GYPSUM PRODUCTS AND

INVESTMENT MATERIAL
1
 Introduction
2

Gypsum - (Greek) - Gypsos - Chalk

Plaster - (French) - Plastre - to mould
Chemically, the gypsum used for dental materials is
pure calcium sulfate hemihydrate, which is achieved
by boiling calcium sulfate dihydrate under various
temperatures.
This procedure is called calcining
Gypsum CaSO4. 2H2O usually white to yellowish
white, found as compact mass.
 History
3

Different forms of gypsum has been used for

centuries for construction of various artifacts.
Believed alabaster used in King Solomon’s Temple of
biblical fame is a form of gypsum.
Dental plaster & Dental Stone
Production
4
 CALCINING
5

110o-130oC 130 o-200oC 200o-1000oC

CaSO4.2H2O CaSO4.1/2H2O CaSO4 CaSO4
Gypsum (calcium Plaster or Stone Hexagonal Orthorhombic
sulfate dihydrate) (calcium sulphate anhydrite anhydrite
hemihydrates)

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

 6

The various forms are alpha – hemihydrate and

beta-hemihydrate.
Gum arabic plus calcium carbonate added to reduce
the water requirements
Grinding of hemihydrate after preparation can
eliminate needle like crystals which decreases water
requirement during mixing.
 Desirable Properties
7

These include:
I. Accuracy
II. Dimensional stability
III. Strength and resistance to abrasion
IV. Compatibility with the impression material
V. Color
VI. Biocompatibility
VII. Easy to use
VIII.Economical

Clinical Aspects of Dental Materials - Marcia Gladwin,Michael Bagby

 Difference
8

Dental Plaster Dental Stone

Beta – Hemihydrate Alpha – Hemihydrate
Obtained by heating Also called hydrocal
gypsum in Open kettle Obtained by heating
at 110 to 120 degrees C. gypsum under pressure
Small irregularly in the presence of water
shaped, and loosely vapor at 125 degree C
packed crystals. Larger ,denser, more
regularly shaped crystals

Dental materials properties &manipulation 7thedi ,Craig,Powers,Wataha-

 Difference
9
Dental plaster
Porous in nature
W/P ratio: 0.45 to 0.5
Compressive strength-
12MPa
Tensile strength- 2MPa
Setting expansion –
0.20 to 0.30%
Dental stone
Relatively non-porous.
W/P ratio: 0.28 to 0.30
Compressive strength-
30MPa
Tensile strength- 4MPa
Setting expansion –
0.08 to 0.10%
 Differences
10

Dental plaster Dental stone

Dental materials properties &manipulation 7thedi ,Craig,Powers,Wataha

 Densite
11

Also called improved stone

Types 4 and 5 high-strength dental stones are manufactured
with a high-density raw material called densite. This variety
is made by boiling gypsum rock in a 30% calcium chloride
and magnesium chloride solution,after which the chloride is
washed away with hot water (100" C) and the material is
ground to the desired fineness
These act as deflocculants seperating the particles thereby
smoother than stone.
Craig+ Introduction To Dental Materials 3rd Edition Richard
Van Noort
 Setting Reaction
12

Exothermic reaction, magnitude of temperature can

be upto 30° C at the center of the set mass
Calcium sulfate hemihydrate is mixed with water to
produce calcium sulfate dihydrate.

(CaSO4)2.H2O + 3H2O 2CaSO4.2H2O+

unreacted(CaSO4)2.1/2H2O+ Heat

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

 Setting Reaction
13

NUCLEI FORMATION

SPHERULITE
FORMATION

Apllied dental materials 8th edition John F.McCabe & Angus W.G.Walls
 Setting Reaction
14

Hemihydrate is mixed with water and suspension is formed

Saturation of hemihydrate

Conversion of hemihydrate (solubility rate 0.8%) to form dihydrate

Solubility limit(0.2%) of dihydrate is exceeded

Crystallization of dihydrate

Apllied dental materials 8th edition John F.McCabe & Angus W.G.Walls
 THEORIES OF SETTING REACTION
15

COLLOIDAL THEORY:

Also called GEL theory. It states that when mixed with

water, plaster enters a colloidal state through Sol-Gel
Mechanism. In sol state hemihydrates particles are
hydrated to form dihydrate, thereby entering into an
active state. As measured amount of water is consumed,
the mass converts into Solid Gel.
HYDRATION THEORY:
This theory suggests that rehydrated plaster
particles join together through hydrogen bonding to the
sulfate groups to form the set material.

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

 16

DISSOLUTION-PRECIPITATION THEORY:

Proposed in 1887 by Henry Louis Le Chatelier. In

1907, it received the full support of Jacobus Hendricus
vant’s Hoff.This is the most widely accepted
mechanism. The theory is based on dissolution of
plaster and instant recrystallization of gypsum,
followed by interlocking of the crystals to form the
set solid.

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

 17

TESTS FOR
WORKING, SETTING, AND
FINAL SETTING TIMES
 Mixing Time (MT)
18

Mixing time is defined as the time from the addition

of the powder to the water until the mixing is
completed.
Mixing time for the below are as follows:
 Mechanical mixing – 20 to 30 sec
 Hand spatulation – 1 minute

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

 Working Time (WT)
19

It is the time available to use a workable mix, one

that maintains a uniform consistency to perform one
or more tasks.
In case of gypsum it is time that might be needed to
pour an impression.
 3 minutes is adequate.

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

 Setting Time (ST)
20

The powder is mixed with water, and the time that

elapses from the beginning of the mixing until the
material hardens is known as the setting time.
This is measured by PENETRATION TEST.
The initial setting time is defined as the time taken
for the material to develop sufficient strength such
that it will be able to support the lighter needles.
This is around 8 to 16 min (ANSI/ADA Sp.No:25)
The time at which the setting reaction is
completed.
Phillips, Science of dental materials 11 th edi ,Anusavice; & John.F.McCabe et al : Applied Dental Materials
 Loss Of Gloss For Initial Set
21

As the reaction proceeds, excess water is taken up in

forming the dihydrate so that the mix loses its gloss.
Occurs at approximately 9 minutes.
Material has no measurable compressive strength,
therefore the needle could be safely removed.

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

 Initial Gillmore Test For Initial Set
22

 Smaller needle is used.

 The mixture is spread out.
 Needle is lowered onto the
surface.
 The time at which it no
longer leaves an
impression is called the
initial set, noted as “Initial
Gillmore”.
 Event is marked by
definite increase in
strength.
 Gillmore Test for Final Setting Time
23
It is done with an heavier
½ lb Needle 1 lb Needle
needle.
½ lb needle and 1lb
needle are used to check
the initial and final setting
time respectively.
The Elapsed time at
which this needle leaves
only a barely perceptible
mark on the surface is
called the final setting
time.

Clinical aspects of dental materials – Marcia Gladwin,Michael Bagby

 Vicat test for setting time
24

The next stage is tested with

Vicat Penetrometer.
The needle of 1mm diameter
with the weighed plunger rod
of 300g is supported and
held just in contact with the
mix.
Soon after the gloss is lost,
the plunger is released.
The time elapsed until the
plunger no longer penetrates
to the bottom of the mix is
known as the setting time

Dental materials properties &manipulation 7thedi ,Craig,Powers,Wataha-

 FACTORS AFFECTING SETTING TIME

25

I. Spatulation
II. W/P ratio
III. Temperature
IV. Modifiers :
Accelerators &
Retarders

Clinical Aspects of Dental Materials - Marcia Gladwin,Michael Bagby

 2.. Spatulation Time -
26

 Within limits longer and faster the plaster mixed, the

more no. of nuclei.

* Craig’s - Restorative Dental Materials - 11 th Edi.

 3. W / P Ratio -
27

If more water is used, the fewer

the nuclei per unit volume.

* Craig’s - Restorative Dental Materials - 11 th Edi.

 3. Temperature –
28

 If the room temperature(20 to 25°c) is raised to body

temperature(37.5°C) , setting time decreases.
 This is because at this temperature dihdrate becomes more
soluble in water.
 The ratio of solubilities of hemihydrate & dihydrate at
20°C is 4.5, as the temperature increases, the solubility
ratio decreases until 100° C reached and the ratio
becomes 1.
 4. Modifiers -
29

The rate of gypsum setting reaction of gypsum can

be altered by adding certain chemicals.
These are called
A. Accelerator
B. Retarder
 The act by changing the solubility of hemihydrate
and dihydrate forms .
 A. ACCELERATORS
30

 Decreases the setting time.

 Accelerators used are:
I. Terra alba 0.5 t0 1.0% - finely ground set gypsum
II. Sodium chloride - upto 2 %
III. Sodium sulphate - up to 3 - 4 %
IV. Potassium sulphate - upto 2 - 3 %
 B. RETARDERS -
31

 It acts by reducing the solubility of calcium sulfate

hemihydrate.
 It increases the setting time.
 Commonly used retarders are:
I. Borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O) - 2%
II. Potassium citrate
III. Sodium chloride - >20%
Manipulation
32
 MIXING OF GYPSUM PRODUCTS
33

• The strength is the inversely proportional to

the W/P ratio, so it is important to keep w / p
ratio optimum.
 Measurement & Combination Of Powder And Water
34
I. Clean starch free rubber /
plastic bowl with a top
diameter of 130mm is
recommended.
II. Stiff spatula with round edged
blade of 20-25mm width and
100mm length is used.
III. Required amount of water is
added to the moist bowl.
IV. Sprinkle powder over the water
slowly over 30 sec. This will
allow entrapped air in the
powder to escape.
V. Mix allowed to soak for 20min.

Dental materials properties &manipulation 7thedi ,Craig,Powers,Wataha

 Spatulation
35

 The act of mixing powder and water together is

called Spatulation.
 Stirred at a rate of 2 revolutions per second over 1
minute.
 Either done in hand or mechanically.
 Spatulation should be done in a single direction to
prevent the breakage of dihydrate crystals
 While mixing keep the spatula flat against the wall.
This will help in wetting of all the particles and also
removes the entrapped air bubbles.

Dental materials properties &manipulation 7thedi ,Craig,Powers,Wataha

Fig 1: Powder and water are added to mixing bowl Fig 2 Low speed is used for preliminary mixing.

Fig 3 High speed is used for energetic, smooth, Fig 4 Final product is homogeneous and bubbl
final-phase mixing. free.
36
 EQUIPMENTS FOR
HAND MIXING
SCALE, RUBBER BOWL, SPATULA
GRADUATED SCALE & CYLINDER

37
 38
 For mixing investments, plaster, die material and
duplicating silicone
Vacuum  100 mbar vacuum output evacuates air bubbles trapped
Mixer in the mixing material and also prevents development of
boiling bubbles
 Vacuum mixing bowls are fixed to the agitator coupling
by means of a vacuum, which eliminates time-consuming
coupling to the mechanical holding device
 Transparent vacuum mixing bowls in sizes 250 ml to
1200 ml
 An electronic timer accurately controls the mixing time to
the second and the manometer integrated into the front
panel of the unit always shows the current vacuum in the
mixing bowl
 Spatula and mixing bowl geometry have been optimized
for the investment and duplicating silicone processing
 An attractively designed benchtop stand is available for
use as bench unit

Dental materials properties &manipulation 7thedi ,Craig,Powers,Wataha

PROPERTIES
39
 Setting Expansion
40

All gypsum products expand upon setting

Plaster : 0.2 to 0.3 %
Stone: 0.08 to 0.10 %
High strength stone: 0.05 to 0.07%
The growing crystals of gypsum cause an outward
thrust, this causes an external expansion and internal
porosity in the set mass.
This can be manipulated by :
1. Thicker mix & increased spatulation – increased SE
2. Thinner mix and decreased spatuation –decreased SE

Clinical Aspects of Dental Materials - Marcia Gladwin,Michael Bagby

Setting Expansion
41
 Hygroscopic expansion :
42

Hygroscopic expansion is the linear expansion that

takes place when the investment is placed under water.
Suggested Theories for the mechanism are
I. Addition of water during setting increases the
surface film thickness on the inert particles and
gypsum, thereby forcing them apart.
II. Water added during setting causes further hydration
of calcium sulfate
III. Added water force gypsum to swell.
IV. Due to crystal growth.
Hygroscopic expansion :
43
 REPRODUCTION OF DETAIL: 
44

ADA specification no. 25 requires that:

 Type I and II reproduce a groove 75mm in width.
 Type III, IV and V reproduce a groove 50mm in width.

Gypsum dies do not reproduce surface details very well

because the surface of the set gypsum is porous at
microscopic level.
 STRENGTH
45

Wet strength / Green Strength

 The strength obtained when the water in excess of that
required for hydration of the hemihydrate is left
Dry strength
 The strength obtained when the water in excess is driven
off by drying
 2-3 times more than wet strength
 SURFACE HARDNESS AND ABRASION RESISTANCE:
46

 In general, hardness is defined as the resistance to penetration.

 For dental purposes, the surface hardness of a material is generally

measured in terms of its resistance to indentation.
 The surface hardness of unmodified gypsum products is related in a
general way to their compressive strength. High compressive strength of
the hardened mass corresponds to high surface hardness.
After the final setting occurs, the surface hardness remains practically
constant until most excess water is evaporated from the surface, after
which its increase is similar to increase in compressive strength.
The surface hardness increases at a faster rate than the compressive
strength, because the surface of the hardened mass reaches a dry state
earlier than the inner portion of the mass.
Effect of Hemihydrate on Set Gypsum
47

X-Ray suggests the presence of various forms of

hemihydrate on set gypsum
1. Type 1: 90%
2. Type 2: 60%
3. Type4 & 5: less than 50%
Increased concentration of hemihydrate results
in a weaker set material

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

 Classification of Gypsum
Products
ADA specification no 25
48

TYPE I : IMPRESSION PLASTER

TYPE II : DENTAL PLASTER
TYPE III: DENTAL STONE
TYPE IV : DENTAL STONE,HIGH STRENGTH
TYPE V – DENTAL STONE, HIGH STRENGTH, HIGH
EXPANSION

Materials In Dentistry – Principles and application 2 nd edition Jack L.Ferrancane

 TYPE I – Impression Plaster
49

It is used as an secondary impression material for

completely edentulous patients.
Rigid and mucostatic in nature
Obtained by adding modifiers to dental plaster.
It is hard and brittle and breaks when removed from
undercut regions.
Non-toxic but may be unpleasant due to dryness and
heat evolved during setting
Excellent at recording fine details - low viscosity
Dimensionally stable, although extremes of
temperatures should be avoided.

Jack L.Ferrance., Materials in Dentistry.

 COMPOSITION
50
1. β Hemihydrate
2. Accelerator : potassium sulfate, potassium chloride & potassium
nitrate.
3. Retarder: sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium
carbonate, borax
4. Gums: tragacanth added to improve handling characteristics.
They help in cohesion & facilitate border boulding.
5. Potato starch
6. Flavoring agents: used to offset the bland taste.
7. Anti-expansion solution: It is added to plaster.
Potassium sulfate: 4%
Borax: 0.4-1%
Alzarin red: 0.04%
 TYPE II - Dental Plaster
51

It is composed of calcium sulphate β hemihydrate

with modifiers.
Laboratory or model plaster.
It should flow evenly in all parts of the impression.
It should neither contract nor expand while setting.
After setting it should not wrap or change shape.
Uses - study casts, to mount casts on articulator,
moulds for dentures.
 TYPE III - Dental Stone
52

Laboratory stone.
Chemical composition is alpha hemihydrate.
Harder and stronger than type II.
Uses – secondary casts for fabrication of dentures
 Composition
53

CaSO4. 1/2 H2O - α - hemihydrate

 Coloring agents - 2-3%
Potassium sulphate - acts as accelerator
Borax - retarder
Type IV – Dental Stone, high strength
54

Has high strength of 79 Mpa / 11,500 psi

High hardess.
 Type V – Dental Stone, High Strength, High
Expansion
55

Higher expansion material which compensates for

greater shrinkage that occurs in many newer, high
melting alloys for dental castings
Stronger than all other gypsum products.
 Properties
56

TYPE SETTIN SETTING COMPRESSIV REPRODUCTIO

G TIME EXPANSION E STRENGTH N OF DETAIL
(min ) RANGE ( MPa ) ( mm )
( %) Min. Max.
Type I 2.5- 0.0-0.15 4.0 8.0 75 + 8
5.0
Type II +20 % 0.0-0.30 9.0 - 75 + 8
Type III +20 % 0.0-0.20 20.0 - 50 + 8
Type IV +20 % 0.0-0.15 35.0 - 50 + 8
Type V +20 % 0.16-0.30 35.0 - 50 + 8
 Uses
57

It is used for impression making procedures.

In making study casts for orthodontic purposes.
For making diagnostic casts for diagnosis and treatment
planning.
 Master cast / working cast preparation
Die preparation.
Used for making face masks.
Used as interocclusal record material.
Used for mounting casts on articulator.
Used in flasking procedures
Used as dental investment material.
Dental Investment
58
 Introduction
59

The technique used for casting of alloys is Lost

Wax Technique.
Also called investment casting.
DEFINITION: The casting of a metal into a mold
produced by surrounding (investing) an
expendable (wax) pattern with a refractory slurry
that sets at room temperature, after which the
pattern is removed through the use of heat.
 Into (contd)
60

Dental Casting investment is a material consisting

principally of an allotrope of silica and a bonding
agent. The bonding substance may be gypsum (for
use in low casting temperature) or phosphates and
silica (for high casting temperature).
Investing is the process of covering or enveloping,
wholly or in part, an object such as denture, tooth,
wax form, crown, etc. with a suitable investment
material before processing, soldering or casting
 History :
61

Its history can be traced back around 3000 B.C. This

meticulous procedure of casting was used by various
craftsmen to produce jewellary and ornaments.

11th Century  Theophilus  Described lost wax technique,

which was a common practice prevailed in 11th century.
1558  Benvenuto Cellini  claimed to have attempted,
use of wax and clay for preparation of castings
1884  Aguilhon de saran  used 24K gold to form Inlay
 History (contd):
62

 1887  J. R. Knapp  invented Blowpipe.

 1897  Phillibrook Described a method of casting metal
filling.
 1907  Taggart Dr.Taggart discribed this technique and
further devolped on this technology. Deviced a practically
useful casting machine.
 Requirements of an Investment
63

1. Easily manipulated
2. Sufficient strength at room temperature.
3. Stability at higher temperatures.
4. Sufficient expansion.
5. Beneficial casting temperature.
6. Porosity enough to let the air and gases escape.
7. Smooth surface.
8. Ease of divestment.
9. Inexpensive.

* Craig’s - Restorative Dental Materials - 11 th Edi.

 Composition
64

1. REFRACTORY MATERIAL:
 Investment material capable of sustaining exposure to high
temperature without significant degradation.
 Quartz, tridymite, or cristobalite or a mixture of these.
 Function:
1. Resist the heat and forces of casting
2. To expand and compensate for casting shrinkage.

* Craig’s - Restorative Dental Materials - 11 th Edi.

 65

2 . BINDER MATERIAL:
 It is used to bind the refractory mass that is not
coherent
 Binders used are alpha-calcium hemihydrate,
phosphate, ethyl silicate.
 66

3. OTHER CHEMICALS:
 These are added to achieve desirable properties.
1. Reducing agents – Ex : Charcoal
2. Sodium chloride, boric acid – to  shrinkage, during
dehydration of calcium sulfate dihydrate.
3. Potassium sulfate (accelerator)
4. Copper powder(reducing agent)/magnesium oxide .
 Classification
67

Based on casting temprature :

1. Low heat investment:
a) Gypsum bonded investment
upto (700°C)
2. High heat investment :
a) Phosphate bonded investment
b) Silica bonded investment
3. Brazing investment
4. Investment for all ceramic restorations
 Classification –
Based on composition
68

Gypsum- ●
Conventional casting of gold alloy
Bonded inlays, onlays, crowns, and FPD’s
Investment

Phosphate- ●
Copings or frameworks for metal
Bonded ceramics & for some base metal alloys
Investment

Silicate-Bonded ●
In casting RPD with base
Investment metal alloy
Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice
 Gypsum Bonded Investments

 These are any casting investment with gypsum as the

binder, also containing cristobalite or quartz as a refractory
material. Cristobalite and quartz are responsible for the
thermal expansion of the mold during wax elimination.
Because gypsum is chemically stable at temperatures
exceeding 650°C,these investments are typically restricted
to casting type I, II, III, and IV gold alloys
Classification (ANSI/ADA Sp.No.2 [ISO7490])
70

Type 1 Type 2 Type 3

●
Thermal ●
For casting
Expansion ●
Hygroscopic
partial dentures
type. expansion type.
& complete
●
For casting ●
Inlays, onlays,
dentures for
inlays and or crowns
gold alloys
crowns

Phillips, Science of dental materials 11th edi ,Anusavice

Requirements of Gypsum Bonded Investments
71
 72

Components

I. Binder
II.Refractory
component
III.Modifiers
 I Binder –
73

Gypsum (α hemihydrate) – 25% to 35%.

All forms shrink after dehydration at around 200°C
& 400°C.
A slight expansion takes place at 400°C & 700°C
Then contraction takes place, this is caused by
decomposition and release of sulfur gases which also
contaminates the casting.
Therefore it should not be heated above 700°C
Ideal temperature for heating is 650°C
 II Refractory component-
74

 Silica(SiO2) – 65 % to 75%
 Quartz, Cristobalite, Tridymite and fused silica are the 4
forms.
 Quartz, Crystobalite are used in dentistry.
 Fused quartz & Tridymite has low linear coefficient of
thermal expansion.
 Fused quartz doesn’t undergo phase transformations.
 These at high temperature convert from “low”-form α-
quartz to “high”-form known as β-quartz.
 β-quartz is stable only above the transition temperature
with decrease in temperature.
Effect of temperature on silica
75
 III Modifiers :
76

2 to 3%
Reducing agents – carbon & powdered copper.
It is used to produce non-oxidising atmosphere in
the mold.
Boric acid & sodium chloride – Regulate setting time
& setting expansion
Coloring agents.
 Expansion
77

Three types
1. Setting expansion
2. Hygroscopic expansion
3. Thermal expansion

 Setting expansion is the linear expansion that takes

place during normal setting .
 Hygroscopic expansion is the linear expansion that
takes place when the investment is placed under
water.
 Setting Expansion
78

 Inclusion of silica results in interlocking of silica in

between the crystals, causing outward thrust and thus
resulting in expansion.
 The growing crystals of gypsum cause an outward thrust,
this causes an external expansion and internal porosity in
the set mass.
 ADA Specification No.2 for Type I investment permits a
maximum setting expansion in air - 0.6%.
 This can be manipulated by :
1. Thicker mix & increased spatulation – increased SE
2. Thinner mix and decreased spatulation –decreased SE
Setting Expansion
79
 Hygroscopic expansion :
80

Hygroscopic expansion is the linear expansion that

takes place when the investment is placed under
water.
It is a continuation of normal setting expansion,
because immersion water replaces water of
hydration.
 Hygroscopic expansion
81

Suggested Theories for the mechanism are

I. Addition of water during setting increases the
surface film thickness on the inert particles and
gypsum, thereby forcing them apart.
II. Water added during setting causes further
hydration of calcium sulfate
III. Added water force gypsum to swell.
IV. Due to crystal growth.
 Hygroscopic expansion
82

Water is added immediately to the setting gypsum

investment, after the ring is filled.
Usually done by submerging the ring in water bath at
37˚C for 1 hour.
Expansion is 1.2% to 2.2% for Type II.
Significant additional setting expansion results.
A wet liner can also be used .
Hygroscopic expansion :
83
Setting Expansion (Setting Vs. Hygroscopic)
84

STAGE I :
Initial Mix

STAGE II :
Crystals Of Dihydrate Are Formed

STAGE III :
Crystals Grow

STAGE IV & V :
More marked intermeshing of crystals
85
FACTORS AFFECTING HYGROSCOPIC
86 EXPANSION
EFFECT OF COMPOSITION :
Proportional to silica content of the investment.
Finer particle size of silica – ↑ HSE
α Hemihydrate - ↑ HSE with silica, particularly when
expansion is unrestricted.
EFFECT OF W/P RATIO :
Higher W/P ratio -  HSE
FACTORS AFFECTING HYGROSCOPIC
87 EXPANSION
EFFECT OF SPATULATION
Mixing time is reduced –  HSE

SHELF LIFE OF GYPSUM

Older investment –  HSE

EFFECT OF TIME OF IMMERSION

Before initial setting  ↑ HSE
 After initial setting   HSE
FACTORS AFFECTING HYGROSCOPIC
EXPANSION
88

EFFECT OF CONFINEMENT:
The confining effect on hygroscopic expansion is more
pronounced.
When placed in 37.7°c (100°F) water it causes heating,
expanding & softening of wax pattern.

EFFECT OF ADDED WATER:

Magnitude HSE α Amt of H2O added during setting
Water is drawn between by capillary action & thus
causes separation of quartz particles - Expansion
89
Factors Affecting Expansion
90
 Thermal expansion
91

Occurs when mould is heated to eliminate wax.

Silica refractory material is responsible.
Cristobalite changes from α to β form between
200˚C -270˚C.
Expansion is 0.1% to 0.6% at 500˚C for type II.
Quartz changes form at 575˚C.
92
Effect Of Cristobalite & Quartz On
93 Gypsum Bonded Investments

Crystobalite to quartz ratio is very important for

adequate thermal expansion.
When cristobalite is added in lesser amounts, it
results in higher shrinkage at 250°C.
But when added from 42-47gm/pct it resulted in
adequate expansion of 1.6%, where the required
expansion rate is 1.5% - 2.0%.

J.Mater.Sci.Techno,vol24 No.1,2008
 Factors Affecting Thermal Expansion
94

EFFECT OF W/P RATIO:

Depends on the amount of solids present.
  W:P ratio   Thermal expansion.
EFFECT OF CHEMICAL MODIFIERS:
Excessive silica - weakening of the material.
Sodium, Potassium, or Lithium-
 Eliminates the contraction of gypsum
  Thermal expansion
Boric Acid   Thermal expansion
  Hardness of set investment
 THERMAL CONTRACTION
95

After thermal expansion if the investment is allowed

to coal. The cooling path will follow the expansion
curve.
The investment contract to less than its original
dimension due to shrinkage of gypsum when it is
first heated.
 The process of heating and cooling cause internal
cracks
96
 STRENGTH:
97

Depends on the amount & type of gypsum binder used.

Adequate strength of investment is needed to prevent
fracture/chipping of the mold and to resist contraction
of the investment.
After burn-out of the mold, the strength should be no
greater than that required to resist the impact of the
metal entering the mold.
According to A.D.A. sp 2,the compressive strength of
investment should not be less than 2.5 Mpa ( 2 hrs
after setting
 Factors Affecting Strength
98

1. Increased W:P ratio -  compressive strength.

2. Heating of investment to 700 o C – may  (or) 
strength by 65%.
3. Investments with NaCl -  strength .
4. Repeated heating & cooling cause internal cracks -
 strength
 FINENESS:
99

 More fine silica particles , higher hygroscopic

expansion rate and less surface irregularities of the
casting.
 POROSITY:
100

This occurs due to the pressure in the mold.

This helps in venting out the gases
Therefore wax pattern should not be covered more
than approximately 6mm of investment.
This provides sufficient interconnectivity of porous
network.
More hemihydrate less porosity,
Uniform particle size, greater porosity.
Therefore less hemihydrate with more amount of
gauging water is used.
 STORAGE
101

High relative humidity :

1. Setting time changed
2. Setting expansion and hygroscopic expansion
changed.
 Different components have different specific
gravity, therefore the separate as they settle under
normal vibration.
 Therefore should be stored in Airtigth & moisture
free containers and should be purchased at small
quantities.
 INVESTMENT FOR CASTING HIGH-
MELTING POINT
102 ALLOYS

Most base metal and palladium alloys have a melting

temperature of 850 – 1100°C.
The type of investment used for such alloys are:
I. Phosphate-Bonded Investment
II. Silicate-Bonded Investment
 In this the binder composition is less than 20% to
withstand the high temperatures.
 PHOSPHATE BONDED INVESTMENT
103

Any casting investment with a binder formed from

magnesium oxide and mono ammonium phosphate.
The resulting colloidal multi molecular
(NH4MgPO4.6H2O)n coagulates around MgO and
fillers. This is combined with silica in the form of
quartz, cristobalite or both in a concentration of
about 80%. Upon heating the binder undergoes
several several changes believed to be responsible for
increased strength at high temperature.
Types (ANSI/ADA Sp.No.42[ISO
9694])
104

Inlay, crown and

Type I
●

restoration.

Type II R. P. D frame work

●
 Phosphate Bonded Investment
105

Most common type of investment for high melting

temperatures
It has three different components:
A. Binder – Magnesium oxide & phosphate (acidic

monoammonium phosphate)
B. Refractory Material –
 80% Silica (Quartz/Crystobalite).
 33% dilution of Colloidal silica is being used, it
gives greater expansion
 Setting reaction
106

Acid- base reaction.

Monoammonium phosphate reacts with basic
magnesia .
Soluble phosphate reacts with water, forming a
binding media with filler particles embedded in it.
NH4H2PO4 + MgO +5H2O
[room temperature] ↓
(NH4 Mg PO4 6
H2O)n
MgO

[colloid –like particles ] NH4H2PO4

H2O
[dehydration at up to 50C ↓
(NH4 Mg PO4 6 H2O)n
dehydration at 160C(NH4 Mg PO4
H2O)n
[300C-650C] ↓
[non-crystalline polymer] (Mg2P2O7)n
↓
crystalline Mg2P2O7
[+ MgO + quartz + cristobalite]
overheating above 1040C↓

Mg3 (P2O4)2
 

107
 SETTING & THERMAL EXPANSION
108

Thermal expansion when with water have a

shrinkage at 200-4000c, due to decomposition of
binder magnesium ammonium phosphate with
evolution of ammonia
This can be eliminated by adding colloidal silica esp
cristobalite
109
110
 WORKING TIME & SETTING TIME
111

working time – 2 min.

setting time – 1 hour
Factors affecting and setting time 
 temperature  fast set : (as the setting reaction itself
is exothermic)
 mixing time  fast set (generally mechanical mixing
under
vacuum is preferred
 L : p ratio  working time.
Requirements of phosphate bonded investments
112
The influence of handling technique on the strength of phosphate bonded
investments
113

Mechanical spatulation under vacuum and pressure

suggested by Jhonson resulted in the least amount of
nodules.
Recommended spatulations per second : 45 – 60
Total handling time :
1. HA,HP,MVA,MVP,MA -180 -195 seconds
2. HV – 225 seconds
 Powder / liquid ratio (g/ml): 100/12 – 100/16
 Chilled liquid would increase the setting time.

A.S.Juszczyk,Dental Materials J 16;2000:26-32

 Surfactant containing phosphate bonded investment
114

Addition of surfactants to phosphate bonded

investment can increase the hygroscopic setting
expansion .
The surfactant also makes the unset investment
more viscous and reduces the compressive strength

Mueller, et al 1986,JPD-54: 367: 1985.

 RECENT ADVANCES
115

 Titanium casting with phosphate bonded investment

with zirconia:
1. Thickness of the reaction layer of titanium casting
was reduced, resulting in a smooth casting without
cracks and the investment was easily removed from
the casting but the micro hardness was reduced.

X.P.Lou,T.W.Guo et al;Dent Mater J:18,2002:512-515

 SILICATE BONDED INVESTMENT

Definition :
A casting investment with ethyl silicate or a silica gel
as the binder, the later reverting tosilica upon
heating. This is combined with cristobalite or quartz
as the refractory material. These investments exihibit
considerable thermal expansion and can be used
when casting higher fusing chromium alloys.

GPT-8
 SILICATE BONDED INVESTMENT
117

 It is rarely used because its time consuming and

complicated.
 The silica refractory material, which is bonded by the
hydrolysis of ethyl silicate in the presence of hydrochloric
acid.
 The product of the hydrolysis is a colloidal solution of silicic
acid and ethyl alcohol
Si(OC2H5 ) 4 + 4H2 0 _ hcl Si(OH)4 + 4C2H5OH
 Composition
118

Binder  silica acid gel

Refractory  silica (cristobalite)
Additive  magnesium oxide - Make it alkaline,
Strengthen then the gel
 119

This investment is usually supplied with two bottles of

special liquid.
In one of the bottles the manufacturer usually supplies a
properly diluted water-soluble silicate solution.
The other bottle usually contains a properly diluted acid
solution, such as a solution of hydrochloric acid.
Before use, mix an equal volume from each bottle and
allow the mixed liquids to stand for a prescribed time,
according to the manufacturer's instructions, so
hydrolysis can take place and freshly prepared silicic
acid forms.
 Setting Reaction
120

 One such investment consists of a silica refractory, which is

bonded by the hydrolysis of ethyl silicate in the presence of
hydrochloric acid.
 The product of the hydrolysis is a colloidal solution of silicic
acid and ethyl alcohol
HCl

Si(OC2H5 ) 4 + 4H2 0 Si(OH)4 + 4C2H5OH

 SiO2.2H2O is formed in practice.
 Has higher silica content and has better
refractory properties.
 Green shrinkage
121

The Soft Gel is dried at a temperature below 168°C.

During this process, Gel loses alcohol & water to
form a concentrated, Hard Gel.
Volumetric contraction accompanies the drying,
reducing the size of the mold.
This contraction is called GREEN SHRINKAGE.
 122

DISADVANTAGES :
Gives flammable content during processing
Expensive.
ANSI/ADA SP.NO:91 FOR THE FOLLOWING:
Recommended setting time- 30% from wat stated by
manufacturer
Recommended compressive strength- 1.5 Mpa
Recommended linear expansion- 15% from wat
stated by manufacturer
 Manipulation :
123

 Powder + hydrolyzed ethyl silicate liquid  mixed

quickly and vibrated into a mold  allow heavier
particles to settle quickly while the excess liquid and
some of the fine particles rise to top.
 Within 1½ hrs  the accelerator (NH4cl) hardens
the settled part. The excess on top is poured off and
there by decreasing the L:P ratio at the bottom.
 Divestment :
124

Combination of die stone with investment material

in a particular composition. The die is made with
divestment and colloidal silica liquid mix, Then the
entire assembly with the wax pattern is invested in
a mixture of divestment and water, and casting is
completed.
Properties Setting expansion – 0.9%
Thermal expansion  0.6% (at 9770c)
Divesting : process of removing an investment
from a casting or hot pressed ceramic.
 BRAZING INVESTMENT :
125

ADA Sp No 93 
Type I - Gypsum bonded dental brazing investment
Type II - Phosphate bonded.
Steps  1) Broken parts are Stabilize by sticky wax
2) The broken parts are then embedded in
investment with portion to be solder is left exposed
and free of investment.
 They should have low setting and thermal
expansion. Particle size is usually not fine. They
possess usually a compressive strength of 2-10 Mpa.

Dental Materials: Properties And Manipulation 8th Ed: Robert G.Craig et al

REQUIREMENTS
126
 INVESTING
127

 Wax pattern cleaned of debris, greases & oils

 The ring is lined with a ceramic liner, this aids in expansion.
 This thin film of cleanser left on wax pattern reduces surface tension of
the wax & permits better wetting of the investment.
 Appropriate amount of distilled water / colloidal silica is dispensed.
 Powder is then dispensed gradually to prevent entrapment of air
bubbles & All the powder particles should be wet thoroughly to prevent
pushing out of the unmixed particles to the surface.
 The lid is applied to the bowl, and the vacuum is attached to remove
air.
 The entire apparatus is applied to the power mixer.
 Once mixed the investment is poured slowly into the casting ring in a
vibrator, until the casting ring is full.

Dental Materials: Properties And Manipulation 8th Ed: Robert G.Craig et al

 VACUUM MIXING
128
Mechanical mixing prevents
entrapment of air bubbles
reducing porosity & evacuates
potential harmful gases released
during mixing.
After mixing pattern is either
hand invested / vacuum invested.
In hand mixing the pattern is
painted with the material and
then vibrated slowly into the ring.
In vacuum mixing, the
investment is directly invested
from the mixing equipment.
 Wax Heating & Elimination:
129

 In Gypsum bonded investment – temperature is

critical, because it causes release of carbon which
gets incorporated in the pores.
 In Phosphate bonded investment – at high
temperature carbon is converted into carbon di oxide
and evaporated.
 EXPANSION OF THE INVESTMENT
130

Once set the investment is allowed to set for at least 45 min.

Investment should expand sufficiently to compensate for the
casting shrinkage.
All metals shrink when they cool from the solid state from
1% to 2.5%.
Three modes of expansion include:
1. Setting Expansion
2. Hygroscopic Expansion
3. Thermal Expansion
 Total expansion will be equal to the sum of all the three
expansions.

Dental Materials: Properties And Manipulation 8th Ed: Robert G.Craig et al

 CASTING TECHNIQUES
131

Two techniques :
1. Hygroscopic Low-Heat Technique
2. High-Heat Thermal Expansion Technique
 132

Vacuum  For mixing investments, plaster, die material and

duplicating silicone
Mixer  100 mbar vacuum output evacuates air bubbles
trapped in the mixing material and also prevents
development of boiling bubbles
 Vacuum mixing bowls are fixed to the agitator
coupling by means of a vacuum, which eliminates
time-consuming coupling to the mechanical holding
device
 Transparent vacuum mixing bowls in sizes 250 ml
to 1200 ml
 An electronic timer accurately controls the mixing
time to the second and the manometer integrated
into the front panel of the unit always shows the
current vacuum in the mixing bowl
 Spatula and mixing bowl geometry have been
optimized for the investment and duplicating
silicone processing
 An attractively designed bench top stand is
available for use as bench unit
Dental materials properties &manipulation 7thedi ,Craig,Powers,Wataha
 References
133

1. Phillips - Science of dental materials - 11th edition - Anusavice

2. Restorative dental materials - 11th edition
- Robert G Craig & John M. Powers
3. Skinner’s Science of dental materials - 9th edition
4. Dental materials & their selection - 3rd edition - William J O’Brien
5. Clinical aspects of dental materials - 2nd edition
- Marcia Gladwin, Michael bagby
6. Introduction to dental materials – Richard Van Noort.
7. Materials in Dentistry principles and application- 2nd edition Jack.L.Ferrance

8. J Prosthet Dent- 2008;99:282–286

9. J Prosthet Dent-2000,84,32-37

10 J Prosthet Dent-1998:26:59

11. J Prosthet Dent-1999:81:129-134