APPENDIX On the use of multi-ports for flow ducts1481. INTRODUCTION ‘This short note is aimed to give an introduction to the use of acoustical multi-ports for ‘modelling sound generation and transmission in flow duets, After @ definition of the concept ‘of multi-port, the application to acoustics is treated with a focus on the fluid-borne sound cease, but some remarks conceming the structure-bore case are also included. Various definitions of state variables as well as symmetry and reciprocity are discussed. Section 2 treats the low frequency (plane wave) range and the use of 2-port models, Firs, the standard transfer-matrix formulation is introduced and applied to cascade coupled systems. Arbitrary coupled systems are briefly discussed and the scattering-matrix is defined. The 2-ports for a few standard cases are presented, including a straight pipe, a side-branch, an axial fan and a flow constriction, Section 3 focuses on the use of experimental methods for determining ‘multi-port data, including both passive (scattering) as well as active (source) properties 1.1 The multi-port concept In general a multi-port" isa system where a casual relation exists between a set of input x and ‘output variables y. These variables or state vectors are assumed to be functions of the time ¢ and completely define the state at the input and output of the system. Furthermore, it is normally assumed that x and y has the same dimensionality (N). The multi-port is then called aan N-port where N can be interpreted as the number of degrees of freedom. Mathematically the existence ofa causal relation implies the existence of an operator G such that Gh] ao fen this type of approach is called a “black-box” model in the literature, since it ean be applied without a full knowledge of the “inner” properties of the studied system, x gy Figure 1 A multi-port of order N (ie. N-por) isa system where a causa elation exists benseen an input and an ouput y, where x and y restate vectors with N-components. simple example isan idol spring With one Fixed end, which can be seen asa I-port defined via F =-Ke, where F isthe free, x the displacement and Kthe spring constant. For the case of acoustics x and y are often defined via pressure, force and displacement, velocity, respectively. The choive of state variables is dictated by both physical (what can be “The word por originates from cevtrcal engncering and denotes a terminal. In genera it can be interpreted as an opening ora channel through which a system interact with its surounding. 149measured !) considerations as well as mathematical, since certain choices will lead to more cfficient formulations for some types of problems. This latter aspect is discussed further in section 2 The relation in equation (1) is completely general and for the case of acoustics some simplifications are possible, since the fields normally can be seen as small perturbations around a reference state. For these small perturbations (or acoustic variables) linearized ‘equations are derived. Applying this approach to equation (1) yields [x]. e ‘where the prim denotes an acoustic variable or linearized operator. Another simplification normally valid in acoustics is to assume that the problem is time-invariant, This implies that the operator in equation (2) satisfies |. @ ‘where didt denotes a time derivative. Applying a temporal Fourier transform to this equation dorere(s ‘or assuming x" to vary harmonically in time (x’ = ‘e*") plus expanding ¥ relative a set of base vectors b, v= Dib, “ ives ze(z a often] Using the linearity of the operator this ean be written EG be" tote [be""])=0 Since this equation must hold for any vector x’ it follows that 150Lene" [b.0""]-0, 6 which ater introducing y4()=G[b,e*"] becomes ay 0. r “The solution to this equation i simply ¥(N=,(o)e"", (6) Which shows that a harmonic input of unit amplitude along base vector » creates harmonic response with the same frequency and amplitude @(0). This property to conserve the excitation frequency is characteristic for linear and time-invariant systems. Equation (6) can be used to obtain the frequency domain form of equation (2). For a harmonic x, equation (2) can be written e[zane' using equation (4). From equation (6) it follows that y Which leads 10 L4G [be] = teg.(6)} =D f,8, (oe om From this the sought frequency domain relationship between input and output directly follows, Gi, 8) where the matrix G contains the vectors &, as columns. [Equation (8) is a description in the frequency domain of a linear and time-invariant multi-port system. It can also be concluded that the model describes a passive system, ie., with no internal sources. Because if there is no input ( ) then equation (8) produces a zero output OF course when modelling acoustical systems there is an interest to also include sourceprocesses. ‘The question is therefore how can equation (8) be generalized to include aevive properties or source mechanisms in a system ? For a linear multi-port system where superposition is valid the answer is simple: an internal source process can be included simply by adding a source strength vector ({,) to equation (8) 0) In the next section this model will be applied to deseribe sound generation from a ducted axial fan as well asa flow censtriction. 1.2 Multi-ports in acoustics [1] A classical choice of state variables for the fluid-bome case is to use pressure ()) and ‘volume velocity (¢}. Choosing pressure as the output and volume velocity as the input variable, gives the so-called impedance matrix description b-Z4, (10a) excluding any intemal sources. The fiequencies for free oscillations of the system (cigenfrequencies) are obtained by putting (p=0). The resulting homogeneous equation has ‘non-trivial solutions only when detZ)=0. (106) ‘An alternative definition is to choose the volume velocity as the output variable and pressure as the input variable. This leads tothe so-called mobility matrix definition an where M=: "It can be noted that the mobility type of description often is preferred in the structure-bome ease, see eg. [2]. The equation for free oscillations based on this definition is ‘obtained by changing Z to M in equation (10b). For a given system this will create two sets of cigentrequencies, corresponding to two types of boundary conditions (p = 0 or “pressure release” and q = 0 or “blockedlrigid end”) In this appendix gis useinstead of 0. 152Figure 2 An example of an acoustical multi-port a volume with N connected ducts, IFony plane waves exist in the ducts this is an N-port IF each duct can carry M modes then this will bean NeM-poet. The inlet and outlet ates are defined a the duct openings. Assuming an N-port then the multi-port matrix G will be NxN, In many cases spatial symmetries exist and the reciprocity principle [3,4] is valid, which leads to relationships between the matrix elements. This will cut down the number of unknowns and can be used to reduce the work both in numerical or experimental procedures. Concerning acoustical reciprocity it implies that when source and receiver is interchanged the response (acoustic pressure) is unchanged. This principle is valid for the classical wave equation and effects of yielding boundaries and losses ean be included [5]. However, strictly the pi ple is not valid ‘when @ mean flow is present and care must be taken to apply it for such eases, If reciprocity ccan be assumed, then it can be shown [3] that the impedance and mobility matrices are symmetric or anti-symmetrie (depending on the sign convention for q). 2. THE LOW FREQUENCY CASE - 2-PORT MODELS Most duct elements, eg. a silencer are a system with just two openings. If only plane waves exist at these openings then the system can be described as an acoustical 2-port®. In practice this condition is satisfied for sufficiently low frequencies, i.e, below the cut-on frequency for higher modes. This assumes of course that the effect of coupled wall vibrations is negligible, Which normally iy the ease for circular gas Glled ducts made of metal, For low frequencies strong standing wave effets and coupling between a source and duct system is possible, This ‘makes noise control for low frequencies more difficult and not simply just a question of adding damping to reduce noise levels, Instead a detailed analysis of wave interaction is needed and this can be achieved by modelling a duct system as a network of 2-ports. In this section the basie theory for this will be presented and applied to some standard eases. AC the ced of the section some info on codes available for 2-ports analysis is given. © tn electrical engineering this type of system soften call four pole and this tem ean also be found in2.4 Modelling of cascade coupled networks [6] ‘The most commonly ased formalism is obtained by choosing acoustic pressure and volume velocity (p,q) to describe both the input and output state. This mixed choice leads to the so- called transfer matrix formalism that is especially well suited for treating problems where all duct elements are in a cascade (a chain). Examples of this are for instance exhaust systems on automobiles, Denoting the input side a and the output 6 the transfer-matrix T for a passive clement can be defined via 0) @ ‘This is called the backward transfer-matrix and if a and b are interchanged (matrix inversion) the so-calle¢ forward transfer-matrix results a pel Figure 3 Acoustical 2-port and ctcuit representation based on the electic-acousic analogy [3] (p "vole" and g "eure ‘The advantage with the transfer-matrix formalism for eascade coupled systems lies in that it automatically fulfils the appropriate coupling conditions at the interface between 2-ports ‘These conditions are a consequence of the conservation of momentum and mass applied over 4 small control volume enclosing the interface and require continuity of pressure (p) and volume velocity (g). This result is strictly valid in a straight duct with a homogeneous fluid state, If there is an area jump the continuity of g still holds strictly for no flow [3] and for an incompressible mean flow, but for p there is a jump 13) ‘where Zs is the impedance associated with the interface and the notation is based on Figure 4 "This implies that the Mach umber Afis much smaller han 1, which in enginocrng precice means M< 0.3 154Figure 4 Cascade coupled port, ‘The imaginary part of the impedance Zy is associated with non-propagating higher order ‘modes excited at b creating an acoustic near field, ‘This term is equivalent to an acoustic incrtia (“mass”) and is proportional to the frequency. For no flow this part can be calculated using the so-called Karal end correction [7 Since the imaginary part grows with frequency, the real part of Z will always dominate for sufficiently low frequen cs. This partis associated with losses and with flow and flow separation at the interface, the losses associated with acoustically induced vortex shedding will dominate, These losses can be estimated in the zero frequency limit via a quasi-stationary model, see e.g. [8], based on the energy loss across the interface. To ensure that the continuity of p and q holds at element interfaces these should be cchosen where there are no jumps, Then any arca jumps can be included by defining a special coupling 2-port matrix Ts, since [a Pas=Zitus Lo dur aee nf} 4] ow From the discussion above it follows that the total transfer-matrix for a cascade coupled system with M passive 2-ports, Ty, Ta,.-.Tow is Ir. as) assuming the numbering to be from the input to the output of the cascade, In many problems the cascade is excited at the inlet by a source, e.g., an 1C-engine, The output is normally an ‘open duet or pipe radiating to a surrounding fluid (air). The input can assuming a linear and 158time-invariant source te modelled as an active I-port. With p and q as state variables, this 1- port can be described via P= PZ 6) Where p, is the source strength and Z, is the source input impedance, Similarly the output can bbe seen as a passive I-port described via Pus = Zar an ‘where Z;is the radiation impedance. Figure $ A cascade with M passive 2-ports excited at the inet by a L-portsouree and terminated by an impedance (a passive I-por), Using the model described above various measures of the transmission behaviour can be calculated. One common isthe so-called transmission loss (TL), which describes the passive properties of the cascade, ic, it is independent of the source at the input. This measure is defined as the rato (in dB) of the incident power (W,) to the power transmitted (W,,) for a tsiven termination of the system, Normally this termination is chosen as a reflection free (intnite”) pipe. Using Tafa fre wl cases ha A) YA), «s a) [TY TS hau splitting the waves at interface | and (M+1) into travelling waves in the +/- direction gives +3 Ale «as (Gver = Prone! Zurn 136where Z; and Zjy) are the characteristic impedances" at | and (M+1), respectively Inserting (19) into equation (18) gives after a litle alzebra Di. HCH TE Lay ATLA 4 TZ |Z Ber ‘This result together with the definition of acoustic power in a system with flow (eq. (3-29)) implies that TL=10log, 20) ‘where M is the Mach number. Another measure, which takes the influence of the source into account, is the insertion loss (IL). This can be defined as the ratio (in dB) between the acoustic power radiated at the outlet ofa reference system and the system investigated, with both systems driven by the same souree. Often the reference is taken asa straight pipe with the same length as the investigated system, This measure is popular in practice since it is ‘much easier to measure IL than TL. 2.2 Modelling of arbitrary coupled networks For systems with more complex connections than a cascade the transfer-matrix. formalism becomes less useful, As pointed out by Frid [2] a formalism based on mobilty-matrices (see equation (11)), analogous to the one used for structure-borne sound, is then better. Another altenative presented by Gilav and Abom [9] is to use scatering-mateix formalism. mae ib Figure 6 Definition of postive directions forthe seaterng- matrix formalin, This formalism is based on travelling pressure waves as the state vectors and a scattering matrix $ defined as, © Z= pc S, where pis Mud density, c speed of sound and eoss-setional sea 187(Fe )esFe}(% en AAs argued by Glav and Abom [9] this formalism is the most general and can be applied to systems with both arbitrary couplings and sources anywhere in the network. Finally, it can be mentioned that it is also possible to define a transfer-matrix formalism based ‘on travelling waves [10], Again this leads 10 a formulation best suited for cascade coupled systems, 2.3 Examples on 2-port models In this section a few standard cases will be presented to illustrate how 2-port models can be derived. The derivation will be based on the transfer-matrix (p.g) formalism. More examples in particular for different muffler types, e., dissipative with porous lining and perforated, ‘can be found in the bock by Munjal [6] and, ein [11,12]. 2.3.4 The straight duct This isthe simplest ease and assuming a straight uniform duct containing a homogenous fluid et ape! oa, am © aay and Lis the length ofthe duct. From te fist equation one obtains ti ‘which when inserted in the second gives the desired transfer-matrix relationship in the between an inlet section @ and an outlet section b, the acoustic state is given by +d, { B= {Pe 4, BN a. = where Zy is the characteristic impedance, f, Mis the Mach number (+24)! (3,-2.4, 2” forward form. By invetting this result the backward form (b to a) is obtained voayary eOs(KLi(1-A8)) — i2sin(te(1-ae)) Gz)sinft(-42)cosfini(t-ae)) | © 138where k =02/e. Itis possible to include damping by modifying this model and allowing k to be complex valued, ic, putting & =(«/eX1—F3). Expressions forthe damping can be found in references [3,4] By putting together a series (cascade) of straight duets with varying eross-section it is possible to create an “acoustic filter”, which stops sound propagation in certain frequency regions. The ‘most well-known ease being the so called expansion chamber mufMer, TL(dB) ‘TL increase with 54/5) t {)s: AL cid Scie SIH] Figure 7 An expansion chamber mutler and its transmission loss curve exhibiting periodic stopbands with smavimna where the wavelength equals an odd multi of Li 2.3.2 The side-branch A side-branch element is in general an opening in a duct wall characterized by its input impedance (Z;,). This is a common element often used for noise control and a suitable (“low”) impedance is ereated by mounting a resonator to the opening, » ¢ 2 " > ff ab ab Figure 8 Side-branches. 1) General, 2) Helmholtz-tesonator, 3) Quarter-wvave resonator Close to resonance (Z,, * 0) the side-branch will block (“short circuit”) sound propagation in the duet by creating a pressure node. The most common type of resonators are the Helmholtz and quarter-wave resonators (6 159‘Applying conservation of momentum and mass" across the side-branch (with an opening assumed to be much smaller than a wavelength) leads to, {i ~Aso i= A440 Where the acoustic pressure is assumed © be approximately constant across the side-branch. ‘This implies that acoustic near fields and flow induced losses are neglected. Inserting the definition of impedance (4, 1 oo oy UZ, 1 C) For the case of @ quarter-wave resonator the input impedance can be obtained from the By! Zp Vinto the above equations gives straight pipe transfer-matrix (equation (22)), by assuming a rigid termination at b. This gives the input impedance (M=0) it, tit) 4) 2.3.3 The axial fan ‘An axial fan (a “propeller”) mounted in a duet will in the plane wave range behave as a ‘compact dipole source. Since an acoustic dipole is equivalent with an oscillating foree, an axial fan can be seen as a force source. Assuming further that the fan behaves as an ideal point”) dipole, it follows that incident sound is transmitted without reflection and phase shift. With these simplifications conservation of momentum and mass across the fan can be written a ‘which in matrix form becomes (BG Neh °} 5) * Am incompressible mean Now is assured, 160SEE alb igure 9 Active -port mode! ofan axial fan, In the derivation of equation (25) the effects of flow on the dipole properties has been neglected. A more detailed analysis can be found in reference [13]. To apply this model in practice requires a model for the dipole force created by a fan. An example on how this can be solved is given in reference [14], where noise from a so called jetfan is modelled. 2.3.3 The flow constriction It is also possible to use 2-port models to describe noise generated by flow separation at various flow duct constrictions. As demonstrated in reference [8,15], where noise from a shatp edge (an orifice or a bend) is treated, the active part can be obtained by semi-empirical scaling laws. These laws are based on the observation that for low Mach numbers the dipole type of source mechanism, related to unsteady wall pressure, will dominate the sound production [16]. The passive part can be modelled in the limit of low frequencies, by assuming @ quasi-stationary model based on the flow related losses. Assume a duct with a constant cross-sectional area then the flow related loss overa constriction canbe defined from PP =HC RL? 26) where Ci. is the loss coefficient, U the (average) mean flow speed and 1,2 denotes the up- and downstream side of the constriction, respectively. For sufficiently low frequencies equation (26) will still be valid and adding a small disturbance to the mean flow field gives: (2.4 PL)-(P.+ Ph)=4C.p,(U +n)’. Rewriting this keeping only the linear terms leads t0 PL Pe = Cop’, en ‘This equation combined with the assumption of an incompressible flow (valid for M/-<< 1) results in the following 2-port for the passive part 161(lace ea 2.3.4 Codes for 2-port analysis Today 2-port analysis s a standard tool for, e., designing automobile exhausts. Therefore a ‘number of specially written codes exist at manufacturers and consultancy companies active in this field. One is SID or Sound In Ducts developed in Sweden at KTH. This eode is based on the theory in reference [9] and the present version, SID 3.0, is the result of the work of Nyglird [15]. Another code is LAMPS [17] developed by Keith Peat at Loughborough University, England, ‘Then there is a French code called LACTUS [18] developed with support from the French car industry (Peugeot&Citroén). Also the two dominating ‘commercial codes, BOOST and WAVE, for I-D gas dynamie analysis of IC-engines contain linear 2-port modules. In the case of BOOST it is the SID 2.1 version which is behind this, module. 3." EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF MULTI - PORT DATA Here only a few general comments around this problem will be given. For a review of the subject and in particular for discussions on how to determine sousce data for fuid machi eg, fans, rence [1]. ‘The starting point is equation (9) deseribing a general multi-port of order N F=Giry, {In this equation the passive part described by the matrix G contains in general (no symmetries ‘or reciprocity assumed) N* unknown elements. The source strength vector y, contains N possible to measure the input and output state vectors. Then for each given state of the multi-port, Le., unknowns thus resulting in a total of N’+N unknowns. Assume now that it known x and y, N equations would result. By testing the multi-port at N'1. different (independent) states, a set of Nx(N¥+1) equations is obtained, from which in principle the unknowns G and y, could be solved. In practice the problem to implement this scheme is associated withthe need for a reference signal coupled to the source process. Without such a reference itis not possible to link different measurements and if the source process is broad 162‘band, which is often the case, then a reference is normally not available. To avoid this need for a reference it has been suggested [1] t0 split the measurement process in two steps. One obvious way of doing this would be to ensure a zero input (x = 0), then y = yy. However, in practice this is not easy to realize, in particular for a running fluid machine since zero input typically implies no flow. A more practical procedure is to frst excite the multi-port by an external source, uncorrelated with the internal source process. By correlation techniques itis then possible to extract the part of y that is correlated with the input. In this way the contribution from y, is removed from the output and only the passive properties of the system is tested, By repeating this with N different configurations for the external source (“the ‘multiple source method") an equation system can be formed [1] lm... m= ely tee = WY] 29) where yj denotes a frequency response function between y and the signal ¢ driving test state ‘This formulation will both suppress the contributions from intemal sources (assumed uncorrelated with e) and also, e.g, suppress flow noise (turbulence) at pressure probes used for determining x and y. It can be noted that to improve the measurement quality, equation (29) can also be formulated as an overdetermined problem by adding more than N measurements to the matrices. By inverting the matrix on the right side in equation (29) G can be solved. When G is known the source strength veetor y, can be obtained by testing the system state with no extemal sources. A special case of the above isa passive N-port then the first step is sufficient. An altemative to the “the multiple source method”, for determining the passive part, is to use a single external source and create different x and y by changing the loads on different ports. As shown in, e.g. reference [19] for the 2-port case, this “multiple load method” typically performs less good than the “multiple source method’ 163REFERENCES 1. Bodén and M, Abom (1995) Acta Acustica 3, 549-560, Modelling of fluid Machines as soutees of sound in duet and pipe systems, [A. Frid (1989) . Sound and Vib. 133, 423-438, Fluid vibration in piping systems —a steuetural mechanies approach, AD. Pierce, ACOUSTICS - An introduction to its physical principles and ‘plications. MeGraw-Hill 1981 S.W. Rienstra and A. Hirschberg, An introduction to acoustics. Report IWDE 01-03, Technische Universitet Eindhoven 2001." LM. Lyamshev (1959) Sov. Phys. Dokl 4, 405-409. 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