CHAPTER 3 THE VECTOR DESCRIPTION OF
MOTION
ActivPhysics can help with these problems:
Activity 4.1
Section 3-2: Vector Arithmetic
Problem
1. You walk west 220 m, then north 150 m. What are
the magnitude and direction of your displacement
vector?
Solution
The triangle formed by the two displacement vectors
and their sum is a right triangle, so√the Pythagorean
Theorem gives the magnitude C = A2 + B 2 =
p p
(220 m)2 + (150 m)2 = 266 m, and the basic defi
nition of the tangent gives β = tan−1 (150 m/220 m)
= 34.3◦ . The direction of C can be specified as
34.3◦ N of W, or 55.7◦ W of N, or by the azimuth
304.3◦ (CW from N), etc.
Problem 1 Solution.
Problem
2. An ion in a mass spectrometer (a device that sorts
atomic-size particles) follows a semicircular path of
radius 15.2 cm. What are (a) the distance it travels
and (b) the magnitude of its displacement?
Solution
1
(a) The length of the semicircle is2 (2πr) = πr =
π(15.2 cm) = 47.8 cm. (b) The magnitude of the
displacement vector, from the start of the semicircle to
its end, is just a diameter, or 2(15.2 cm) = 30.4 cm.
Problem
3. A migrating whale follows the west coast of Mexico
and North America toward its summer home in
Alaska. It first travels 360 km due northwest to just
off the coast of Northern California and then turns
due north and travels 400 km toward its
destination. Determine graphically the magnitude
and direction of its displacement vector.
Solution
We can find the magnitude and direction of the vector
sum of the two displacements either using geometry
and a diagram, or by adding vector components.
From the law of cosines:
C = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos γ
=
p
(360 km)2 + (400 km)2 − 2(360 km)(400 km) cos 135◦
= 702 km.
From the law of sines: C/ sin γ = B/ sin β, or
    
B sin γ 400 m
β= sin−1 = sin−1 sin 135◦ = 23.7◦.
C 702 m
The direction of C can be specified as 45◦ + 23.7◦ =
68.7◦ N of W, or 180◦ − 68.7◦ = 111◦ CCW from the
x-axis (east) in the illustration.
Problem 3 Solution.
In a coordinate system with x-axis east and y-axis
north, the first displacement is 360 km (ı̂ cos 135◦ +
̂ sin 135◦ ) and the second simply 400 km ̂. Their sum
is (−255ı̂ + 255̂ + 400̂) km = (−255ı̂ + 655̂) km,
2 CHAPTER 3
which
p is the total displacement. Its magnitude is
(−255)2 + (655)2 km/702 km and its direction
(measured CCW from the x-axis) is θx = cos−1
(−255 km/702 km) = 111◦ , as above. (Note that since
Cy > 0 and Cx < 0, θx is in the second quadrant.)
Problem
4. A city’s streets are laid out with its north-south
blocks twice as long as its east-west blocks. You
walk 8 blocks east and 3 blocks north. Determine
(a) the total distance you’ve walked and (b) the
magnitude of your displacement vector. Express in
units of east-west blocks.
Solution
(a) Eight blocks east is 8 units, but three blocks north
is 3 × 2 = 6 units, so the total distance walked is
14 units. (b) The magnitude of your displacement
vector is the hypotenuse of a right triangle, with sides
p V3 = V√
of 8 units and 6 units; its length is (8 u)2 + (6 u)2 =
10 units.
Problem
5. Vector A has magnitude 3.0 m and points to the
right; vector B has magnitude 4.0 m and points
vertically upward. Find the magnitude and
direction of a vector C such that A + B + C = 0.
Problem 5 Solution.
Solution
The vectors A, B, and C form a 3-4-5 right triangle,
as shown in the sketch. Therefore, C = 5 m, and the
direction of C, measured CCW from the direction of
A, is 180◦ + tan−1 (B/A) = 180◦ + 53.1◦ = 233◦
(other angles could have been chosen). C could also
be determined algebraically from components, with
x-axis parallel to A and y-axis parallel to B. Then
A = (3.0 m)ı̂, B = (4.0 m)̂, and C = −(A + B) =
(−3.0qm)ı̂ + (−4.0 m)̂ = Cx ı̂ + Cy ̂. The magnitude of
p
C is C2x + C2y = (−3.0 m)2 + (−4.0 m)2 , and the
angle that C makes with the x-axis is cos−1 (Cx /C) =
cos−1 (−3.0 m/5.0 m), which is in the third quadrant,
as calculated above. (Note: the angle of C could also
be specified as −127◦, or CW from the x-axis.)
Problem
6. Two vectors A and B have the same magnitude, A,
and are at right angles. Find the magnitude of the
vectors (a) A + 2B, (b) 3A − B.
Solution
Any two vectors (V1 and V2 ) and their sum (V3 =
V1 + V2 ) form a triangle. If V1 is perpendicular to
V2 , the triangle is a right triangle, and the
magnitudes are related by the Pythagorean Theorem,
p
2 + V2 . (a) For V = A and V = |2B| =
1 2
1 2
2A, V3√= 5A. (b) For V1 = 3A and V2 = | − B| = A,
V3 = 10A.
Problem
7. Vectors A and B in Fig. 3-22 have the same
magnitude, A. Find the magnitude and direction of
(a) A − B and (b) A + B.
figure 3-22 Problem 7 Solution.
Solution
The vectors A and B in Fig. 3-22 form two sides of a
parallelogram, in which A − B and A + B are the
diagonals, as shown. Since the magnitudes of A and B
are equal, the parallelogram is a rhombus, and the
diagonals are perpendicular (the converse of this is
also true; see Problem 60). Then A + B is along the
perpendicular bisector of the base A − B of an
isosceles triangle, and vice versa. Using the given
angles, we find the magnitudes (a) |A − B| =
2A sin 20◦ = 0.684A, and (b) |A + B| = 2A cos 20◦ =
1.88A. In Fig. 3-22, (a) A − B is up, and (b) A + B is
to the right, but the directions could be specified
relative to A, B, or some other coordinate system.
(This problem can also be readily solved with

components and unit vectors. Figure 3-22 suggests a
coordinate system with x-axis to the right and y-axis
up, as shown. Then A = A(ı̂ cos 20◦ + ̂ sin 20◦ ) and
B = A(ı̂ cos 20◦ − ̂ sin 20◦ ), from which A ± B are
easily obtained.)
Problem
8. Vector A has magnitude 1.0 m and points at 35◦
clock-wise from the x-axis. Vector B has magnitude
1.8 m. What angle should B make with the x-axis
in order that A + B be purely vertical?
Solution
The vectors A, B, and A + B form a triangle, but
given only that B = 1.8A and A + B are
perpendicular to the x-axis, two are possible. In one,
the angle opposite side B is β = 125◦ , in the other
β = 55◦ , as sketched. For either, the law of sines gives
α = sin−1 ( A sin β
B ) = sin
−1 sin 125◦ 55◦
( 1.8 ) = sin−1 ( sin1.8 )=
27.1◦. Therefore, B makes an angle of ± 62.9◦ with
the negative x-axis or ± 117◦ with the x-axis (look at
suitable right triangles in the sketch). (This result can
also be obtained from components: since A + B is
vertical, Ax + Bx = 0, or Bx = B cos θx = −Ax =
−A cos 35◦ , so θx = cos−1 (−A cos 35◦ /B) =
cos−1 (− cos 35◦ /1.8) = ±117◦ , where By could be
positive or negative.)
Problem 8 Solution.
Problem
9. Three vectors A, B, and C have the same
magnitude L and form an equilateral triangle, as
shown in Fig. 3-23. Find the magnitude and
direction of the vectors (a) A + B, (b) A − B,
CHAPTER 3 3
(c) A + B + C, (d) A + B − C.
figure 3-23 Problems 9, 16, and 22.
Solution
(c) Since the vectors form a closed figure (a triangle),
their sum is zero, i.e., A + B + C = 0. (a) The vector
equation in part (c) has solution A + B = −C. Thus
|A + B| = | −C| = |C| = L and the direction of A + B
is opposite to the direction of C, or 180◦ from C.
(d) Similarly (A + B − C = ( −C)−C = −2C, and
so has magnitude 2L and direction opposite to C.
(b) Finally, (A − B) = A − ( −A − C) = 2A + C, so
these vectors form a 30◦ √ − 60◦ − 90 ◦
√ right triangle, as
shown. Then |A − B| = 3|C| = 3L, and its
direction is 90◦ CCW from C.
Of course, this problem can be solved readily using
components and a coordinate system with x-axis
parallel to C and y-axis perpendicular, as shown
◦
superposed on Fig. 3-23.
√ Then A = |A|(ı̂√cos 120 +
◦
̂ sin 120 ) = L(−ı̂ + 3̂)/2, B =L(−ı̂ − 3̂)/2, and
C = Lı̂. It is a simple matter to find
√
(a) A + B = −Lı̂, (b) A − B = 3L̂,
(c) A + B + C = 0, and (d) A + B − C = − 2Lı̂.
The magnitudes and directions are as above.
Problem
10. A direct flight from Orlando, Florida, to Atlanta,
Georgia, covers 660 km and heads at 29◦ west of
north. Your flight, however, stops at Charleston,
South Carolina, on the way to Atlanta.
Charleston is 510 km from Orlando, in a direction
9.3◦ east of north. Use graphical techniques to
find the magnitude and direction of the
Charleston-to-Atlanta leg of your flight.
Solution
The displacements between the three cities are as
shown in the diagram. Graphical techniques can be
4 CHAPTER 3
confirmed by calculations using components and unit
vectors, or trigonometry. Evidently, the displacement
from Charleston to Atlanta is C = A − B =
(660 km)(ı̂ cos(90◦ + 29◦ ) +̂ sin 119◦) −
(510 km)(ı̂ cos(90◦ − 9.3◦ ) +̂ sin 80.7◦ ) =
(−320ı̂ + 577̂ − 82.4ı̂
p − 503̂) km = (−420ı̂ + 74.0̂) km.
Its magnitude is (−402)2 + (74.0)2 km = 409 km
and its direction is θ = tan−1 (74.0/(−402)) =
170◦ CCW from the x-axis, or θ − 90◦ = 79.6◦ CCW
from the y-axis. For those solving this problem
from
p the laws of cosines and sines
(660)2 + (510)2 − 2(660)(510) cos 38.3◦ = 409,
sin−1 (660 sin 38.3◦ /409) = 91.1◦ , and
90◦ − (91.1◦ − 80.7◦ ) = 79.6◦ .
Problem 10 Solution.
Section 3-3: Coordinate Systems, Vector
Components, and Unit Vectors
Problem
11. Vector V represents a displacement of 120 km at
29◦ counterclockwise from the x-axis. Write V in
unit vector notation.
Solution
Take the y-axis 90? CCW from the x-axis, as in
Figs. 3-10 and 11. Then V = Vx ı̂ + Vy ̂ = V (ı̂ cos θx +
̂ cos θy ) = V (ı̂ cos θx +̂ sin θx ) = (120 km)×
(ı̂ cos 29◦ +̂ sin 29◦ ) = (105ı̂ + 58.2̂) km. (Note: The
component of a vector along an axis is defined in terms
of the cosine of the angle it makes with that axis. In
two dimensions, θy = |θx − 90◦ |, and cos θy = sin θx .)
Problem
12. Find the magnitude of the vector 34ı̂ + 13̂ m, and
determine the angle it makes with the x axis.
Solution
Equation 3-1 gives the magnitude q of a vector in terms
of its Cartesian components: A = A2x + A2y =
p
(34 m)2 + (13 m)2 = 36.4 m. Equation 3-3 gives the
angle A makes with the x-axis: θx = cos−1 (Ax /A) =
cos−1 (34 m/36.4 m) = 20.9◦ . (Since both Ax and Ay
are positive, we know that θx is in the first quadrant.)
Of course, Equation 3-2 could also have been used
here, but Equation 3-3 holds in three dimensions,
whereas Equation 3-2 does not.
Problem
13. Express each of the vectors of Fig. 3-24 in unit
vector notation, with the x-axis horizontally to the
right and the y-axis vertically upward.
figure 3-24 Problems 13, 19, and 20.
Solution
Take the x-axis to the right and the y-axis 90◦
counterclockwise from it. Then
A = 10(ı̂ cos 35◦ +̂ sin 35◦ ) = 8.19ı̂ + 5.74̂
B = 6(ı̂ cos 235◦ +̂ sin 235◦ ) = − 3.44ı̂ − 4.91̂
C = 8(ı̂ cos 115◦ +̂ sin 115◦ ) = − 338ı̂ + 7.25̂
Problem
14. (a) What is the magnitude of ı̂ + ̂? (b) What
angle does it make with the x-axis?
Solution
The same reasoning as in Problem
√ 12 shows√ that
(a) the magnitude of ı̂ +̂ is 12 + 12 = 2, and that
(b) the angle it
√ makes CCW from the x-axis√is
θx = cos−1 (1/ 2) = 45◦ . (Thus, n̂ = (ı̂ + ̂)/ 2 is a
unit vector midway between the x- and y-directions;
see Problem 63.)
Problem
15. Repeat Problem 3, using unit vector notation.

Solution
See solution to Problem 3.
Problem
16. Express the vectors of Fig. 3-23 in unit vector
notation, taking the x-axis horizontal and the
y-axis vertical. Each vector has length A.
Solution
See the solution to Problem 9.
Problem
17. Let A = 15ı̂ − 40̂ and B = 31̂ + 18k̂. Find a
vector C such that A + B + C = 0.
Solution
C = − A − B = −(15ı̂ − 40̂) − (31̂ + 18k̂) =
−15ı̂ + 9̂ − 18k̂. (Since A and B are specified in
terms of unit vectors, this form is also appropriate for
C.)
Problem
18. A proton travels in a circular path around the
2.0-km-diameter accelerator at Fermilab, near
Chicago. Write expressions for the proton’s
displacement vector from the center of the circle
when it is at (a) 0◦ ; (b) 30◦ ; (c) 45◦ ; (d) 60◦ ;
(e) 90◦ ; (f) 180◦ , as measured counterclockwise
from the x-axis.
Problem 18 Solution.
Solution
The position of any point on the circumference of a
circle, relative to the center, is r = xı̂ + y̂ = r(ı̂ cos θ +
̂ sin θ), where θ is the angle measured CCW from the
x-axis. At Fermilab, r = 1 km (half the diameter), so
for the values of θ given, (a) r = (1 km)(ı̂ cos 0◦ +
̂ sin 0◦ ) =ı̂ km; (b) r = (1 km)(ı̂ cos 30◦ +
CHAPTER 3 5
√ √
̂ sin 30◦ ) = 21 ( 3ı̂ + ̂) km; (c) r = (ı̂ +̂) km/ 2;
√
(d) r = 21 (ı̂ + 3̂) km; (e) r =̂ km; and
(f) r = −ı̂ km .
Problem
19. Use the result of Problem 13 to find the vectors
(a) A + B + C, (b) A − B + C, and
(c) A + 1.5B − 2.2C.
Solution
The components of A, B, and C are given in the
solution to Problem 13. A component of the sum (or
difference) is the sum (or difference) of the
components; the component of a scalar multiple is the
scalar multiple of the component. For example, the
x-component of A + 1.5B − 2.2C is Ax + 1.5Bx −
2.2Cx . Therefore (a) A + B +C = 1.37ı̂ + 8.07̂ =
8.19 (ı̂ cos 80.4◦ +̂ sin 80.4◦ ) (b) A − B + C =
8.25ı̂ + 17.9̂ = 19.7(ı̂ cos 65.3◦ + ̂ sin 65.3◦ ) (c) A +
1.5B − 2.2C = 10.5ı̂ − 17.6̂ = 20.5(ı̂ cos 301◦ +
̂ sin 301◦ ) The first form is the vector
p in components,
the second gives the magnitude ( x2 + y 2 ) and
direction θx = tan−1 (y/x).
Problem
20. Find a vector D such that A + B + C + D = 0 for
the vectors of Fig. 3-24.
Solution
The vector D = −(A + B + C) is the negative of the
vector given in part (a) of the preceeding solution, so
D = − 1.37ı̂ − 8.07̂ = 8.19(ı̂ cos 260◦ +̂ sin 260◦ ).
(Note that 180◦ + θ is the opposite direction to θ, in
the x-y plane.)
Problem
21. You’re trying to reach a pond that lies 3.5 km to
the northeast of your starting point. You first
follow a logging road that runs east for 0.80 km.
Then you follow a deer trail heading northeast for
2.1 km. From there you bushwack straight to the
pond. Describe your final displacement vector,
(a) in unit vector notation; and (b) as a
magnitude and compass direction.
Solution
The desired total displacement, R = 3.5 km NE, is
the sum of three displacements, R1 = 0.80 kmE,
R2 = 2.1 km NE, and R3 = R − R1 − R2 to be found.
(a) With x-axis E and y-axis N, R1 = 0.80km,
R2 = (2.1 km)(ı̂ cos 45◦ + ̂ sin 45◦ ) = 1.48ı̂ + 1.48̂ km,
and R = 2.47ı̂ + 2.47̂ km. Therefore R3 =
6 CHAPTER 3
(2.47 − 0.80 − 1.48)ı̂ + (2.47 − 1.48)̂ km =
0.190ı̂ + 0.990̂ km = (1.01 km)(ı̂ cos 79.1◦ +
̂ sin 79.1◦ ). (See Equations 3-1 and 3-2 or the solution
to Problem 19 for the last step.)
Problem
22. For the vectors of Fig. 3-23, find two values for the
scalar c such that A + cB has magnitude 2.18L.
Solution
The vectors A and c B form two sides of a
triangle with included angle of 60◦ if c > 0 and
120◦ if c < 0, as shown. The magnitudes of the
sides, which are given as |A| = L, |cB| = |c|L, and
|A + cB| = 2.18L, are related by the law of
cosines. Since |c|L cos 60◦ = 21 cL for c > 0 is the
same as |c|L cos 120◦ = (−c)L(− 21 ) for c < 0, the
law of cosines for both possibilities is (2.18)2 L2 =
L2 + c2 L2 − cL2 , or c2 − c − 3.75 = 0. The
quadraticpformula gives the two solutions as
c = [1 ± 1 + 4(3.75)]/2 = 2.50 or −1.50,
respectively.
Problem 22 Solution.
Problem
23. In Fig. 3-14 the angle between x- and x′ -axes
is 21◦ , the angle between the vector A and the
x-axis is 54◦ , and A’s magnitude is 10 units.
(a) Find the components of A in both coordinate
systems shown. (b) Verify that the magnitude of
A, computed using Equation 3-1, is the same in
both coordinate systems.
Solution
(a) In the x-y system, Ax = A cos θ = 10 cos 54◦ = 5.88
and Ay = 10 sin 54◦ = 8.09. In the x′ -y ′ system,
θ′ = 54◦ − 21◦ = 33◦ so A′x = 10 cos 33◦ = 8.39 and
A′y = 10 sin 33◦ = 5.45 (b) Direct calculation shows
p p
that (5.88)2 + (8.09)2 = (8.39)2 + (5.45)2 = 10,
which reflects the fact that sin2 + cos2 = 1. (The
mathematical definition of a two-dimensional vector is
a pair of numbers (Vx , Vy ) which transform like the
position vector (x, y) when the coordinate axes are
rotated.)
Problem
24. Vector A is 10 units long and points 30◦ counter-
clockwise (CCW) from horizontal. What are the x
and y components on a coordinate system (a) with
the x-axis horizontal and the y-axis vertical;
(b) with the x-axis at 45◦ CCW from horizontal
and the y-axis 45◦ CCW from vertical; and
(c) with the x-axis at 30◦ CCW from horizontal
and the y-axis 90◦ CCW from the x-axis?
Solution
The component of a vector along any direction equals
the magnitude of the vector times the cosine of the
angle (≤ 180◦). Thus,
(a) Ax = 10 cos 30◦ = 8.66, Ay = 10 cos 60◦ = 5.00
(b) A′x = 10 cos 15◦ = 9.66, A′y = 10 cos 105◦ = −2.59
(c) A′′x = 10 cos 0◦ = 10, A′′y = 10 cos 90◦ = 0.
Problem 24 Solution.
Problem
25. Express the sum of the unit vectors ı̂, ̂, and k̂ in
unit vector notation, and determine its magnitude.
Solution
p √
r =ı̂ +̂ + k̂; |r| = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3.
Problem
26. A mountain expedition starts a base camp at an
altitude of 5500 m. Four climbers then establish
an advance camp at an altitude of 7400 m; the
advance camp is southeast of the base camp, at a
horizontal distance of 8.2 km. From the advance
camp, two climbers head directly north to an
8900-m summit, a horizontal distance of 2.1 km.

Using a coordinate system with the x-axis
eastward, the y-axis northward, and the z-axis
upward, and with origin at the base camp, express
the positions of the advance camp and summit in
unit vector notation, and determine the
straight-line distance from base camp to summit.
Solution
The vector from base to advance camps is
A = (8.2 km)(ı̂ cos 45◦ −̂ sin 45◦ ) + (7.4 km −
5.5 km)k̂ = (5.80ı̂ − 5.80̂ + 1.90k̂) km, and that
from advance camp to summit B = (2.1̂ + 1.5k̂) km.
Therefore, the vector from base camp to summit is
C = A + B = (5.80ı̂ − 5.80̂ + 1.90k̂) km +
(2.1̂ + 1.5k̂) km + (5.80ı̂ − 3.70̂ + 3.40k̂) km. The
straight-line
p distance is
C = (5.8)2 + (−3.7)2 + (3.4)2 km = 7.67 km.
Problem 26 Solution.
Problem
27. In Fig. 3-15, suppose that vectors A and C both
make 30◦ angles with the horizontal while B
makes a 60◦ angle, and that A = 2.3 km,
B = 1.0 km, and C = 2.9 km. (a) Express the
displacement vector ∆r from start to summit in
each of the coordinate systems shown, and
(b) determine its length.
Solution
Using the x-y system in Fig. 3-15, we have θA
θC = 30◦ , and θB = 60◦ . Then A = A(ı̂ cos θA +
̂ sin θA ) = (2.3 km)(ı̂ cos 30◦ +̂ sin 30◦ ) =
(1.99ı̂ + 1.15̂)km, B = (1 km)(ı̂ cos 60◦ +̂ sin 60◦ ) =
(0.50ı̂ + 0.87̂) km, and C = (2.9 km)(ı̂ cos 30◦ +
̂ sin 30◦ ) = (2.51ı̂ + 1.45̂)km. Thus,
∆r = A p+ B + C = (5.00ı̂ + 3.47̂) km, and
∆r = (5.00)2 + (3.47)2 km = 6.09 km. A similar
calculation in the x′ -y ′ system, with θA ′ ′
= θC = 0 and
′ ◦ ′ magnitude.
θB = 30 , yields A = 2.3ı̂ km, B = (1 km)×
(ı̂′ cos 30◦ +̂′ sin 30◦ ) = (0.87ı̂′ + 0.50̂′ ) km, C =
′ ′ ′
2.9ı̂
p km, ∆r = (6.07ı̂ + 0.50̂ ) km, and
(6.07)2 + (0.50)2 = 6.09, of course.
CHAPTER 3 7
Section 3-4: Velocity and Acceleration Vectors
Problem
28. An object is moving at 18 m/s at an angle of
counterclockwise from the x-axis. What are the
x and y components of its velocity?
Solution
vx = (18 m/s) cos 220◦ = −13.8 m/s.
vy = (18 m/s) cos(220◦ − 90◦ ) = (18 m/s) sin 220◦ =
−11.6 m/s.
Problem
29. A car drives north at 40 mi/h for 10 min, then
turns east and goes 5.0 mi at 60 mi/h. Finally, it
goes southwest at 30 mi/h for 6.0 min. Draw a
vector diagram and determine (a) the car’s
displacement and (b) its average velocity for this
trip.
Solution
Take a coordinate system with x-axis east, y-axis
north, and origin at the starting point. The first
segment of the trip can be represented by a
displacement vector in the y direction of length
(40 mi/h)(10 min), or r1 = (20/3)̂ mi. For the second
segment, r2 = 5ı̂ mi. The time spent on this segment is
t2 = 5 mi/(60 mi/h) = 5 min. The final segment has
length (30 mi/h)(6 min). A unit vector in the
◦ ◦
southwest√direction is ı̂ cos 225
√ +̂ sin 225 =
− (ı̂ + ̂)/ 2, so r 3 = − (3/ 2)(ı̂ +̂) mi. These
displacements and their sum are shown in the sketch.
(a) The total displacement
√ is rtot = r1 + r2 + r3 =
[(20/3)̂ + 5ı̂ − (3/ 2)(ı̂ +̂)] mi = (2.88ı̂ + 4.55̂) mi.
(b) The total time is 10 min + 5 min +6 min = 21 min,
so the average velocity for the trip is v̄ = rtot /ttot =
(2.88ı̂ + 4.55̂) mi/(21/60) h = (8.22ı̂ + 13.0̂) mi/h.
(Note: Instead of unit vector notation, rtot and v̄
could
p be specified by their magnitudes
(2.88)2 + (4.55)2 mi = 5.38 mi and 15.4 mi/h,
respectively, and common direction,
θ = tan−1 (4.55/2.88) = 57.7◦ N of E.)
Problem
30. A biologist studying the motion of bacteria notes a
bacterium at position r1 = 2.2ı̂ + 3.7̂ − 1.2k̂ µ m
(1 µ m = 10−6 m). After 6.2 s the bacterium is at
r2 = 4.6ı̂ + 1.9k̂ µ m. What is its average velocity?
Express in unit vector notation, and calculate the
Solution
v = (r2 − r1 )/(t2 − t1 )
8 CHAPTER 3
Problem 29 Solution.
= [(4.6ı̂ + 1.9k̂) − (2.2ı̂ + 3.7̂ − 1.2k̂)]µ m/6.2 s
= (0.387ı̂ − 0.597̂ + 0.500k̂)µ m/s
p Problem
|v| = (0.387)2 + (−0.597)2 + (0.5)2 µ m/s
= 0.869 µ m/s.
Problem
31. The Orlando-to-Atlanta flight described in
Problem 10 takes 2.5 h. What is the average
velocity? Express (a) as a magnitude and
direction, and (b) in unit vector notation with the
x-axis east and the y-axis north.
Solution
(b) The displacement from Orlando to Atlanta
calculated in Problem 10 was A = (−320ı̂ + 577̂) km
in a coordinate system with x-axis east and y-axis
north. If this trip took 2.5 h, the average velocity was
v̂ = A/2.5 hp= (−128ı̂ + 231̂) km/h. (a) This has
magnitude (−128)2 + (231)2 km/h = 264 km/h and
direction θ = tan−1 (231/−128) = 119◦ (which was
given).
Problem
32. The minute hand of a clock is 5.5 cm long. What
is the average velocity vector for the tip of the
hand during the interval from the hour to
20 minutes past the hour, expressed in a
coordinate system with the y-axis toward noon
and x-axis toward 3 o’clock?
Solution
At the hour, the tip of the minute hand has position
r1 = (5.5 cm)̂, while at 20 min past the hour, it has
position r2 = (5.5 cm)(ı̂ cos ( − 30◦ ) +̂ sin ( − 30◦ )) =
(4.76ı̂ − 2.75̂) cm. The average velocity is v̄ =
(r2 − r1 )/20 min = (4.76ı̂ − 8.25̂) cm/20 min =
(0.238ı̂ − 0.413̂) cm/min.
Problem 32 Solution.
33. A hot-air balloon rises vertically 800 m over a
period of 10 min, then drifts eastward 14 km in
27 min. Then the wind shifts, and the balloon
moves northeastward for 15 min, at a speed of
24 km/h. Finally, it drops vertically in 5 min until
it is 250 m above the ground. Express the
balloon’s average velocity in unit vector notation,
using a coordinate system with the x-axis
eastward, the y-axis northward, and the z-axis
upward.
Solution
The displacement for the first segment of the balloon’s
excursion is r1 = 0.8k̂ km, in the coordinate system
specified, and for the second segment r2 = 14ı̂ km.
The third segment has length (24 km/h)(15 min) =
6 km in the northeast √ direction ı̂ cos 45◦ +̂ sin 45◦ ,
so r3 = (6 km)(ı̂ +̂)/ 2 = (4.24ı̂ + 4.24̂) km.
Finally, the last segment’s displacement is r4 =
(250 m − 800 m)k̂ = − 0.55k̂ km (this is a drop of
550 m from the preceding altitude). The total
displacement ∆r = r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 =
[(14 + 4.24)ı̂ + 4.24̂ + (0.8 − 0.55)k̂] km = (18.2ı̂ +
4.24̂ + 0.25k̂) km is accomplished in total time
∆t = (10 + 27 + 15 + 5) min = 0.950 h, so the average
velocity is ∆r/∆t = (19.2ı̂ + 4.47̂ + 0.263k̂) km/h.
Problem
34. Figure 3-25 shows the path of a bug as it crawls
around a tabletop. Dots mark the position of the
bug at each second. Determine the average
velocity of the bug over the interval (a) from 1.0 s
to 2.0 s; (b) from 2.0 s to 4.0 s; (c) 0 to 6.0 s.

y (mm)
4
3 Solution
6.0 s
2 5.0 s
4.0 s 1
0s
x (mm)
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
3.0 s –1 1.0 s
–2
2.0 s
–3
–4
figure 3-25 Problem 34.
Solution
The position vectors for the bug, at each second of
time, can be read off Fig. 3-25, so the average velocity
for any interval can be calculated from Equation 3-5,
v̄ = ∆r/∆t. (a) v̄a = [r(2 s) − r(1 s)]/(2 s − 1 s)
= [(−3̂ mm) − (3ı̂ − ̂) mm]/1 s = −(3ı̂ + 2̂) mm/s.
(b) v̄b = [r(4 s) − r(2 s)]/(4 s − 2 s) =[( −ı̂ +
0.5̂) mm −(−3̂ mm)]/2 s = (−0.5ı̂ + 1.75̂) mm/s.
(c) v̄c = [r(6 s) − r(0)]/6 s = [( −ı̂ + 2̂) mm − 0]/6 s =
(−0.167ı̂ + 0.333̂) mm/s.
Problem
35. An object’s position as a function of time is given
by r = 12tı̂ + (15t − 5.0t2 )̂ m, where t is time in s.
(a) What is the object’s position at t = 2.0 s? (b)
What is its average velocity in the interval from
t = 0 to t = 2.0 s? (c) What is its instantaneous
velocity at t = 2.0 s?
Solution
(a) The object’s position is given as a function of time,
so when t = 2 s, this is r(2 s) = (12 m/s)(2 s)ı̂ +
2
[(15 m/s)(2 s)− (5.0 m/s )(2 s)2 ]̂ = 24ı̂ + 10̂ m,
where we explicitly displayed the units of the
coefficients in the intermediate step. (b) Since
r(0) = 0, the average velocity for this interval is
v̄ = [r(2 s) − r(0)]/(2 s − 0) = 12ı̂ + 5̂ m/s. (c) The
instantaneous velocity at any time is dr/dt =
(12 m/s)l + [(15 m/s) − (5.0 m/s2 )2t]̂ = v(t) (see
Appendix A-2 for the derivative of tn ), so when
t = 2 s, v(2s) = 12ı̂ − 5̂ m/s.
Problem
36. A supersonic aircraft is traveling east at
2100 km/h. It then begins to turn southward,
emerging from the turn 2.5 min later heading due
south at 1800 km/h. What are the magnitude and
direction of its average acceleration during the
CHAPTER 3 9
turn?
In a coordinate system with x-axis east and y-axis
north, the initial velocity of the airplane at the
beginning of its turn is v1 = 2100ı̂ km/h, and the final
velocity at the end is v2 = −1800̂ km/h. The average
acceleration (Equation 3-8) is ā = (v2 − v1 )÷
(t2 − t1 ) = (−1800̂ − 2100ı̂)(km/h)/2.5 min =
2
−(3.89ı̂ + 3.33̂) m/s , with magnitude
p 2
(−3.89) + (−3.33)2 m = 5.12 m/s and direction
2
−1 ◦
θ = tan (−3.33/3.89) = 221 (in the third quadrant,
nearly southwest).
Problem
37. A car, initially going eastward, rounds a 90◦ bend
and ends up heading southward. If the
speedometer reading remains constant, what is the
direction of the car’s average acceleration vector?
Solution
Since the speed is constant, the change in velocity for
the 90◦ turn is ∆v = −v̂−(vı̂) = −v(ı̂ +̂), where ı̂ is
east and ̂ is north. The direction of the average
acceleration is the same as that of ∆v, which is
parallel to −(ı̂ +̂) or southwest.
(θ = tan−1 (−1/−1) = 225◦.)
Problem
38. Earth moves in a nearly circular orbit about the
Sun. What is the magnitude of its average
acceleration over the intervals (a) from January 1
to July 1 and (b) from January 1 to April 1?
(c) What is the angle between the two average
acceleration vectors for the intervals given?
Consult Appendix E for Earth’s orbital speed.
Solution
(a) In six months (half a year or 12 ×3.156×107 s) the
Earth has traveled half way around its orbit, so its
velocity has merely reversed direction, vJul =−vJan .
The magnitude of the average acceleration is
āa = |vJul − vJan | /∆t = 2 |vJul | / 21 y. The Earth’s
orbital speed is nearly constant at 30km/s; therefore
āa = 4(30 km/s)/3.156 × 107 s = 3.80 mm/s . The
2
direction of āa is parallel to vJul . (b) In just three
months, the Earth covers one fourth of its orbit, so its
velocity changes by almost 90◦ , i.e., vApr ⊥vJan . Then
∆v = vApr − vJan forms the hypotenuse of an isosceles
right
√ triangle, as shown in the sketch, with magnitude
2|v|. Therefore, the
√ magnitude of√the average
acceleration is āb = 2|v|/ 14 y = 4 2(30 km/s)÷
3.156×107 s = 5.38 mm/s2 . (c) From the sketch, one
10 CHAPTER 3
can see that the angle between the ∆v’s in parts
(a) and (b) is 45◦ (which would be exact only for a
circular orbit and equal-length months).
Problem 38 Solution.
Problem
39. What are (a) the average velocity and (b) the
average acceleration of the tip of the 2.4-cm-long
hour hand of a clock in the interval from 12 p.m.
to 6 p.m.? Express in unit vector notation, with
the x-axis pointing toward 3 p.m. and the y-axis
toward 12 p.m.
Solution
The position and velocity of the tip of the hour hand
are shown in the diagram for 12 p.m. and 6 p.m., in
the coordinate system specified. The magnitude of the
position is a constant, namely, the 2.4-cm radius. The
magnitude of the velocity is also constant, namely, the
circumference divided by 12 h, or 2π(2.4 cm)/12 h =
1.26 cm/h. (a) v̄ = (r2 − r1 )/6 h =
(−2.4̂ − 2.4̂) cm/6 h = − 0.8̂ cm/h. (b) ā =
(v2 − v1 )/6 h = (−1.26ı̂ − 1.26ı̂)(cm/h)/6 h. =
−0.419ı̂ cm/h2 .
Problem 39 Solution.
Problem
40. Attempting to stop on a slippery road, a car
moving at 80 km/h skids across the road at a
30◦ angle to its initial motion, coming to a stop in
3.9 s. Determine the average acceleration in m/s2 ,
using a coordinate system with the x-axis in the
direction of the car’s original motion and the
y-axis toward the side of the road to which the car
skids.
Problem 40 Solution.
Solution
The car’s acceleration is opposite to the direction of
the skid, since it comes to a stop (if v = 0,
a = −v0 /∆t). Its magnitude is given by Equation 3-8,
|a| = |v − v0 | /∆t = |−v0 | /∆t = (80 m/3.6 s)/3.9 s =
2
5.70 m/s . In relation to the coordinate system
specified, a = (5.70
2
m/s )(ı̂ cos 210◦ +̂ sin 210◦ ) =
√
−(5.70 m/s2 )( 3ı̂ + ̂)/2 = −(4.93ı̂ + 2.85̂) m/s2 .
(Note that v0 , the velocity at the start of the skid, is
not in the direction of the initial motion before the
skid.)
Problem
41. An object undergoes acceleration of 2.3ı̂ +
2
3.6̂ m/s over a 10-s interval. At the end of this
time, its velocity is 33ı̂ + 15̂ m/s. (a) What was
its velocity at the beginning of the 10-s interval?
(b) By how much did its speed change? (c) By
how much did its direction change? (d) Show that
the speed change is not given by the magnitude of
the acceleration times the time. Why not?
Solution
(a) v = v0 + at, so v0 = v − at, or v0 =
3.6̂) m/s2 (10 s) =
(33ı̂ + 15̂) m/s − (2.3ı̂ + p
(10ı̂ − 21̂) 2 2
p m/s. (b) v0 = (10) + (−21) = 23.3 m/s,
and v = (33)2 + (15)2 = 36.2 m/s, so the change in
speed is ∆v = v − v0 = 13.0 m/s (we did not round off
before subtracting). (c) θ = tan−1 (15/33) = 24.4◦ and
θ0 = tan−1 (−21/10) = 295◦ = −64.5◦ (positive angles
CCW, negative angles CW, from x-axis) so the
direction changed by ∆θ = θ − θ0 = 89.0◦ . (d) at =

p 2
(2.3)2 + (3.6)2 m/s (10 s) = 42.7 m/s 6= ∆v. The
difference between at = |v − v0 | and ∆v = v − v0 can
be seen from the triangle inequality:
| v − v0 | ≤ | v − v0 | ≤ v + v0 .
Problem 41 Solution.
Problem
42. An object’s position as a function of time is given
by r = (bt3 + ct)ı̂ + dt2 ̂ + (et + f )k̂, where b, c, d,
e, and f are constants. Determine the velocity and
acceleration as functions of time.
Solution
Differentiating each term using Equation 2-3, we find
v = dr = dt = (3bt2 + c)ı̂ + 2dt̂ + ek̂, and
a = dv/dt = 6btı̂ = 2d̂.
Problem
43. The position of an object is given by
r = (ct − bt3 )ı̂ + dt2 ̂, with constants c = 6.7 m/s,
b = 0.81 m/s3 , and d = 4.5 m/s2 . (a) Determine
the object’s velocity at time t = 0. (b) How long
does it take for the direction of motion to change
by 90◦ ? (c) By how much does the speed change
during this time?
Solution
(a) v(t) = dr/dt = (c − 3bt2 )ı̂ + 2dt̂, so
v(0) = (6.7 m/s)ı̂. (b) The direction of v(t) is
θ(t) = tan−1 (2dt/(c − 3bt2 )), measured CCW from
the x-axis, so θ(0) = 0◦ . θ(t) = 90◦ when the
p
argument
q of the arctan is ∞, or t = c/3b. Thus,
3
t = (6.7 m/s)/3(0.81 m/s ) = 1.66 s. (The direction
was −90◦ at t = −1.66 s.) (c) Since vx = 0
of motion p
p t = c/3b the speed at t = 1.66 s is
when
2d c/3b = 14.9 m/s. The speed at t = 0 is
c = 6.7 m/s, so the change was 8.24 m/s.
CHAPTER 3 11
Problem
44. For the object of Problem 35, determine (a) the
average acceleration in the interval from t = 0 to
t = 2.0 s and (b) the instantaneous acceleration at
t = 2.0 s.
Solution
(a) The average acceleration during the interval used
in Problem 35 is ā = [v̄(2 s) − v̄(0)]/(2 s − 0) =
2
[(12ı̂ − 5̂) m/s− (12ı̂ + 15̂) m/s]/(2 s) = − 10̂ m/s
(see part (c) of the solution to Problem 35 for v̂(t)).
(b) The instantaneous acceleration at any time is
2
ā(t) = dv̄/dt = − (10 m/s )̂, which is constant,
including when t = 2 s.
Section 3-5: Relative Motion
Problem
45. A dog paces around the perimeter of a rectangular
barge that is headed up a river at 14 km/h
relative to the riverbank. The current in the water
is at 3.0 km/h. If the dog walks at 4.0 km/h, what
are its speeds relative to (a) the shore and (b) the
water as it walks around the barge?
Solution
(a) Let S be a frame of reference fixed on the shore,
with x-axis upstream, and let S ′ be a frame attached
to the barge. The velocity of S ′ relative to S is
V = (14 km/h)ı̂. The velocity of the dog relative to
the shore is (from Equation 3-25) v = v′ + V, and its
speed is v = |v′ + V|, where v ′ = 4 km/h. When the
dog is walking upstream, v′ k V, v = (4 + 14) km/h =
18 km/h, and when walking downstream, −v′ k V,
and v = (14 −√4) km/h = 10 km/h. When
v′ ⊥ V, v = 142 + 42 = 14.7 km/h. (In general,
v 2 = v ′2 + V 2 + 2v ′ V cos θ′ , where θ′ is the angle
between v′ and V in S ′ .) (b) Since the current flows
downstream, according to Equation 3-25:

vel. of barge
 
vel. of barge
 
vel. of water

= −
rel. to water rel. to shore rel. to shore
= 14ı̂ − (−3ı̂) km/h.
Going through the same steps as in part (a), for a new
frame S moving with the water, with a new relative
velocity V = (17 km/h)ı̂, we find the speed of the dog
relative to the water to be√(4 + 17) = 21 km/h,
(17 − 4) = 13 km/h, and 42 + 172 = 17.4 km/h, for
the corresponding segments of the barge’s perimeter.
12 CHAPTER 3
Problem 45 Solution.
Problem
46. A jetliner with an airspeed of 1000 km/h sets out
on a 1500-km flight due south. To maintain a
southward direction, however, the plane must be
pointed 15◦ west of south. If the flight takes
100 min, what is the wind velocity?
Solution
Using the same reference frames as specified in
Example 3-7, we are given that v =
(1500 km/100 min)(−̂) = −900̂ km/h, and
v′ = −(1000 km/h)(ı̂ sin 15◦ +̂ cos 15◦ ). The wind
velocity is V = v − v′ = (−900̂ + 259ı̂ + 966̂) =
(259ı̂√+ 65.9̂) km/h. Therefore, the wind speed is
V = 2592 + 65.92 = 267 km/h, and the angle V
makes with the x-axis is (tan − 1 65.9/259 = 14.3◦ )
(N of E). (The wind direction, by convention, is the
direction facing the wind, in this case 14.3◦ S of W.)
Problem 46 Solution.
Problem
47. A spacecraft is launched toward Mars at the
instant Earth is moving in the +x direction at its
orbital speed of 30 km/s, in the Sun’s frame of
reference. Initially the spacecraft is moving at
40 km/s relative to Earth, in the +y direction.
At the launch time, Mars is moving in the
−y direction at its orbital speed of 24 km/s. Find
the spacecraft’s velocity relative to Mars.
Solution
Equation 3-10 says that the velocity of the spacecraft
relative to Mars, vCM , equals the difference of the
velocities of each relative to the Sun, vCS , −vMS . (Our
notation vCM means the velocity of C relative to M.)
vMS is given as −(24 km/s)̂ in the Sun’s reference
frame, the x-y coordinates in the problem. The Earth
has velocity vES = (30 km/s)ı̂ in the Sun’s frame, and
vCE = (40 km/s)̂, where the y-axes in the Earth’s and
Sun’s frames are assumed to be parallel. A second
application of Equation 3-10 gives vCS = vCE + vES =
(40̂ + 30ı̂) km/s; therefore vCM = vCS − vMS =
(30ı̂ = 40̂) km/s − (−24̂) km/s = (30ı̂ + 64̂) km/s.
Problem
48. You wish to row straight across a 63-m-wide river.
If you can row at a steady 1.3 m/s relative to the
water, and the river flows at 0.57 m/s, (a) in what
direction should you head? (b) How long will it
take you to cross the river?
Solution
The current is perpendicular to the direction in which
you wish to cross, as shown in the sketch. V is the
current velocity (velocity of the water relative to the
ground), v is the velocity of the boat relative to the
ground, and v′ is the velocity of the boat relative to
the water. These three vectors satisfy Equation 3-10.
(a) Evidently, sin θ = |V| / |v′ |, or θ =
sin−1 (0.57/1.3) = 26.0◦ , which is your heading
upstream. (b) |v| = |v′ | cos θ = (1.3 m/s) cos 26.0◦ =
1.17 m/s is your speed across the river, so the crossing
time is t = r/v = 63 m/(1.17 m/s) = 53.9 s.
Problem 48 Solution.
Problem
49. You’re on an airport “people mover,” a conveyor
belt going at 2.2 m/s through a level section of the
terminal. A button falls off your coat and drops
freely 1.6 m, hitting the belt 0.57 s later. What

are the magnitude and direction of the button’s
displacement and average velocity during its fall in
(a) the frame of reference of the “people mover”
and (b) the frame of reference of the airport
terminal? (c) As it falls, what is its acceleration in
each frame of reference?
Solution
(c) Let S be the frame of reference of the airport and
S ′ the frame of reference of the conveyor belt. If the
velocity of S ′ relative to S is a constant, 2.2 m/s in the
x-x′ direction, then the acceleration of gravity is the
same in both systems. (a) In S ′ , the initial velocity of
the button is zero, and it falls vertically downward. Its
displacement is simply ∆y ′ = −1.6 m, and its average
velocity is ∆y ′ /∆t = −1.6 m/0.57 s = 2.81 m/s.
(b) In S, the initial velocity of the button is not zero
(it is 2.2 m/s in the x direction), and so the button
follows a projectile trajectory to be described in
Chapter 4. Here, we observe that while the button
falls vertically through a displacement ∆y =
∆y ′ = −1.6 m, it also moves horizontally (in the
direction of the conveyor belt) through a
displacement ∆x = (2.2 m/s)(0.57 s) = 1.25 m. Its
net displacement in S is ∆r = ∆xı̂ + ∆y̂ =
(1.25ı̂ − 1.60̂) m, so its average velocity is
v̄ = ∆r/∆t = (1.25ı̂ − 1.60̂) m/0.57 s =
(2.20ı̂ − 2.8̂) m/s. These have magnitudes |∆r| =
p
2 2
(1.25)
p + (−1.60) m = 2.03 m and
|v| = (2.20)2 + (−2.81)2 m/s = 3.57 m/s, and the
same direction θ = tan−1 (−1.60/1.25) = −51.9◦ from
the horizontal, or 38.1◦ from the downward vertical.
Problem
50. An airplane with airspeed of 370 km/h flies
perpendicularly across the jet stream. To achieve
this flight, the plane must be pointed into the jet
stream at an angle of 32◦ from the perpendicular
direction of its flight. What is the speed of the jet
stream?
Problem 50 Solution.
CHAPTER 3 13
Solution
The velocity of the jet stream, V (air relative to
ground, also called the “windspeed”), the velocity of
the airplane relative to the ground, v (the “ground
speed”), and the velocity of the airplane relative to the
air, v′ (the “air speed”) form the sides of a triangle
given by Equation 3-10, v′ + V = v, as shown. We are
given that the triangle is a right triangle (v ⊥ V),
that the angle between the airspeed and groundspeed
is 32◦ , and the hypotenuse (magnitude of airspeed) is
370 km/h. From trigonometry, the magnitude of the
windspeed is |V| = (370 km/h) sin 32◦ = 196 km/h.
Paired Problems
Problem
51. A rabbit scurries across a field, going eastward
21.0 m. It then turns and darts southwestward for
8.50 m. Then it pops down a rabbit hole, 1.10 m
vertically downward. What is the magnitude of
the displacement from its starting point?
Solution
In a coordinate system with x-axis east, y-axis north,
and z-axis up, the three displacements can be written
in terms of their components and the unit vectors:
r1 = 21.0ı̂ m, r2 = (8.50 m)(ı̂ cos 225◦ +̂ sin 225◦ ) =
−(6.01)(ı̂ +̂) m, and r3 = −1.10k̂ m. (Note that
southwest is 180◦ + 45◦ CCW from east.) The total
displacement is the vector sum r1 + r2 + r3 =
[(21.0 − 6.01)ı̂ − 6.01̂ − 1.10k̂] m, and its magnitude is
the
p square root of the sum of its components,
(15.0)2 + (−6.01)2 + (−1.10)2 m = 16.2 m.
Problem
52. A cosmic ray plows into Earth’s upper
atmosphere, liberating a shower of subatomic
particles. One of these particles moves downward
3.2 km, then undergoes a collision, after which it
moves 1.6 km at 27◦ northward of the vertical. It
then undergoes another collision that sends it
moving horizontally eastward for 2.1 km before it
annihilates with another particle. What is the
magnitude of its overall displacement?
Solution
Take a standard coordinate system with x-axis east,
y-axis north, and z-axis up. The particle begins
moving downward (say along the z-axis) through a
displacement r1 = −3.2k̂ km. It is then deflected in
the y-z plane (northward of the vertical) by 27◦ ,
so r2 + (1.6 km)(̂ sin 27◦ − k̂ cos 27◦ ), and
finally eastward through r3 = 2.1ı̂ km.
14 CHAPTER 3
Thus, |r1 + r2 + r3 | =
p
(2.1)2 + (1.6 sin 27◦ )2 + (−3.2 − 1.6 cos 27◦ )2 km
= 5.13 km.
Problem 52 Solution.
Problem
53. A car is heading into a turn at 85 km/h. It enters
the turn, slows to 55 km/h, and emerges 28 s later
at 35◦ to its original direction, still moving at
55 km/h. What are (a) the magnitude and
(b) the direction of its average acceleration, the
latter measured with respect to the car’s original
direction?
Solution
The initial and final velocities have magnitudes of
85 km/h and 55 km/h, respectively, and make an
angle of 35? as shown, where we chose the x-axis
parallel to vi and the y-axis in the direction
of the turn. The change in velocity is
∆v = vf − vi = (55 km/h)(ı̂ cos 35◦ + ̂ sin 35◦ ) −
(85 km/h)ı̂ = (−39.9ı̂ + 31.5̂) km/h: (a) The
magnitude of thepaverage acceleration is
ā = |∆v| /∆t = (−39.9)2 + (31.5)2 (km/h)/28 s =
2
1.82 km/h/s = 0.505 m/s . (b) The direction of
ā is the same as the direction of ∆v, or θ =
tan−1 (31.5/ − 39.9) = 142◦ . (This problem could also
have been solved using the laws of cosines and sines;
see the solution to the next problem.)
Problem
54. The Galileo space probe was originally to be
launched directly toward its destination, Jupiter.
But the 1986 explosion of the space shuttle
Challenger led to a decision that Galileo’s
liquid-fueled booster rocket was unsafe to fly on
the shuttle. As a result, Galileo’s trajectory
became a complicated path through the inner
Problem 53 Solution.
solar system, picking up speed through a so-called
“gravity assist” maneuver involving close
encounters with the planets Venus and Earth. The
first Earth encounter occurred on December 8,
1990, when Galileo, outbound from Venus, passed
200 miles from Earth. Thirty days before the
encounter, Galileo was approaching Earth at
2.99×104 m/s. Thirty days after the encounter,
Galileo was moving at 54◦ to its pre-encounter
direction, at a speed of 3.51×104 m/s. What were
(a) the magnitude and (b) the direction of
Galileo’s average acceleration during this interval,
the latter measured with respect to its
pre-encounter direction?
Problem 54 Solution.
Solution
The initial and final velocities for the 60 d interval are
given, as indicated in the diagram. Instead of using
unit vectors, as in the previous problem, let’s
use the laws of cosines and sines. (a) ∆v =
p
(29.9)2 + (35.1)2 − 2(29.9)(35.1) cos 54◦ km/s =
29.9 km/s. Therefore ā = |∆v| /∆t (29.9 km/s)÷
2
(60×86,400 s) = 5.76 mm/s . (b) θ = 180◦ −
sin−1 (35.1 sin 54◦ /29.9) = 180◦ − 71.9◦ = 108◦ .
Problem
55. The sweep-second hand of a clock is 3.1 cm long.
What are the magnitude of (a) the average
velocity and (b) the average acceleration of the
hand’s tip over a 5.0-s interval? (c) What is the

angle between the average velocity and
acceleration vectors?
Solution
There will be numerous occasions to use vector
components to analyze circular motion in later
chapters (or see the solutions to Problems 18, 32, 38,
and 39), so let’s use geometry to solve this problem.
(a) The angular displacement of the hand during a 5 s
interval is θ = (5/60)(360◦) = 30◦ . The position
vectors (from the center hub) of the tip at the
beginning and end of the interval, r1 and r2 , form the
sides of an isosceles triangle whose base is the
magnitude of the displacement, | ∆r | = 2 |r| sin 12 θ =
2(3.1 cm) sin(30◦ /2) = 1.60 cm, and whose base angle
is 21 (180◦ − 30◦ ) = 75◦ . Thus, the average velocity has
magnitude | ∆r | /∆t = 1.60 cm/5 s = 0.321 cm/s and
direction 180◦ − 75◦ = 105◦CW from r1 . (b) The
instantaneous speed of the tip of the second-hand is a
constant and equal to the circumference divided by 60
s, or v = 2π(3.1 cm)/60 s = 0.325 cm/s. The direction
of the velocity of the tip is tangent to the
circumference, or perpendicular to the radius, in the
Problem 55 Solution.
CHAPTER 3 15
direction of motion (CW). The angle between two
tangents is the same as the angle between the two
corresponding radii, so v1 , v2 and ∆v form an
isosceles triangle similar to the one in part (a). Thus
|∆v| = 2 |v| sin 21 θ = 2(0.325 cm/s) sin( 12 × 30◦ ) =
0.168 cm/s. The magnitude of the average
acceleration is |∆v| /∆t = (0.168 cm/s)/5 s =
2
3.36×10−2 cm/s , and its direction is 105◦ CW from
the direction of v1 , or 195◦ CW from the direction of
r1 . (c) The angle between ā and v̄, from parts (a) and
(b), is 195◦ − 105◦ = 90◦ . (Note: This is the geometry
used in Section 4.4 to discuss centripetal acceleration.)
Problem
56. A proton in a cyclotron follows a circular path
23 cm in diameter, completing one revolution in
0.17 µs. What are the magnitude of (a) the
average velocity and (b) the average acceleration
as the proton sweeps through one-twelfth of the
full circle? (c) What is the angle between the
average velocity and acceleration vectors?
Solution
One-twelfth of a revolution is 30◦ , so the geometry of
this problem is the same as that for the previous one,
and the directions of v̄, ā and the angle between them
are the same as in Problem 55. The magnitudes,
however, are different. (a) |∆r| = 2 |r| sin 12 θ =
(23 cm) sin 15◦ = 5.95 cm and ∆t = 0.17 µs/12 =
14.2 ns. Thus, |v̄| = |∆r| /∆t = 4.20 Mm/s. (b) The
instantaneous constant speed is π(23 cm)/(0.17 µs) =
4.25 Mm/s, so |∆v| = 2(4.25 Mm/s) sin 15◦ =
2
2.20 Mm/s. Then |ā| = |∆v| /∆t = 1.55×1014 m/s .
Problem
57. A ferryboat sails between two towns directly
opposite one another on a river. If the boat sails
at 15 km/h relative to the water, and if the
current flows at 6.3 km/h, at what angle should
the boat head?
Problem 57 Solution.
16 CHAPTER 3
Solution
The velocity of the boat relative to the ground, v, is
perpendicular to the velocity of the water relative to
the ground, the current velocity V, which form a right
triangle with hypotenuse v′ equal to the velocity of the
boat relative to the water, as shown in the diagram
and as required by Equation 3-10. The heading
upstream is θ = sin−1 (|V| / |v′ |) = sin−1 (6.3/15) =
24.8◦.
Problem
58. A flock of geese is attempting to migrate due
south, but the wind is blowing from the west at
5.1 m/s. If the birds can fly at 7.5 m/s relative to
the air, in what direction should they head?
Solution
If the windspeed is perpendicular to the geese’s desired
groundspeed, their airspeed must be inclined upwind
by θ = sin−1 (5.1/7.5) = 42.8◦ . (See the diagram and
the solution to Problem 50 for a definition of terms.)
Problem 58 Solution.
Supplementary Problems
Problem
59. A satellite is in a circular orbit 240 km above
Earth’s surface, moving at a constant speed of
7.80 km/s. A tracking station picks up the
satellite when it is 5.0◦ above the horizon, as
shown in Fig. 3-26. The satellite is tracked until it
is directly overhead. What are the magnitudes of
(a) its displacement, (b) its average velocity, and
(c) its average acceleration during the tracking
interval? Is the value of the average acceleration
approximately familiar?
Solution
Once we know the angular displacement, ∆θ, of the
satellite in its orbit, we can calculate the magnitudes
figure 3-26 Problem 59 (figure is not to scale).
of the displacement from its initial position P1 to its
final position P2 , and its average velocity and
acceleration, during the same tracking interval, by
using the geometrical analysis in the solution to
Problem 55, to which the reader is referred. In the
diagram based on Fig. 3-26, O is the center of the
Earth, RE = 6370 km is the average radius of the
Earth, A is the tracking station, and
r = RE + h = 6370 km + 240 km = 6610 km is the
radius of the orbit. We apply the law of cosines to
triangle OAP1 to find AP1 , and then the law of sines
to find ∆θ. Thus,
(6610 km)2 = (6370 km)2 + (AP1 )2
− 2(6370 km)(AP1 ) cos 95◦ .
This is a quadratic equation with (positive) solution
AP1 = (6370 km) cos 95◦
p
+ (6370 km)2 cos2 95◦ + (6610 km)2 − (6370 km)2
= 1295 km.
(We are keeping four significant figures in the
intermediate results, but will round off to three at the
end.) Then sin ∆θ/AP1 = sin 95◦ /r gives
∆θ = sin−1 (1295 sin 95◦ /6610) = 11.26◦ .
(a) Now that we know ∆θ, the magnitude of the
displacement can be found from the isosceles triangle
OP1 P2 as in Problem 55. P1 P2 = 2r sin 12 ∆θ =
2(6610 km) sin 21 (11.26◦) = 1296 km ≈ 1300 km.
(b) To find the magnitude of the average velocity,
we first need to find the tracking interval ∆t . The
time for a complete orbit (called the period) is the
orbital circumference divided by the speed, or
T = 2πr/v = 2π(6610 km)/(7.8 km/s) = 5.325×103 s.
During the tracking interval, the satellite completes
only a fraction ∆θ/360◦ of a complete orbit, so
∆t = (11.26◦ /360◦)(5.325×103 s) = 166.5 s. Thus,
|v̄| = P1 P2 /∆t = 1296 km/166.5 s = 7.78 km/s.

(c) As shown in the solution to Problem 55, the
velocity vectors at P1 and P2 form an isosceles triangle
similar to OP1 P2 . Thus | ∆v| = 2 |v| sin 12 ∆θ =
2(7.8 km/s) sin 12 (11.26◦ ) = 1.530 km/s, and the
magnitude of the average acceleration is
2
|ā| = |∆v| /∆t = (1.530 km/s)/166.5 s = 9.19 m/s .
When we recall that the Earth’s gravity holds the
satellite in its orbit, it is not surprising that this
magnitude is close to g. Of course, at an altitude of
240 km, the Earth’s gravitational field is only
9.11 m/s2 (compared to 9.81 m/s2 at the surface). We
must also remember that there is a discrepancy
between the average and instantaneous accelerations
due to the finite size of ∆t .
Problem 59 Solution
Problem
60. The sum, A + B, of two vectors is perpendicular
to the difference, A − B. How do the magnitudes
of the two vectors compare?
Solution
The vectors A + B and A − B are the two diagonals
of the parallelogram formed by sides A and B. If the
diagonals are perpendicular, the parallelogram is a
rhombus; hence |A| = |B|. (Students are advised to
redo this problem after the “dot” product is defined in
Section 7.2.)
Problem
61. Find two vectors in the x-y plane that are
perpendicular to the vector aı̂ + b̂.
Solution
One vector perpendicular to the given vector,
A = aı̂ + b̂, is a vector B of the same magnitude,
CHAPTER 3 17
Problem 60 Solution.
|B| = |A|, but pointing at an angle 90◦ more than the
angle of A with the x-axis, as shown in the sketch, i.e.,
θB = 90◦ + θA . The components of A are
Ax = |A| cos θA = a and Ay = |A| sin θA = b, while
the components of B are Bx = |B| cos θB =
|A| cos(90◦ + θA ) = − |A| sin θA = −b and
By = |B| sin(90◦ + θA ) = |A| cos θA = a. Thus,
B = −bı̂ + a̂ is perpendicular to A = aı̂ + b̂. Clearly,
−B = bı̂ − a̂ is also perpendicular to A, as is any
scalar multiple of B. (Another way to do this problem
is to use the scalar product defined in Section 7.2.)
Problem 61 Solution.
Problem
62. Find the angle between the vectors 3.0ı̂ + 1.7̂ and
6.1ı̂ − 4.2̂.
Solution
The angle a vector makes with the x-axis can be found
from its components, θ = tan−1 (Ay /Ax ) (see
Equation 3-2 and Fig. 3-11(a)). For the first vector,
θ1 = tan−1 (1.7/3.0) = 29.5◦ (in the first quadrant) and
for the second, θ2 = tan−1 (−4.2/6.1) = 325◦ or −34.6◦
(in the fourth quadrant). The angle between them is
the difference θ1 − θ2 = 29.5◦ − (−34.6◦ ) = 64.1◦ .
(Note: 29.5◦ − 325◦ = −296◦ + 360◦ = 64.1◦ . There
are two possible angles between any two vectors, one
less than, the other greater than 180◦. By convention,
the smaller one is always used.)
Problem
63. Write an expression for a unit vector that lies at
45◦ between the positive x- and y-axes.
18 CHAPTER 3

Solution y
◦
A vector of unit magnitude, making a 45 angle CCW
with the x-axis, can √ be expressed as 1· cos 45◦ ı̂ +
◦
1· sin 45 ̂ = (ı̂ +̂)/ 2. (A unit vector in any
direction in the x-y plane is therefore n̂ =
ı̂ cos θ +̂ sin θ.) θB
B
C g
Problem
64. A vector A has components Ax and Ay in a
A
coordinate system with axes x and y. Find its θA x
components A′x and A′y in a coordinate system
whose axes x′ and y ′ are rotated counterclockwise
figure 3-27 Problem 65.
through an angle θ from the x- and y-axes. Test
your result for the cases θ = 0 and θ = 90◦ .

Problem
y
y′
Ay
Aycos θ 66. You wish to paddle a canoe perpendicularly across
Aysin θ a river of width w and back. If the river’s flow
x′
Ay′
θ
speed is c, and you can paddle at speed v relative
Ĵ AZ′
Axcos θ Ĵ′ î′
θ
Axsin θ to the water, show that your
√ round-trip travel
î AZ
x
time is given by ∆t = 2w/ v 2 − c2 .

figure 3-14 Problem 64. Solution

Solution
By drawing an extra line on Fig. 3-14 (through Ax on
the x-axis perpendicular to the dotted line through A′y
on the y ′ -axis), one sees that A′x = Ax cos θ + Ay sin θ
and A′y = −Ax sin θ + Ay cos θ. For θ = 0,
A′x = Ax and A′y = Ay (no change), while for θ = 90◦ ,
A′x = Ay and A′y = −Ax (a 90◦ CW rotation of A).
Crossing perpendicular to the current, your velocity
relative to the ground, u, and the current velocity, c,
form a right triangle with hypotenuse equal to your
velocity relative to the water,
√ v. (See Equation 3-10
and the sketch.) Thus, u = v 2 − c2 , and the time for
a round-trip of length 2w is ∆t = 2w/u.

Problem
65. Figure 3-27 shows two arbitrary vectors A and B
that sum to a third vector C. By working with
components, prove the law of cosines:
C 2 = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos γ.
Solution
Adding some lines parallel to the axes and labeling the
angles of the vectors in Fig. 3-27, one sees that
Cx = Ax + Bx = A cos θA + B cos θB and
Cy = A sin θA + B sin θB . Squaring, adding, and using
two trigonometric identities from Appendix A, one
gets C 2 = Cx2 + Cy2 = A2 (cos2 θA + sin2 θA )+
B 2 (cos2 θB + sin2 θB ) + 2AB(cos θA cos θB +
sin θA sin θB ) = A2 + B 2 + 2AB cos(θB − θA ). This is
the law of cosines when we replace θB − θA by
180◦ − γ, where γ is the angle between sides A and B
in the vector triangle.
Problem 66 Solution.
Problem
67. Town B is located across the river from town A
and at a 40.0◦ angle upstream from A, as shown in
Fig. 3-28. A ferryboat travels from A to B; it sails
at 18.0 km/h relative to the water. If the current
in the river flows at 5.60 km/h, at what angle
should the boat head? What will be its speed
relative to the ground? Hint: Set up
Equation 3-10 for this situation. Each component
of Equation 3-10 yields two equations in the
 CHAPTER 3 19

unknowns v, the magnitude of the boat’s velocity cos−1 (13.9 cos 40◦ /18.0) = 53.8◦. (Equations similar to
relative to the ground, and φ, the unknown angle. these will be solved when collisions in two-dimensions
Solve the x equation for cos φ and substitute into and the conservation of momentum are discussed in
the second
p equation, using the relation Chapter 11.)
sin φ = 1 − cos2 φ. You can then solve for v,
then go back and get φ from your first equation.

V
V B

u9
40°
A

figure 3-28 Problem 67.

Solution
The diagram shows the velocities and coordinate axes
added to Fig. 3-28. v′ (the velocity of the boat
relative to the water), v (the velocity of the boat
relative to the ground), and V (the velocity of the
water relative to the ground) are related by
Equation 3-10, v′ = v − V. This vector equation is
equivalent to two scalar equations, one for each
component, vx′ = vx − Vx and vy′ = vy − Vy . The
components of each vector, in terms of its
magnitude and angle, are vx′ = v ′ cos θ′ ×
vy′ = v ′ sin θ′ , vx = v cos 40◦ , vy = v sin 40◦ , and
Vx = 0, Vy = −V. Therefore, the x and y component
equations are v ′ cos θ′ = v cos 40◦ and
v ′ sin θ′ = v sin 40◦ + V. We can eliminate θ′ by
squaring and adding (since sin2 + cos2 = 1):
v ′2 (cos2 θ′ + sin2 θ′ ) = v 2 (cos2 40◦ + sin2 40◦ )+
2vV sin 40◦ + V 2 , or v 2 + 2vV sin 40◦ − v ′2 + V 2 = 0.
The positive root of this quadratic for v (appropriate
◦
for
p a magnitude) is v = −V sin 40 +
2
V 2 sin 40◦ + v ′2 − V 2 . If the given values v ′ =
18.0 km/h and V = 5.60 km/h are substituted, we find
the speed relative to the ground is v = 13.9 km/h.
Going back to the x component equation, we
find the heading θ′ = cos−1 (v cos 40◦ /v ′ ) =
20 CHAPTER 3

Problem
68. A space shuttle orbits the Earth at 27,000 km/h,
while at the equator Earth rotates at 1300 km/h.
The two motions are in roughly the same direction
(west to east), but the shuttle orbit is inclined at
25◦ to the equator. What is the shuttle’s velocity
relative to scientists tracking it from the equator?

Solution
Let v and V be the velocities of the space shuttle and
the tracking station, respectively, relative to a
reference frame fixed at the center of the Earth. The
shuttle’s velocity relative to the station is v′ = v − V.
In general, this is a problem in spherical trigonometry,
in which v′ depends on the relative positions of the
shuttle and the station. Suppose that the shuttle is
passing directly over the tracking station (as at point
A). Then the angle between v and V is 25◦ , while
magnitudes are given, so v′ can be found from the law
of cosines and the law of sines:
p
v′ = (1300)2 + (27, 000)2 − 2(1300)(27, 000) cos 25◦
= 26.5×103 km/h,
θ = 180◦ − sin−1 (27 sin 25◦ /26.5) = 25.5◦ .

Problem 68 Solution.