighing it, and then finding the smallest additional
weight that will cause a deflection of the beam which can be solely balanced
by the rider.

Platform scales are probably used more in engineering work about a

power plant than any other measuring device, and usually young engineers
do not very well understand their operation. They are consists essentially by
a device by which a load applied to a systems o levers of long and short
arms, arranged so that a load on the platform can be balanced by weights
applied at the end of a final lever called the beam and by shifting a poise
along the length of the lever. This weighing beam is usually place on an
upright post at one end of the platform.

Leverage ratio L.R.

L.R. = gb + (g+f)

Cd

Effect on Position

Value ave. = S1 + S2 + S3 + S4 + S5
5

Sensitiveness = initial reading. – final reading.

In order to obtain the leverage ratio by direct measurement, the

platform must be removed then measure carefully the distance between the
knife edges of the various levers and also the length occupied by the 45 and
75 divisions on the graduated beam. One will save considerable time if
these measurements are made with decimal scale. From these data and the
equation given above, the leverage ratio can be obtained.

A better method of obtaining the leverage ratio consists of balancing a

standard weight on the poise with a standard weight on the platform. Then
from these data, calculate the leverage gb/cd. An examination of the
weights are supposed to be balanced on the platform. In case the scale do
not balance in making these test, a little shot can be added to the poise or
weight until a balance is obtained.

In calibrating platform scales against known weights, the scales

should be first be thrown out adjustments, that is the “adjusting”
counterpoise should be moved from its present setting. To adjust the
platform scale, the adjusting counterpoise is moved until a balance is
obtained. This should be done without any weight on the scale. Standard
weights now should be placed on the scale in 5 lb. Increments and the scale
Is calibrated. The weight shall be removed in a similar manner and the scale
Calibrated as the weights are removed. It is also well to calibrate the scales
with weights is placed on the four corners and compare these values with
those obtained with weights at the corner or center. The sensitiveness of the
scale is determined by finding the smallest added weight that will affect the
balanced position of the beam.

Weights and forces are measured by comparison with known weights

with the aid of a system of levers such as in a beam balance, or by reference
to the amount they deform some elastic object such as spring, which has
been previously calibrated against standard weighs.

Platform scales have been constructed to weigh a million pounds, as

in industrial and power plants, while the chemical balance, at the opposite
extreme, will easily weigh a millionth of a pound.

The sensitiveness of a platform scale is determined by placing a large

weight on the platform, weighing it, and then finding the smallest additional
weight that will cause a deflection of the beam which can be solely balanced
by the rider.
LIST OF APPARATUS:

1. Platform Balance

2. Set of Counter Weights

3. Set of Standard Weights

4. Screw Driver
SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
PROCEDURE:

A. Test for Accuracy

1. Start by setting the scale to zero reading and set the center beam
between the upper and lower stops by making screw adjustments.

2. With an initial weight of 15kg place on one of the corners of the

platform.

3. Then, transfer it into the second corner to the third, fourth corner and
through the center each time getting the reading.

4. Next, add 15kg and repeat procedure no. 2.

5. Make a total of 6 trials each time increasing load by 15 kgs.

B. Test for Accuracy

1. Take 9kg as the load.

2. Adjust the movable poise such that the center beam is midway the
two stops.

3. Move the poise little by little to the left until the center beam just
touches the upper stops and get the reading.

4. Then repeat procedure no. 2.

5. Move poise to the right until the center beam just touches the lower
stops and get the reading.

6. Reduce the load by 15kg increment and repeat the procedure for the
rest of the trials.
C. Leverage Ratio

1. Set the scale to zero reading.

2. Load 90 kg on the platform balance.

3. Add counter weights and adjust the movable poise until the beam is
midway the two stops and get the reading.

4. Remove the 90 kg load on the platform and measure the

counterweights used in step no. 3.

5. Divide the measured weights by the load to obtain the leverage ratio.
DATA AND RESULTS:

A. Accuracy

Trail Std. W. 1 2 3 4 5 Ave. Rdg. % Diff.

1
2
3
4
5
B. Sensitivity

Trial Std. W. Upper Stops Lower Stops

IR FR Diff. IR FR Diff.

5
C. Leverage Ratio

L.R. = Counter weights / load

L. R. = ________________________

SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
QUESTIONS:
 1. A 1500 kg mass is accelerated to 10 m/sec2, calculate the force
required to perform this acceleration horizontally and vertically where
acceleration due to gravity is 9.7 m/sec2.

2. A body weighs 2000lb force when exposed to the earth’s standard

gravitational acceleration. What is its mass in kg?

3. What will be the weight of the body in Problem no. 2 if it is exposed

to the moon’s standard acceleration of 1.62 m/s2? Express your
answer in Newton.

4. How fast is the body accelerating in problem no. 2 if a net force of

1000 lb is applied to it on the moon or earth? Express your answer in
ft/s2.

5. How would the sensitiveness of a platform scale be determined?

6. With the aid of a diagram, define the leverage ratio of the platform
scale used in the experiment?

7. If there are 454 grams in a lb mass, what will this mass weigh in
grams, at an altitude where g = 20.6 ft/sec2? What is the mass in
grams at the point?

8. If the platform balance is raised to an elevation of 5000 meters, will

there be any change in the scale reading? Explain.

9. Differentiate a platform scale from a spring balance.

10.What is a torsion balance?

ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES:
EXPERIMENT NO. 9
 CALIBRATION OF WATER TANK, WATER METER
AND ORIFICE

OBJECTIVES:

1. To calibrate the volume tank in reference to theoretical procedures.

2. To determine the weight of water in tank based on its temperature.

THEORY AND ANALYSIS:

Volume tanks range in size from those holding several thousand

gallons down to the chemists burettes and graduated cylinders. Many types
of gages and devices are used to indicate the liquid level, such as floats,
gage-glass scales and hook gages.

The volume tank that holds relatively large volumes generally consists
of the tank itself, a side gage glass scale, a weight scale and an outflow pipe.
It also has an inflow pipe of the liquid located at the mouth of the tank.

Liquids under low pressure and even up to several atmospheres are

incompressible and posses a fixed density as long as the temperature does
not vary considerably. For general purposes of calibration, liquid water is
employed because of its accessibility and known properties.

The weight of the water placed in the tank can be measured theoretically by
determining the volume and then multiplying by the density of water at
room temperature. The volume may be obtained by measuring the inner
dimensions of the tank, the longitudinal and latitudinal widths, and the
proposed height of the water. This weight is then compared to the weight of
the water in the tank that is obtained through actual weight measurements.

The reverse procedures may also be performed that is, determining the
weight of the water to be placed in the tank by actual weighing and then
comparing it with the theoretical weight that its volume will occupy in the
tank.
 The following equations will be used in this experiment:

1. Density of water Pw = Mw / Vw

where: Mw = mass of liquid in the tank

Vw = volume of liquid in the tank

2. Specific weight of water = Ww / Vw

where: Ww = weight of liquid in tank

3. Also, Pw = 1 / Uw

where: Uw = specific volume of water

tw = water temperature

Note:

A) For English and Metric Units

Mass “Mw” = weight “Ww”

lb mass = lb force lb

kg mass = kg force = kg

Therefore,
Density = Specific Weight

lb mass = lb force = lb
ft3 ft3 ft3

kg mass = kg force = kg
m3 m3 m3
For water: Density = 62.4 lb / ft3 = 1000 kg / m3
 b) For SI Units

Mass “Mw” = kg; weight “Ww” = N

Density = kg / m3

For water: Density = 1000 kg / m3 = 9.81 KN / M3

LIST OF APPARATUS:
 1. Water tank

2. Platform Balance

3. Set of Counter Weights

4. Water Meter

5. Steel tape / Meter Stick

6. Water Pump

7. Two Stop Watch

8. Inside Caliper

9. Orifice

SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
PROCEDURE:
A.

1. Measure the tare weight of the steel drum as well as its diameter and
height.

2. Get the initial reading of the water meter connected from the water
supply line.

3. For trail 1, fill up the drum up to a certain level and get the final
reading of the water meter.

4. Then, measure the height of water inside the drum and get the weight
using the platform balance.

5. Calculate the volume by measurement and volume by weight and

compare them with that of the water meter reading.

6. For trial 2, repeat the procedure no. 2 and water to the drum up to
desired second level.

7. Obtain the final reading of the water meter.

B.

1. Fill the water reservoir tank from the water supply line.

1. Fill up the elevated water tank with water from the reservoir using the
water pump.

2. Mark 5 points on the elevated tank and measure the interval from each
of the points.

3. To start the trial remove the orifice cover and simultaneously start the
timer no. 1.

4. When the water level reaches the second mark stop timer no. 1 and
record the time in seconds.
5. As the level of water reaches the third mark stop timer no. 2 and
simultaneously start timer no. 1. Record the time in seconds of stop
watch no. 2 until the set lock to zero.

6. Continue and record the data needed to complete the requirement of

the data sheet such as time, water elevation, coefficient of discharge
and the flow of discharge.
DATA AND RESULTS:

A.

By Measurement

Trial Initial final actual height volume

10
 By Water Meter

Trial Initial final reading

10
 By Weight

Trial Initial final actual height volume

10
SAMPLE COMPUTATION:
QUESTIONS:

1. Glycerin has a density of 1258 kg/m3. What are the values of its
specific weight, specific volume and specific gravity both in SI and
English units?

2. A certain gasoline has a specific weight of 52 lb/ft3. What are the

values of its density and specific volume?

3. Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume?

4. Differentiate a volume tank from a water meter.

5. A cylinder container has a diameter of 600 mm and height of 1500

mm. Determine the density of the liquid of the container weighs
600kg.

6. Calculate the relative density of liquid in Problem no. 5.

7. Given 250 liters of water: What is this amount in gallons, cubic

meters, cubic inches and cubic feet?

8. If the proposed height of the water in the tank is 3.5 meters, the
longitudinal width is 2.5 meters, and the latitudinal width is 4 meters,
what is the weight of water in the tank?

9. What are the types of gages and devices used to indicate liquid level?

10. How can temperature be measured by determining the change in

volume?
ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES:
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY

OBJECTIVES:

1) To familiarize with the use of psychrometric chart.

2) To be able to determine the wet and dry bulb temp. of a certain place
using a sling psychrometer and hydrometer.

2) To be able to determine the properties of air and water vapor mixture

such as absolute and relative humidity, enthalpy and specific volume.

THEORY AND HYPOTHESIS :

Hygrometry

Hygrometry is that branch of physics which deals with the

measurement of moisture content, especially the moisture in the atmosphere.
In engineering, atmospheric air is used for so many purposes that a
knowledge of the moisture content is essential to the solution of a great
number of problems. Combustion, air conditioning, and drying, as well as
many manufacturing processes, are just a few of the situations in which the
moisture content of the air is an important factor.

This section deals with the measurement of the moisture content of

the air, which is actually a mechanical mixture of dry air and superheated
water substance. A number of terms have been developed to describe the
condition of these air-vapor mixtures.

Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of the

water vapor in the air-vapor mixture to the saturation pressure of the water
vapor at the temperature of the mixture. Therefore, it may be written

Relative humidity = Ps / Psat

 Where: Ps = the partial pressure of the water vapor in the mixture
Psat = the saturation pressure at the mixture temperature

Referring to the temperature-entropy diagram for water shown in the

figure, point A represents the condition of the water substance (only) in an
air-vapor mixture. The water vapor in the mixture exists at a pressure Ps.
The saturation pressure at the same mixture (and vapor) temperature is
represented by point B. The ratio of the two foregoing pressures is the
relative humidity. If at the same temperature of the mixture, the vapor
pressure were less than at point A, the condition of existence would be to the
right of this point, such as at point C. This means that the relative humidity
at point C is less than at point B. Higher relative humidities than that
represented by point A (at the same mixture temperature) would be located
to the left of point A. The end point in this direction would be reached when
the partial pressure of the water vapor equals the saturation pressure (point
B). For this condition the relative humidity is 1.0: or as it is commonly
expressed, 100 per cent. The point of this discussion is to bring out the idea
that relative humidity is a term which describes the degree to which the
water vapor in the air is superheated. In this sense the term relative humidity
is not unlike the term quality which is used to establish the degree to which
a mixture called wet steam is made up of dry vapor and liquid water.

Specific (or absolute) humidity is defined as the mass water vapor per
unit mass of dry air for the mixture of the two. Since the mass of water
vapor is usually quite small even in one pound of dry air, the pound unit
when used for the water results in a very small number. Often the unit grain
(7,000 grains equals 1 lb) is used for the mass of water vapor in the air:
therefore, the units of specific humidity would be grains per pound of dry
air. The relation between relative and specific humidity is derived in most
thermodynamics texts and is as follows:

Specific Humidity = 0 Ua / Ug
Where:
Ua = the specific volume of the air at the mixture temperature
and the partial pressure of the air.
Ug = the specific volume of dry saturated water vapor at the
mixture temperature
 From the above it can be seen that if the relative humidity and the
proper temperatures and pressures are known, the specific humidity can be
calculated.

FIGURE

Referring again to figure, point D on the saturated vapor line is

labeled dew point. This point represents the condition resulting from the
constant-pressure cooling of an air-vapor mixture from the condition at A to
the point when condensation of the water vapor would begin. The dew-point
temperature is the temperature at which condensation begins when the
mixture is cooled at constant pressure. Until this condensation begins,
cooling at constant total pressure is the same as cooling at constant partial
pressure since the partial pressure of water vapor does not change in a
mixture until some of the vapor is removed. At the dew point the relative
humidity is 100 per cent. The dew point temperature can be observed
experimentally when one adds ice to a shiny metal beaker of water; when the
surface of the beaker starts to cloud with the condensing vapor, the
temperature of the beaker starts is at the dew-point temperature. One might
think at first that this is a crude method; however if the experiment is
performed carefully and the contents of the beaker are stirred continually, a
reliable dew-point temperature reading can be obtained. More elaborate
devices are available commercially which permit the observer to have more
control of the temperature range involved, as well as photoelectric devices to
indicate the point at which condensation (dew point) begins. The dew-point
temperature can be used in evaluating relative humidity. Using the dew-
point temperature to determine the partial pressure of water vapor in the
mixture is a valid technique from which the relative humidity may be
calculated.

A thermometer which is exposed to an air-vapor mixture will indicate

a temperature which is called the dry-bulb temperature. This is, of course,
the mixture temperature, and presupposes that proper temperature-measuring
techniques, are used (considering radiation effects to or from the
surroundings, etc.). However, when the bulb of a similar thermometer is
covered with a wick material so that the bulb can be kept wet, a moving
stream of air over the wick will cause the thermometer to indicate a
temperature less than that shown by the dry-bulb thermometer. The value of
the wet-bulb temperature is its close relationship to the adiabatic saturation
temperature or, as it is sometimes called, the thermodynamic wet bulb
temperature. The adiabatic saturation temperature is that temperature
attained by adding saturated liquid water to the air stream at the adiabatic
saturation temperature in sufficient quantity to saturate the air with water
vapor. The ambiguity of the above definition is an indication of the difficulty
of ever accomplishing adiabatic saturation temperature in practice. However,
for many purposes a wet-bulb temperature approaches the adiabatic
saturation temperature to a sufficient degree that the wet-bulb temperature
can be used for humidity determinations. In practice it is important that the
wicking on the wet bulb is clean and grease free; also clean water should be
used because the presence of mineral salts remaining after evaporation of
some of the liquid can cause erroneous readings. The wet-bulb temperature
is used to calculate the partial pressure of the water-vapor. The more
common way to effect this calculation is to use the semi-empirical equation
developed by Mr. W. H. Carrier. The equation is as follows:

Ps = Psat-wb - ( Pm - Psat-wb ) ( tdb – twb )

2755 - 1.28 twb
where:
Ps = the partial pressure of the water vapor, in psia
P sat-wb = the saturation pressure corresponding to the wet bulb
temperature, in psia
Pm = the total pressure of the mixture, psia

Instruments for measuring wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures are not

very complicated. The sling psychrometer is a device with two thermometers
mounted side by side as shown in the figure. The sock on the wet-bulb
thermometer must be kept wet. The instruments is made so that by twirling
the device a moving current of air passes the thermometers, and a condition
is reached so that the temperatures after repeated observations indicate no
further change. Another device is made so that instead of twirling the
thermometers a fan draws a stream of air over them.

In practice, for most engineering work a psychrometric chart is used

in conjunction with the wet and dry-bulb temperatures for evaluating the
properties of air-vapor mixtures. It is well known that temperature
differences of a fraction of a degree are increasingly more difficult to
measure as the fraction decreases. Therefore, it should be obvious that as the
relative humidity approaches 100 percent, the humidity becomes more
difficult to determine.

Human and animal hair is sensitive to changes in relative humidity

and is the actuating element of many of the popular as well as automatic
instruments. These devices require frequent calibration. Changes in relative
humidity cause a change in length of the hair.
LIST OF APPARATUS:

1.Sling psychrometer

2. Hygrometer

3. Psychrometric chart

4. Stop watch
PROCEDURE:

A.

1. Fill the glass tube of hygrometer with water.

2. Wrap a wet gauge around the bottom part of the psychrometric rather
thermometer and submerged it into the glass tube of water.

3. Place the hygrometer into a chosen place for about 5 minutes before
obtaining the wet and dry bulb temperature reading.

B.

1. Using a sling psychrometer obtain the wet and dry bulb temperature
reading for at least 2 minutes duration.

2. Repeat the step 4 in procedure A.

SET-UP OF APPARATUS:
DATA AND RESULTS:

Place Hygrometer Sling Psychrometer

DB WB Sp. Hu. DP H DB WB RH U Diff.

SAMPLE COMPUTATION:
QUESTIONS:
ANSWERS:
DISCUSSION:
CONCLUSION / RECOMMENDATION:
REFERENCES: