JUDGMENT

A. MEANING

Although we have learned that ideas or concepts are the basic elements of knowledge, we should remember that
ideas by themselves are neither true or false. There can be truthfulness or falsity in a statement only if we take 2 or more
terms, compare them and eventually state an agreement or disagreement between them. Only then can we validate their
truth or falsity.

In our previous discussions, we have tackled that concepts signified by terms is achieved through a process called
simple apprehension. However, concepts alone is not sufficient for us to claim that we have knowledge. Knowledge is
attained only when we validly affirm or deny something about a thing through the enunciation of complete sentences.
Only when we identify and recognize the truth in a statement could we say that we have knowledge of a thing. This act of
recognizing the truth in statements fall within the mental act that we call JUDGEMENT.

JUDGMENT is defined as “THE SECOND ACT OF THE INTELLECT BY WHICH IT PRONOUNCES THE
AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT BETWEEN TERMS OR IDEAS.” It is the act by which the intellect compares
and expresses the objective identity or non-identity between ideas.

For example: when we say that “the apple is red”, the intellect either affirms or denies the truth claim of the statement
about the individual object “apple” that is “red”.

B. NATURE OF JUDGMENT

Before judgment can be performed, certain acts should be observed:

1. Apprehension of the two concepts ( one must at least explicitly show a conceptual feature not present to the
other)

2. Mental comparison of the two concepts by which the mind comprehends them together

3. Perception of the objective identity or non-identity of the two concepts.

4. Pronouncements of the identity or non identity of one concept with another.

When the pronouncement is in agreement with reality, it is called formal truth. When the pronouncement
disagrees with reality, it is called formal falsehood. Either way, the end product of judgment is called ENUNCIATION.

NOTE: Logic primarily deals with the validity of an argument and not really on the truth of an argument. Strictly
speaking, the truthfulness and falsity of judgment falls within the realm of Epistemology and not logic.

PROPOSITION

A. MEANING

A Proposition is defined as “judgment expressed in a sentence.” It is the sign or representation of a mental

pronouncement (enunciation). As a representation of judgment, every proposition must enunciate either a truth or falsity.
A proposition becomes categorical when it directly declares a characteristic of a thing unconditionally.

B. NATURE OF A PROPOSITION

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 Ideas are mental concepts expressed in words which we call terms

Judgments are mental comparison expressed in sentences which we call propositions

All propositions are sentences

1. A sentence is a proposition when it is in the indicative mood but not all sentences are propositions
(declarative) and must always be express in the present tense according to the real order.

A sentence is not a proposition when it is expressed in interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences.

C. PARTS OF A PROPOSITION

A proposition is always comprised of three elements: the subject, the predicate, and the copula.

1. The Subject term is a term designating the idea about which the pronouncement is made. It is the object to which
something is affirmed or denied. It refers to the WHO and the WHAT of the statement.

NOTE: 1.) caution should be practice in cases of inversion of subject and predicate.

2.) Impersonal subjects should be re-arranged to show the real subject.

3.) In a proposition, the presence of subject and predicate must always be observed despite their arrangement.

2. The Predicate term is the term designating the idea that is affirmed or denied about subject.

3. NOTE: when it happens that the grammatical predicate conceals the logical predicate, the grammatical predicate
must be analyze to reveal the logical predicate. If however, the verb use as predicate in pronounced in the
negative then the quality of the resulting logical proposition could either be positive or negative.

3. The Copula is the term expressing the mental act, which pronounces the agreement or disagreement between the subject
and predicate. The copula is usually expressed as a linking verb i.e. is, are, am, is not, are not, am not. The copula is
considered as the soul of the proposition because it is responsible in expressing the affirmation of negation contained in
the proposition.

NOTE: 1.) The copula should always be used in the present indicative mood of the verb “to be”. If propositions are stated
in a manner referring to past or future event, the proposition should be reduced to its present tense. Like in hidden
predicates, copulas when hidden in a proposition should be re-stated to reveal them nut caution should be maintained not
change the meaning of the proposition.

2.) Sometimes a single proposition could have two copulas, one in the main proposition and another in a
qualifying clause. E.g. A man [who is strong] is healthy.

4. QUANTIFIERS – are not considered as a part of a proposition but are important because they determine the
quantity of the subject class. Unlike in grammar whereas the subject would include the quantifier, the subject-
term in logic is considered as distinct from the quantifier.

To illustrate:

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 All men are rational.

Quantifier subject term Copula predicate term

D. KINDS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

1.) QUALITY OF A PROPOSITION

a.) it is an affirmative proposition if the class designated by its subject term is included, either as a whole or only
in part, within the class designated by its predicate term.

Rules to observe:

i. The predicate is always affirmed of the subject according to the whole of its comprehension and according to a part of
its extension.

ii. The predicate should not be disturbed and use as particular, never as a universal.

b.) it is a negative proposition if it wholly or partially excludes members of the subject class from the predicate
class

Rules to observe:

i. The predicate is always denied of its subject according to only a part of its extension.

ii. The whole of the comprehension of the predicate never applies to the subject, but a part of the comprehension does.

iii. The predicate is always taken according to its whole extension as a universal and then denied of the subject. Both
subject and predicate belong to totally different classes and neither one belongs to the class of the other

NOTE: The quality of a proposition affects the copula, making the proposition either affirmative or negative. If a
proposition has a positive copula, then the proposition is affirmative. If a proposition has a negative copula, then it is
negative.

2.) QUANTITY OF A PROPOSITION

a.) Singular proposition – when the subject applies to a single individual only.

b.) Particular proposition – when the subject is a universal term used partly and indeterminately. The subject is
quantified by indefinite modifiers and articles.

c.) Universal proposition – when the subject is a universal term applied distributively to each and all of the class.

d.) Collective proposition – when the subject is a collective term, applying to all taken together as a class, but not
to the individuals composing the class.

e.) indefinite proposition – when the proposition has no definite quantifier assigned to the subject. The quantity of
the proposition falls on the general sense of the statement and the manner to which it was used.

NOTE:

i.) Singular and collective propositions are treated as universal propositions.

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ii.) The quantity of the proposition should not be confused with the quantity of the predicate term unless the predicate
term is singular, then, regardless of the quality of the proposition, its quantity becomes singular.

iii.) if the predicate term is not singular and the proposition is affirmative, then the predicate term must be particular.

iv.)if the predicate term is not singular and the proposition is negative, then the predicate term must be universal.

E. FOUR STANDARD FORMS OF CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS

The letters A, E, I, and O are the traditional symbols for the four standard forms of categorical propositions. To
illustrate:

Quantity Quality

A All S Are P Universal Affirmative

E No S Are P Universal Negative

I Some S Are P Particular Affirmative

O Some S Are not P Particular Negative

A propositions – it is a universal affirmative proposition, which asserts that every member of a class designated by the
subject term is also included in the class designated by the predicate term.

Its standard form is : All S are P.

E propositions – it is a universal negative proposition, which asserts that nothing is a member both of the class designated
by the subject term and of the class designated by the predicate term.

Its standard form is: No S are P.

I propositions – it is a proposition, which asserts that there is at least one thing, which is a member of the class,
designated by the subject term but not a member of the class designated by the predicate term. Its standard form is:
Some S are P.

O propositions – it is a proposition, which asserts that there is at least one thing, which is a member of the class,
designated by the subject term but not a member of the class designated by the predicate term. Its standard form is:
Some S are not P.

F. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMRS IN A CATEGORICAL PROPOSITION

The technical term “distribution” is used to characterize the ways in which terms can occur in categorical
propositions. A distributed term is a term of the categorical proposition that is used with reference to every member of a
class. If the term is not being use to refer to each and every member of the class, then the term is considered as
undistributed.

Letter Form Proposition Distribution

Subject Predicate

A All S are P Distributed Undistributed

E No S are P Distributed Distributed

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I Some S are P Undistributed Undistributed

O Some S are not P Undistributed Distributed

NOTE: The quantity of a standard form categorical proposition determined the distribution of the subject (such that if the
quantity is universal), the subject is distributed and if the quantity is particular, the subject is undistributed. To help y
memorize the rule of distribution:

“Universal distributes Subjects”

“Negatives distributes Predicates”

EQUIVALENT PROPOSITIONS

-It means saying the same thing in 2 or more different ways; it is also known as EDUCTION

TWO TYPES OF EDUCTION

1. FORMAL - validity of the statement is based on the quality of the proposition

2. MATERIAL – validity of the statement is base on the meaning of terms or the thought-content of the sentence.

PURPOSE OF EDUCTION: Is to transform sentences used in an argument that is not in a strict syllogistic form into a
valid syllogism.

FORMS OF EDUCTION:

CONVERSION

1. SIMPLE CONVERSION – proceeds by simply interchanging the subject term and predicate term while
retaining the quality and quantity of the proposition.

Note: only E and I are subject to simple conversion (E is converted to E; I is converted to I) except in singular
propositions whose predicates are singular.

Ex. E – men are not angels I – some students are leaders

E – angels are not men I – some leaders are students

Exception ex. My Brother is my only friend ----to----- My only friend is my brother.

2. CONVERSION BY LIMITATION – proceeds by interchanging the subject and predicate terms and changing
the quantity of the proposition from universal to particular.

Note: only A and E can be partially converted (A is converted to I; E is converted to O)

Ex. A – Every dog is a mammal E –Filipinos are not stupid

I – some mammals are dogs O – Some stupid people are not Filipinos

OBVERSION – the subject term and the quantity of the original proposition is retained. ONLY THE QUALITY IS
CHANGED.

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Note: 1. Only (A and E ) ; (I and O) can be interchanged

2. Requires an understanding of the class complement of terms

Such as:

CONTRADICTORY CONTRARY

1. Good and bad 1. Coward and hero

2. Black and White 2. winner and loser

3. Introvert and extrovert 3. high and low

4. Human and non-human 4. hot and cold

Illustration of obversion:

OBVERTEND OBVERSE

A All A are B to A No A are non-B

E No A are B to E All A are non-B

I Some A are B to I Some A are not non B

O Some A are notB to O Some A are non B

CONTRAPOSITION – proceeds by replacing the subject term by the compliment of the predicate term and replacing the
predicate term by the compliment of its subject term.

STEPS:

STEP 1. OBVERT - All men are rational beings

STEP 2. CONVERT - No non-rational beings are men

STEP 3. OBVERT - All non-rational beings are non-men

Note: Contraposition is valid on A and O only, otherwise its educted form would be committing the fallacy of illicit
contraposition.

INVERSION – formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the contradictory of the original subject.

TYPES:

PARTIAL –quality is changed, but the predicate is the same as in the original proposition.

Note: only A and E are subject to partial inversion (A to O; E to I)

COMPLETE – quality is unchanged but the predicate is the contradictory of the original predicate.

Note: only A and E are subject to complete inversion (A to I; E to O)

PROCEDURE TO FOLLOW: Complete (OCOC); partial (OCOCO)

O 1. E No S is non P

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 C 2. E No non P is S

O 3. A All non P is non S

C 4. I Some non S is non P

O 5. O Some non S is not P

Important note: there is no official rule as to when a particular eduction should be used but as a help to students, the
following tips could be observe.

A. If there are 2 complementary class diff, use contraposition

B. If there is only 1 complementary class difference, use obversion

C. If classes are simply reverse, use conversion

D. If classes matched, use table of opposition

Evaluating Arguments

In evaluating arguments, 2 aspects are considered:

5. Truth of the Premises (Content)

6. Validity of Reasoning (Form)

The actual content of the premises (whether the content is factually true or not is not the concern of logic but of
epistemology)

Thus, when we claim a syllogism to be TRUE, we are not questioning whether the premises are in fact true but if the
premises were true.

In order to properly evaluate an argument we need to ask ourselves 2 questions.

1) Are the premises true?

2) Does the conclusion follow from the premise?

- If the premises are true; factually correct

- If the conclusion follows from the premises valid

- If the syllogism is factually correct and valid sound

Note: the argument subjected to logical evaluation is called CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM.

Elements:

1) Standard Form: Major Premise

Minor Premise Ideal Form

Conclusion

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 *Other Possible Forms

1) m M C

2) C M m

3) M C m

2) Parts – basic unit is called a TERM

In a standard form syllogism, there can only be a maximum of 6 terms; 2 for each propositions.

1) The subject term of the conclusions is the minor term (S). The predicate of the conclusion is the
major term (P), the term that appears in both premises but not in the conclusion is the middle term
(M).

2) The premise that contains the major term is the major premise (usually a general fact); the premise
containing the minor term is the minor premise (usually a particular fact)

Hints:

3. Neither the quantifier and copula is considered in the conclusion, rather, it is only used to determine the type of
statement.

4. Determine the subject term and predicate term of the conclusion, then determine the major and minor premise.

Rules on validating categorical syllogisms

It can be divided into 2 parts; rules on terms and rules on propositions.

A) Rule on Terms

Rule 1: A categorical syllogism must contain only 3 terms. Each must appear twice but

not on the same proposition and must have the same sense throughout the

argument.

Fallacies:

1) Fallacy of 4 terms

2) Fallacy of Equivocation

3) Fallacy of Amphiboly

All candies are sweet

Some girls are sweet

Some girls are candies

Rule 2: The middle term must be distributed in at least 1 premise.

All pigs are mammals

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 All men are mammals

All men are pigs

E. Fallacy of undistributed middle term

Rule 3: The middle term must not be found in the conclusion.

All the students are thomasians

Pete is a student

Pete is a thomasian student

1. Fallacy of misplaced middle term

Rule 4: Any term distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the premises.

Fallacy:

1. Fallacy of illicit major term – this occurs when the major term is undistributed in the premise but is distributed in
the conclusion. (But not vice versa)

2. Fallacy of illicit minor term – this occurs when the minor term is undistributed in the premise but is distributed in
the conclusion. (But not vice versa)

Illustration 1 Illustration 2

All animals are organisms Actors are models

No insect is an animal Actors are men

Insects are not organisms Men are models

M (D) A P (U) M (D) A P (U)

S (D) E M (D) M (D) A S (U)

S (D) E P (D) S (D) A P (U)

B) Rules on Propositions

Rule 5: No standard form syllogism with 2 negative premises (E, O) is valid.

No plants are humans

No Filipinos are animals

No Filipinos are humans

Note: There can be no conclusion

Rule 6: If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion must also be affirmative.

*Fallacy of affirmative conclusion (Rule 5)

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 *Fallacy of negative conclusion (Rule 6)

All apples are sweet

Some fruits are apples

Some fruits are not sweet

Note: violation of Rule 6 also commits the fallacy of illicit major.

Rule 7: If one of the premises is negative, the conclusion must be negative.

*Fallacy of affirmative conclusion (Rule 5&7)

Some lawmakers are not lawyers

All lawmakers are professionals

Some professionals are lawyers

Rule 8: If one of the premises is particular, the conclusion must be particular.

Results in either the fallacies of undistributed middle, illicit major and illicit minor.

Earth is a planet All Buddhists are followers of Buddha Some heroes are patriots

Saturn is a planet Some Chinese are Buddhist No soldier is a patriot

Saturn is Earth Chinese are followers of Buddha No soldier is a hero

Rule 9: No conclusion can be drawn from two particular premises; at least 1 must be universal.

Some men are lawyers Some nurses are OFWs Some televisions are digital

Some filipinos are men Some filipinas are nurses Some gadgets are not televisions

Some filipinos are lawyers All filipinas are OFWs Some gadgets are not digital

Venn Diagram

Proponent: John Venn

Purpose: Determines whether a given categorical syllogism is a valid or invalid.

Components:

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Note: Universals (A, E) are shaded

Particulars (I, O) are x

Method

1) Diagram the premises

2) Check whether diagrams contains the content of the conclusion

3) Determine its validity

Figures and Moods

A categorical syllogism has a variety of logical forms on the basis of the arrangement of terms, and the quantity/
quality of the proposition.

Figures of the categorical syllogism

The figure of the syllogism is defined by the position of the middle term (M) with respect to the major term
(P) and the minor term (S) in the premises.

There are four possible figures of a categorical syllogism

First figure

M P All men are rational

S M Filipinos are men

S P Filipinos are rational

Second Figure

P M No dogs are reptiles

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 S M Some animals are reptiles

S P Some animals are not dogs

Third figure

M P All angels are spirits

M S Some angels are servants of god

S P Some servants of god are spirits

Fourth figure

P M All teachers are wise people

M S All wise people are kind persons

S P Some kind persons are teachers

Note: First figure is considered as the perfect syllogism but the other 3 are also acceptable although

their form may be unnatural.

1 2 3 4

M P P M M P P M

S M S M M S M S

Moods of the categorical syllogism

The moods of the syllogism refer to the arrangement of the premises according to the quantity of the
propositions.

A A A A E E E E

A E I O A E I O

I I I I O O O O

A E I O A E I O

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Note: If we consider the 9 general rules of a syllogism, then combine the 8 valid moods with the 4

figures, we would arrive at 19 different ways to formulate a valid argument. These are:

Prioris: bArbArA, cElArEnt, dArII, fErIO

Secundae: cEsArE, cAmEstrEs, fEstInO, bArOcO

Tertia: dArAptI, dIsAmIs, dAtIsI, fElAptOn, bOcArdO, fErIsOn

Quarta: brAmAntIp, cAmEnEs, dImArIs, fEsApO, frEsIsOn

Rules and valid moods for each figure

First figure Rules:

M P 1) Minor premise must be affirmative

S M if the minor premise is negative then the conclusion must be

S P negative, since we cannot have 2 negative premises, the

major premise must be affirmative but we would be

committing with the fallacy of illicit major.

M a P(u) M a P(u)

S o M S e M

S o P(d) S e P(d)

2) Major premise must be universal

otherwise, we commit the fallacy of undistributed middle.

thus, the valid moods are AAA, EAE, AII, EIO

Second Figure Rules:

P M 1) One premise must be negative

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S M regarless wether it is the major or minor premise that is

S P negative, it follows that the conclusion must be negative. If

both premises are affirmative, then, we commit the fallacy

of undistributed middle

2) Major premise must be universal

thus, valid moods are AOO, AEE, EAE, EIO

Third figure Rules:

M P 1) Minor premise must be affirmative

M S if the minor premise is negative, the major premise should

S P be affirmative. Following the general rule, we cannot have

two negative premises. If the major premise is affirmative,

then the minor would have to be negative, thus, the

conclusion becomes negative. It follows then, that the

major term would be undistributed and the predicate of the

conclusion distributed, thereby committing the fallacy of

illicit major.

2) Conclusion must be particular

if we have a particular premise then the conclusion must

have a particular subject term otherwise we commit the

fallacy of illicit minor.

thus, the valid moods are OAO, AII, IAI, EAO, AII, EIO

Fourth figure Rules:

1) If the major premise is affirmative, the minor premise must be

universal

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 if A, I P M(u)

must be A, E M(u) S Otherwise, we commit the fallacy of undistributed middle term

S P

2) If the minor premise is affirmative, the conclusion must be

particular

if A, I P M

must be I, O M S(u) Otherwise, we commit the fallacy of illicit minor

S(u) P

3) If the minor premise is negative , the major premise must be

universal

if A P(d) M(u)

if E/O M(d) S(d) Otherwise, we commit the fallacy of illicit major

must be E/O S(d) P(d)

thus, the valid moods are AAI, AEE, IAI, EAO, EIO

Variations of a Syllogism

C) Enthymeme (Gk. en=in ; thumos=mind) = in mind

Defined as an argument in which one of the premises or the conclusion is not stated but is

understood to be complete in the mind.

CI. Testing the validity of the enthymeme

is best done by expressing the omitted member then subjecting it to the rules of logic

CII. Orders of the enthymeme

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 identify the conclusion first, then classify the premise as either the major or minor

1. First order (major premise is omitted)

2. Second order (minor premise is omitted)

3. Third order (the conclusion is omitted)

D) Epichereme ( Gk. epi cheir = on hand)

is an argument in which one or both of the premises are supported by a reason or proof

the proof is often expressed by a clause (for, because, since, etc.) and the premise that is

annexed to this clause is an epichereme

1. Kinds of epichereme

2. Simple

Takes place when there is one premise added to the reason

Steps:

2. Resolved the enthymeme of the epichereme

3. Combine the major premise with the conclusion of the resolved syllogism as the
minor premise and carry the original conclusion then test for validity

3. Compound

Compound Syllogisms

Hypothetical Propositions

is when the predicate is not absolutely asserted of the subject

Hypothetical Syllogisms

when hypothetical propositions is combined with a categorical syllogism, the result is a

hypothetical/ categorical syllogism

when reasoning is base on conditions/alternatives

most often, it is described as a syllogism that holds a hypothetical proposition as its major premise

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Characteristics of a hypothetical syllogism

1. Consists of 3 elements (Ex: M, m, C)

2. The major premise is the hypothetical proposition, while the minor premise is a straight forward
factual statement

3. The minor premise defines the situation

4. The basis of validity is the major/minor premise

5. If the major premise affirms the antecedent of the major premise, then the argument is valid

6. If the minor premise denies the antecedent of the major premise, then the minor premise is stating the
negation of the antecedent

Types of Hypothetical Syllogism

- Conditional Syllogism

is a syllogism that contains a conditional proposition as the major premise and a minor

premise that is categorical, affirming/denying one of the parts of the major premise

Note: 2 parts: Antecedent (1st); Consequent (2nd)

Illus 1: (First Conditional)

Antecedent : If signal #3 is raised in Manila,
Consequent : Classes will be suspended

Illus 2: (Second Conditional)

Antecedent : If I am going to pass Logic,
Consequent : I will have to study harder

*Truth of the consequent is dependent on the fulfillment of the condition stated in the
antecedent; thus, when the antecedent is true, the consequent is also true

Thus:
3) If signal #3 is raised in Manila then classes will be suspended
But signal #3 is raised in Manila
Classes were suspended.
4) If I am going to pass Logic, I will have to study harder
But I passed Logic
I have studied harder.

2 Types of Conditional Syllogism

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 3. Pure Conditional
composed entirely of conditional propositions

Illus. If the UST tigers are the champions, then they topped the UAAP.
If they topped the UAAP, then they’re a great team
If the UST Tigers are champions, then they’re a great

Its form is: If P→Q

If Q→R
P→R

RULES:
1. The antecedent of the conclusion is the antecedent in the premise
2. The consequent of the conclusion is the consequent in the premise
3. The conclusion is also a conditional proposition

4. Mixed Hypothetical
consists of a hypothetical proposition as the major premise and a premise
(categorical) that affirms or denies either the antecedent or the consequent the
conclusion affirms/denies whichever is not used in the minor premise

Illus. If you will study, then you will pass Logic.

You studied well.
Therefore, you passed Logic.

Its Form is: If P→Q

P
Q

Rules in Validating a Mixed Conditional Syllogism

F. To accept the antecedent is to accept the consequent.

G. To reject the consequent is to reject the antecedent.

Two Valid Forms:

7. Affirming the Antecedent (MODUS PONENS)

If P→Q If P→- Q If - P→Q

P P -P
Q -Q Q

8. Denying the Consequent (MODUS TOLLENS)

If P→Q If P→- Q If - P→Q

-Q -[-Q] -Q
-P -P -[-P]

Note:
1. From the truth of the antecedent, truth of the consequent follows.
2. From the falsity of the consequent, falsity of the antecedent follows.

Two Invalid Forms:

1. Denying the Antecedent 2. Affirming the Consequent

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 If P→Q If P→Q

-P Q

-Q P

- Disjunctive Syllogism

a syllogism that contains a disjunction (or an “either-or” statement) as the major premise

and a premise which either affirms or denies a disjunct

Note: the parts are called disjuncts; it could have any order

Illus. It is either you pass or fail.

But you did not fail.

Therefore, you passed.

Its Form is: If P or Q

Not Q

Rules: (Disjuncts cannot be both true or false)

4) If one part is true, the other part must be false.

If one is accepted in the minor premise, the other part must be rejected in the

conclusion.

5) If one part is false, the other part must be true

If one part is rejected in the minor premise, the other part must be accepted in the

conclusion.

Valid Forms:

Affirming a Disjunct Rejecting a Disjunct

5. It is neither P nor not Q It is either P or Q

It is P It is not P

It is not “not” Q It is Q

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 2. It is neither not P or Q It is either not P or not Q

It is not P It is “not” not P

It is not Q It is not Q

It is neither not P or not Q

It is not P

It is “not” not Q

- Conjunctive Syllogism

is a syllogism that expresses a judgment that the two alternative assumptions cannot be

true simultaneously. The parts are joined by the word “and”. It consists of a denial of a

conjunction in the first premise and a premise which either affirms/denies a conjunction.

Rules:

3) From the truth of one part, follows the falsity of the others;

4) From the falsity of one part, the truth of the other does not follow.

Valid Forms:

3) It is not both 4) Not both P and Q

P and Q But P
But Q Not Q
Not P
Illus 1:
The longest mountain range in the Philippines cannot be Cordillera and Tagaytay at the same time
It is the Cordillera
Therefore, It is not Tagaytay

Illus 2:
The thing cannot be an amphibian and a reptile at the same time
The thing is not an amphibian
Therefore, it is a reptile

Not both P and Q

Not P INVALID
Q

Or Not both P and Q

Not Q INVALID
P

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 Summary of the Types of Hypotheticals

Conditional Conjunctive Disjunctive

1. Antecedent- T 1.1 Conjunct- T 1.1 Disjunct- T

Consequent- T Other Conjunct- F Other Disjunct- F
Not vice-versa

2. Consequent- F 2.1 Conjunct- F 2.1 Disjunct- F

Antecedent- F Other Conjunct- T/F Other Disjunct- T
Not vice-versa

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