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C - DIFFERENTIAL
For feeders, Bus-bars, Transformers, Generators etc
1. High Impedance
2. Low Impedance
3. Restricted E/F
4. Biased
5. Pilot Wire
D - Distance
For transmission and sub-transmission lines and distribution feeders, also used as back-up
protection for transformers and generators without signaling with signaling to provide unit
protection e.g.:
1. Time-stepped distance protection
2. Permissive underreach protection (PUP)
3. Permissive overreach protection (POP)
4. Unblocking overreach protection (UOP)
5. Blocking overreach protection (BOP)
6. Power swing blocking
7. Phase comparison for transmission lines
8. Directional comparison for transmission lines
E - Miscellaneous:
1. Under and over voltage
2. Under and over frequency
3. A special relay for generators, transformers, motors etc.
4. Control relays: auto-reclose, tap change control, etc.
5. tripping and auxiliary relays
Speed
Fast operation: minimizes damage and danger
Very fast operation: minimizes system instability discrimination and security can be costly to
achieve.
Examples:
1. differential protection
2. differential protection with digital signaling
3. distance protection with signaling
4. directional comparison with signaling
Dependability / reliability
Protection must operate when required to Failure to operate can be extremely damaging and
disruptive Faults are rare. Protection must operate even after years of inactivity Improved by
use of:
1. Back-up Protection and
2. duplicate Protection
Security / Stability
Protection must not operate when not required to e.g. due to:
1. Load Switching
2. Faults on other parts of the system
3. Recoverable Power Swings
Overlap of protections
1. No blind spots
2. Where possible use overlapping CTs
Phase discrimination / selectivity
Correct indication of phases involved in the fault Important for Single Phase Tripping and
auto-Reclosing applications
Auxiliary supplies
Required for:
1. Tripping circuit breakers
2. Closing circuit breakers
3. Protection and trip relays
• AC. auxiliary supplies are only used on LV and MV systems.
• DC. auxiliary supplies are more secure than ac supplies.
• Separately fused supplies used for each protection.
• Duplicate batteries are occasionally provided for extra security.
• Modern protection relays need a continuous auxiliary supply.
• During operation, they draw a large current which increases due to operation of
output elements.
Relays are given a rated auxiliary voltage and an operative auxiliary voltage range.
the rated value is marked on the relay. Refer to relay documentation for details of operative
range. it is important to make sure that the range of voltages which can appear at the relay
auxiliary supply terminals is within the operative range.
IEC recommended values (IEC 255-6):
Rated battery voltages:
12, 24, 48, 60, 11 0, 125, 220, 250, 440
Preferred operative range of relays:
80 to 10% of voltage rated
AC. component ripple in the dc supply:
<10% of voltage rated
COST
The cost of protection is equivalent to insurance policy against damage to plant, and loss of
supply and customer goodwill.
Acceptable cost is based on a balance of economics and technical factors. Cost of protection
should be balanced against the cost of potential hazards there is an economic limit on what can
be spent.
Minimum cost:
Must ensure that all faulty equipment is isolated by protection
Other factors:
1. Speed
2. Security/Stability
3. Sensitivity:
Degree of risk in allowing a low level fault to develop into a more severe fault
4. Reliability
Distribution systems
1. Large number of switching and distribution points, transformers and feeders.
2. Economics often overrides technical issues
3. Protection may be the minimum consistent with - statutory safety regulations
4. Speed less important than on transmission systems
5. Back-up protection can be simple and is often inherent in the main protection.
6. Although important, the consequences of maloperation or failure to operate are less
serious than for transmission systems.
Transmission systems
1. Emphasis is on technical considerations rather than economics
2. Economics cannot be ignored but is of secondary importance compared with the need
for highly reliable, fully discriminative high speed protection
3. Higher protection costs justifiable by high capital cost of power system elements
protected.
4. Risk of security of supply should be reduced to the lowest practical levels
5. High speed protection requires unit protection
6. Duplicate protections used to improve reliability
7. Single phase tripping and auto-reclose may be required to maintain system stability
Basic of protection system
Introduction
The purpose of an electrical power generation system is to distribute energy to a multiplicity of
points for diverse applications.
The system should be designed and managed to deliver this energy to the utilization points
with both reliability and economy.
As these two requirements are largely opposed, it is instructive to look at the relationship
between the reliability of a system and its cost and value to the consumer, which is shown in
Figure 1.
A power system represents a very large capital investment. To maximize the return on this
outlay, the system must be loaded as much as possible. For this reason it is necessary not only
to provide a supply of energy which is attractive to prospective users by operating the system
within the range AB (Figure 1.1), but also to keep the system in full operation as far as
possible continuously, so that it may give the best service to the consumer, and earn the most.
Revenue for the supply authority. Absolute freedom from failure of the plant and system
network cannot be guaranteed.
The risk of a fault occurring, however slight for each item, is multiplied by the number of such
items which are closely associated in an extensive system, as any fault produces repercussions
throughout the net-work. When the system is large, the chance of a fault occurring and the
disturbance that a fault would bring are both so great that without equipment to remove faults
the system will become, in practical terms, inoperable.
The object of the system will be defeated if adequate provision for fault clearance is not made.
Nor is the installation of switchgear alone sufficient; discriminative protective gear, designed
according to the characteristics and requirements of the power system, must be provided to
control the switchgear.
A system is not properly designed and managed if it is not adequately protected. This is the
measure of the importance of protective systems in modern practice and of the responsibility
vested in the protection engineer.
This is a collective term which covers all the equipment used for detecting, locating and
initiating the removal of a fault from the power system. Relays are extensively used for
major protective functions, But the term also covers direct-acting A.C. trips and fuses.
In addition to relays the term includes all accessories such as current and voltage
transformers, shunts, D.C. and A.C. wiring and any other devices relating to the protective
relays.
For example, observation simply of the magnitude of the fault current suffices in
some cases but measurement of power or impedance may be necessary in others. Relays
frequently measure complex functions of the system quantities, which are only readily
expressible by mathematical or graphical means.
In many cases it is not feasible to protect against all hazards with any one relay. Use
is then made of a combination of different types of relay which individually protect against
different risks. Each individual protective arrangement is known as a 'protection system';
while the whole coordinated combination of relays is called a 'protection scheme'.
Reliability
The need for a high degree of reliability is discussed in Section 1. Incorrect operation can
be attributed to one of the following classifications:
a. Incorrect design.
b. Incorrect installation.
c. Deterioration.
d. Protection performance
1. Design
This is of the highest importance. The nature of the power system condition which is being
guarded against must be thoroughly understood in order to make an adequate design.
Comprehensive testing is just as important, and this testing should cover all aspects of the
protection, as well as reproducing operational and environmental conditions as closely as
possible. For many protective systems, it is necessary to test the complete assembly of
relays, current transformers and other ancillary items, and the tests must simulate fault
conditions realistically.
2. Installation.
The need for correct installation of protective equipment is obvious, but the complexity
of the interconnections of many systems and their relation-ship to the remainder of the
station may make.
3. Deterioration in service.
After a piece of equipment has been installed in perfect condition, deterioration may take
place which, in time, could interfere with correct functioning. For example, contacts may
become rough or burnt owing to frequent operation, or tarnished owing to atmospheric
contamination; coils and other circuits may be open-circuited, auxiliary components may
fail, and mechanical parts may become clogged with dirt or corroded to an extent that may
interfere with movement.
One of the particular difficulties of protective relays is that the time between
operations may be measured in years, during which period defects may have developed
unnoticed until revealed by the failure of the protection to respond to a power system
fault. For this reason, relays should be given simple basic tests at suitable intervals in
order to check that their ability to operate has not deteriorated.
Testing should be carried out without disturbing permanent connections. This can
be achieved by the provision of test blocks or switches.
Draw-out relays inherently provide this facility; a test plug can be inserted between
the relay and case contacts giving access to all relay input circuits for injection. When
temporary disconnection of panel wiring is necessary, mistakes in correct restoration of
connections can be avoided by using identity tags on leads and terminals, clip-on leads for
injection supplies, and easily visible double-ended clip-on leads where 'jumper
connections' are required.
The quality of testing personnel is an essential feature when assessing reliability
and considering means for improvement. Staff must be technically competent and
adequately trained, as well as self-disciplined to proceed in a deliberate manner, in which
each step taken and quantity measured is checked before final acceptance.
Important circuits which are especially vulnerable can be provided with continuous
electrical super-vision; such arrangements are commonly applied to circuit breaker trip
circuits and to pilot circuits.
4. Protection performance
The performance of the protection applied to large power systems is frequently assessed
numerically. For this purpose each system fault is classed as an incident and those which
are cleared by the tripping of the correct circuit breakers and only those are classed as
'correct'.
The percentage of correct clearances can then be determined.
This principle of assessment gives an accurate evaluation of the protection of the system
as a whole, but it is severe in its judgment of relay performance, in that many relays are
called into operation for each system fault, and all must behave correctly for a correct
clearance to be recorded.
Such schemes have already been used to a limited extent and application of the
principle will undoubtedly increase. Probability theory suggests that if a power network
were protected throughout on this basis, a protection performance of 99.98 % should be
attainable.
This performance figure requires that the separate protection systems be completely
independent; any common factors, such as, for instance, common current transformers or
tripping batteries, will reduce the overall performance to a certain extent.
Selectivity.
Protection is arranged in zones, which should cover the power system completely, leaving
no part unprotected. When a fault occurs the protection is required to select and trip only
the nearest circuit breakers. This property of selective tripping is also called
'discrimination' and is achieved by two general methods:
Protective systems in successive zones are arranged to operate in times which are graded
through the sequence of equipments so that upon the occurrence of a fault, although a
number of protective equipments respond, only those relevant to the faulty zone complete
the tripping function. The others make incomplete operations and then reset.
2. Unit systems.
It is possible to design protective systems which respond only to fault conditions lying
within a clearly defined zone. This 'unit protection' or 'restricted Protection' can be applied
throughout a power system and, since it does not involve time grading, can be relatively
fast in operation.
Zones of protection
Ideally, the zones of protection should overlap across the circuit breaker as shown in
Figure 2, the circuit breaker being included in both zones.
Figure 2. Location of current
transformers
on both sides of the circuit breaker.
For practical physical reasons, this ideal is not always achieved, accommodation for
current trans-formers being in some cases available only on one side of the circuit
breakers, as in Figure 3. This leaves a section between the current transformers and the
circuit breaker A within which a fault is not cleared by the operation of the protection that
responds. In Figure 3 a fault at F would cause the bus-bar protection to operate and open
the circuit breaker but the fault would continue to be fed through the feeder.
Figure 3 Location of current
transformers
on circuit side of the
circuit breaker.
The feeder protection, if of the unit type, would not operate, since the fault is
outside its zone. This problem is dealt. With by some form of zone extension, to operate
when opening the circuit breaker does not fully interrupt the flow of fault current. A time
delay is incurred in fault clearance, although by restricting this operation to occasions
when the bus-bar protection is operated the time delay can be reduced.
The point of connection of the protection with the power system usually defines the zone
and corresponds to the location of the current transformers. The protection may be of the
unit type, in which case the boundary will be a clearly defined and closed loop. Figure 4
illustrates a typical arrangement of overlapping zones.
Alternatively, the zone may be unrestricted; the start will be defined but the extent will
depend on measurement of the system quantities and will therefore be subject to variation,
owing to changes in system conditions and measurement errors.
Stability.
This term, applied to protection as distinct from power networks, refers to the ability of the
system to remain inert to all load conditions and faults external to the relevant zone. It is
essentially a term which is applicable to unit systems; the term 'discrimination' is the
equivalent expression applicable to non-unit systems.
Speed.
The function of automatic protection is to isolate faults from the power system in a very
much shorter time than could be achieved manually, even with a great deal of personal
supervision. The object is to safeguard continuity of supply by removing each disturbance
before it leads to widespread loss of synchronism, which would necessitate the shutting
down of plant.
Loading the system produces phase displacements between the voltages at different
points and therefore increases the probability that synchronism will be lost when the
system is disturbed by a fault. The shorter the time a fault is allowed to remain in the
system, the greater can be the loading of the system. Figure 1.5 shows typical relations
between system loading and fault clearance times for various types of fault.
It will be noted that phase faults have a more marked effect on the stability of the
system than does a simple earth fault and therefore require faster clearance.
It will be seen that protective gear must operate as quickly as possible; speed, however,
must be weighed against economy.
For this reason, distribution circuits for which the requirements for fast operation
are not very severe are usually protected by time-graded systems, but generating plant and
EHV systems require protective gear of the highest attainable speed; the only limiting
factor will be the necessity for correct operation.
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is a term frequently used when referring to the minimum operating current of a
complete protective system. A protective system is said to be sensitive if the primary
operating current is low.
When the term is applied to an individual relay, it does not refer to a current or
voltage setting but to the volt-ampere consumption at the minimum operating current.
A given type of relay element can usually be wound for a wide range of setting
currents; the coil will have an impedance which is inversely proportional to the square of
the setting current value, so that the volt-ampere product at any setting is constant.
This is the true measure of the input requirements of the relay, and so also of the
sensitivity. Relay power factor has some significance in the matter of transient
performance.
For D.C. relays the VA input also represents power consumption, and the burden is
therefore frequently quoted in watts.
The reliability of a power system has been discussed in earlier sections. Many factors may
cause protection failure and there is always some possibility of a circuit breaker failure.
For this reason, it is usual to supplement primary protection with other systems to 'back-
up' the operation of the main system and ensure that nothing can prevent the clearance of a
fault from the system.
If the power system is protected mainly by unit schemes, automatic back-up protection is
not obtained, and it is then normal to supplement the main protection with time graded
over current protection, which will provide local back-up cover if the main protective
relays have failed, and will trip further back in the event of circuit breaker failure.
Such back-up protection is inherently slower than the main protection and,
depending on the power system configuration, may be less discriminative. For the most
important circuits the performance may not be good enough, even as a back-up protection,
or, in some cases, not even possible, owing to the effect of multiple infeeds. In these cases
duplicate high speed protective systems may be installed. These provide excellent mutual
back-up cover against failure of the protective equipment, but either no remote back-up
protection against circuit breaker failure or, at best, time delayed cover.
Breaker fail protection can be obtained by checking that fault current ceases within
a brief time interval from the operation of the main protection. If this does not occur, all
other connections to the bus bar section are interrupted, the condition being necessarily
treated as a bus bar fault. This provides the required back-up protection with the minimum
of time delay, and confines the tripping operation to the one station, as compared with the
alternative of tripping the remote ends of all the relevant circuits.
The extent and type of back-up protection which is applied will naturally be related
to the failure risks and relative economic importance of the system. For distribution
systems where fault clearance
Times are not critical, time delayed remote back-up protection is adequate but for
EHV systems, where system stability is at risk unless a fault is cleared quickly, local back-
up, as described above, should be chosen.
1.All-or-nothingrelay
A relay which is not designed to have any specified accuracy as to its operating value.
2. Auxiliaryrelay.
An all-or-nothing relay used to supplement the performance of another relay, by modifying
contact performance for example, or by introducing time delays.
3.Back-upprotection.
A protective system intended to supplement the main protection in case the latter should be
in-effective, or to deal with faults in those parts of the power system that are not readily
included in the operating zones of the main protection.
4.Biasedrelay.
A relay in which the characteristics are modified by the introduction of some quantity other
than the actuating quantity, and which is usually in opposition to the actuating quantity.
5.Burden.
The loading imposed by the circuits of the relay on the energizing power source or sources,
expressed as the product of voltage and current (volt-amperes, or watts if D.C) for a given
condition, which may be either at 'setting' or at rated current or voltage.
The rated output of measuring transformers, expressed in VA, is always at rated current or
voltage and it is important, in assessing the burden imposed by a relay, to ensure that the
value of burden at rated current is used.
6. Characteristic angle.
The phase angle at which the performance of the relay is declared. It is usually the angle at
which maximum sensitivity occurs.
7. Characteristic curve.
The curve showing the operating value of the characteristic quantity corresponding to various
values or combinations of the energizing quantities.
8. Characteristic quantity.
A quantity, the value of which characterizes the operation of the relay, e.g. current for an
over current relay, voltage for a voltage relay, phase angle for a directional relay, time for an
independent time delay relay, impedance for an impedance relay.
13. Discrimination.
The quality whereby a protective system distinguishes between those conditions for which it
is intended to operate and those for which it shall not operate.
14. Drop-out.
A relay drops out when it moves from the energized position to the un-energized position.
23. Inverse time delay relay with definite minimum (I.D. M . T.)
A relay in which the time delay varies inversely with the characteristic quantity up to a
certain value, after which the time delay becomes substantially independent.
32. Pick-up.
A relay is said to 'pick-up' when it changes from the un-energized position to the energized
position.
39. Rating.
The nominal value of an energizing quantity which appears in the designation of a relay. The
nominal value usually corresponds to the CT and VT secondary ratings.
43. Setting.
The limiting value of a 'characteristic' or 'energizing' quantity at which the relay is designed
to operate under specified conditions.
Such values are usually marked on the relay and may be expressed as direct values,
percentages of rated values, or multiples.
44. Stability.
The quality whereby a protective system remains inoperative under all conditions other than
those for which it is specifically designed to operate.
1- Fault
An unplanned occurrence or defect in an item which may result in one or more failures of
the item itself or of other associated equipment
[IEC 604-02-011
NOTE - In electrical equipment, a fault may or may not result in damage to the insulation
and failure of the equipment.
2- Non-damage fault
A fault which does not involve repair or replacement action at the point of the fault
NOTE - Typical examples are self-extinguishing arcs in switching equipment or general
overheating without paper carbonization.
[IEC 604-02-091
3- Damage fault
A fault which involves repair or replacement action at the point of the fault
[IEC 604-02-08, modified]
4- Incident
An event related to an internal fault which temporarily or permanently disturbs the normal
operation of an equipment [IEV 604-02-03, modified]
NOTE - Typical examples are gas alarms, equipment tripping or equipment leakage.
5- Failure
The termination of the ability of an item to perform a required function [IEC 191-04-01]
NOTE - In the electrical equipment, failure will result from a damage fault or incident
necessitating outage, repair or replacement of the equipment, such as internal breakdown,
rupture of tank, fire or explosion.
6- Electrical fault
a partial or disruptive discharge through the insulation.
7- Partial discharge
A discharge which only partially bridges the insulation between conductors. It may occur
inside the insulation or adjacent to a conductor
[IEC 212-01-34, modified]
NOTE 1 - Corona is a form of partial discharge that occurs in gaseous media around
conductors which are remote from solid or liquid insulation. This term is not to be used
as a general term for all forms of partial discharges.
NOTE 2 - X-wax is a solid material which is formed from mineral insulating oil as a
result of electrical discharges and which consists of polymerized fragments of the
molecules of the original liquid
[IEV 212-07-24, modified].
Comparable products may be formed from other liquids under similar conditions.
NOTE 3 - Sparking of low energy, for example because of metals or floating potentials,
is sometimes described as
Partial discharge but should rather be considered as a discharge of low energy.
8- Discharge (disruptive) .
The passage of an arc following the breakdown of the insulation
[IEC 604-03-38, modified]
9- Thermal fault
Excessive temperature rise in the insulation
NOTE 2 - Typical values, in many countries and by many users, are quoted as "normal
values", but this term has not been used here to avoid possible misinterpretations.
The devices in switching equipments are referred to by numbers, with appropriate suffix
letters when necessary, according to the functions they perform. These numbers are
based on a system adopted as standard for automatic switchgear by IEEE, and
incorporated in American
Standard C37.2-1979. This system is used in connection diagrams, in instruction books,
and in specifications.
1- 1 Master element
is the initiating device, such as a control switch, voltage relay, float switch etc., that serves
either irectly, or through such permissive devices as protective and time-delay relays, to
place an equipment
in or out of operation.
4- 4 Master contactor
is a device, generally controlled by device No. 1 or equivalent, and the required
permissive
and protective devices, that serve to make and break the necessary control circuits to
place an equipment into operation under the desired conditions and to take it out of
operation under
other or abnormal conditions.
5- 5 Stopping device
is a control device used primarily to shut down an equipment and hold it out of
operation. [This device may be manually or electrically actuated, but excludes the
function of
electrical lockout (see device function 86) on abnormal conditions.]
7- 7 Rate-of-rise relay
is a relay that functions on an excessive rate of rise of current.
9- 9 Reversing device
is used for the purpose of reversing a machine field or for performing any other
reversing
functions.
30 Annunciator relay
is a nonautomatically reset device that gives a number of separate visual indications
upon the functioning of protective devices and that may also be arranged to perform a
lock-out function.
Note: This function is assigned only to a relay which detects the flow of current from the
frame of a machine or enclosing case or structure of a piece of apparatus to ground, or
detects a ground on a normally ungrounded winding or circuit. It is not applied to a
device connected in the secondary neutral of a current transformer, or in the secondary
neutral of current transformers, connected in the power circuit of a normally grounded
system.
65- 65 Governor
is the assembly of fluid, electrical, or mechanical control equipment used for regulating
the flow of water, steam, or other media to the prime mover for such purposes as
starting, holding speed or load, or stopping.
Note: The user of the “RE” prefix for this purpose in place of the former 200 series of
numbers now makes it possible to obtain increased flexibility of the device function
numbering system. For example, in pipeline pump stations, the numbers 1 through
99
are applied to device functions that are associated with the over-all station
operation. A similar series of numbers,
starting with 101 instead of 1, are used for those device functions that are associated
with unit 1; a similar series starting with 201 for device functions that are associated
with unit
2; and so on, for each unit in these installations.
Suffix numbers
If two or more devices with the same function number and suffix letter (if used) are
present
in the same equipment, they may be distinguished by numbered suffixes as for
example,
52X-1, 52X-2 and 52X-3, when necessary.
Suffix letters
Suffix letters are used with device function numbers for various purposes. In order to
prevent
possible conflict each suffix letter should have only one meaning in an individual
equipment. All other words should use the abbreviations as contained in American
Standard Z32.13-1950, or latest revision thereof, or should use some other distinctive
abbreviation, or be written out in full each time they are used.
The meaning of each single suffix letter, or combination of letters, should be clearly
designated in the legend on the drawings or publications applying to the equipment.
In cases where the same suffix (consisting of one letter or a combination of letters)
has different meanings in the same equipment, depending upon the device function
number with which is used, then the complete device function number with which it
is used, the complete device function number with its suffix letter or letters and its
corresponding function name should be listed in the legend in each case, as follows:
90V, Voltage regulator. Lower case (small) suffix letters are used in practically all
instances on electrical diagrams for the auxiliary, position, and limit switches. Capital
letters are generally used for all other suffix letters.
The letters should generally form part of the device function designation, are usually
written
directly after the device function number, as for example, 52CS, 71W, or 49D. When
it
is necessary to use two types of suffix letters in connection with one function number,
it is
often desirable for clarity to separate them by a slanted line or dash, as for example,
20D/CS or 20D-CS. The suffix letters which denote parts of the main device, and
those which cannot or need not form part of the device function designation, are
generally written directly below the device function number on drawings, as for
example, or .
52/CC or 43/A
1. All parts, except auxiliary contacts, position switches, limit switches, and torque
limit
switches.
Other switches
These letters cover all other distinguishing
features or characteristics or conditions,
which serve to describe the use of the device
or its contacts in the equipment such as:
2) These electrically operated devices are of the non-latched-in type, whose contact
position is dependent only upon the degree of energization of the operating or
restraining or holding
coil or coils which may or may not be suitable for continuous energization. The
deenergized
position of the device is that with all coils deenergized.
3) The energizing influences for these devices are considered to be, respectively,
rising
temperature, rising level, increasing flow, rising speed, increasing vibration, and
increasing
pressure.
A – Accelerating, or Automatic
B – Blocking, or Back-up
C – Close, or Cold
D – Decelerating, or Detonate, or Down, or
Disengaged
E – Emergency, or Engaged
F – Failure, or Forward
H – Hot, or High
HR – Hand reset
HS – High speed
L – Left, or Local, or Low, or Lower, or
Leading
M – Manual
OFF – Off
ON – On
P – Polarizing
R – Right, or Raise, or Reclosing, or Receiving, or Remote, or Reverse
S – Sending, or Swing
T – Test, or Trip, or Trailing
TDC – Time-delay closing
TDO – Time-delay opening
a. Self-reset.
The contacts remain operated only while the controlling quantity is applied,
returning to their original condition when it is removed.
Protective relays are precise measuring devices, the contacts of which should not be
expected to perform large making and breaking duties. Attracted armature relays, which
combine many of the characteristics of measuring devices and contactors,
Occupy an intermediate position and according to their design and consequent
closeness to one or other category, may have an appreciable contact capacity.
Most other types of relay develop an effort which is independent of the position of
the moving system.
At setting, the electromechanical effort is absorbed by the controlling force, the
margin for operating the contacts being negligibly small. Not only does this limit the
'making' capacity of the contacts, but if more than one contact pair is fitted any slight
misalignment may result in only one contact being closed at the minimum operating value,
there being insufficient force to compress the spring of the first contact to make, by the
small amount required to permit closure of the second.
For this reason, the provision of multiple contacts on such elements is undesirable.
Although two contacts can be fitted, care must be taken in their alignment, and a small
tolerance in the closing value of operating current may have to be allowed between them.
These effects can be reduced by providing a small amount of 'run-in' to contact make in
the relay behavior, by special shaping of the active parts.
For the above reasons it is often better to use inter-posing contactor type elements
which do not have the same limitations, although some measuring relay elements are
capable of tripping the smaller types of circuit breaker directly. These may be small
attracted armature type elements fitted in the same case as the measuring relay.
In general, static relays have discrete measuring and tripping circuits, or modules.
The functioning of the measuring modules will not react on the tripping modules. Such a
relay is equivalent to a sensitive electromechanical relay with a tripping contactor, so that
the number or rating of outputs has no more significance than the fact that they have been
provided.
For larger switchgear installations the tripping power requirement of each circuit
breaker is considerable, and, further, two or more breakers may have to be tripped by one
protective system.
There may also be remote signaling requirements, interlocking with other functions
(for example auto-reclosing arrangements), and other control functions to be performed.
These various operations are carried out by multi-contact tripping relays, which are
energized by the protection relays and provide the necessary number of adequately rated
output contacts.
Operation indicators.
As a guide for power system operation staff, protective systems are invariably
provided with indicating devices. In British practice these are called 'flags', whereas in
America they are known as 'targets'. Not every component relay will have one, as
indicators are arranged to operate only if a trip operation is initiated. Indicators, with very
few exceptions, are bi-stable devices, and may be either mechanically or electrically
operated. A mechanical indicator consists of a small shutter which is
Released by the protective relay movement to expose the indicator pattern, which,
on GEC Measurements relays, consists of a red diagonal stripe on a white background.
Electrical indicators may be simple attracted armature elements either with or
without contacts. Operation of the armature releases a shutter to expose an indicator as
above.
An alternative type consists of a small cylindrical permanent magnet magnetized
across a diameter, and lying between the poles of an electromagnet. The magnet, which is
free to rotate, lines up its magnetic axis with the electromagnet poles, but can be made to
reverse its orientation by the application of a field. The edge of the magnet is colored to
give the indication.
With indicators operated directly by the measuring elements, care must be taken to line up
their operation with the closure of the main contacts. The indicator must have operated by
the time the contacts make, but must not have done so more than marginally earlier.
This is to stop indication occurring when the tripping operation has not been
completed.
b. Shunt reinforcing.
Here the sensitive contacts are arranged to trip the circuit breaker and
simultaneously to energize the auxiliary unit, which then reinforces the contact which is
energizing the trip coil.
It should be noted that two contacts are required on the protective relay, since it is
not permissible to energize the trip coil and the reinforcing contactor in parallel. If this
were done, and more than one protective relay were connected to trip the same circuit
breaker, all the auxiliary relays would be energized in parallel for each relay operation and
the indication would be confused. The duplicate main contacts are frequently provided
As a three point arrangement to reduce the number of contact fingers.
Figure 8 Examples of trip circuit supervision.
3.1 Classification:
Protection relays can be classified in accordance with the function which they carry out, their
construction, the incoming signal and the type of functioning.
3.1.2 Construction:
Electromagnetic.
Solid state.
Microprocessor.
Computerized.
Nonelectric (thermal, pressure ......etc.).
3 . 2 . 1 Attraction relays
Attraction relays can be supplied by AC or DC, and operate by the movement of a
piece of metal when it is attracted by the magnetic field produced by a coil. There are two
main types of relay in this class.
The attracted armature relay, which is shown in figure 1, consists of a bar or plate of
metal which pivots when it is attracted towards the coil.
The armature carries the moving part of the contact, which is closed or opened
according to the design when the armature is attracted to the coil. The other type is the piston or
solenoid relay, illustrated in Figure 2, in which α bar or piston is attracted axially within the field
of the solenoid. In this case, the piston also carries the operating contacts.
It can be shown that the force of attraction is equal to K1I2 - K2, where Κ1 depends upon the
number of turns on the operating solenoid, the air gap, the effective area and the reluctance of
the magnetic circuit, among other factors. K2 is the restraining force, usually produced by a
spring. When the relay is balanced, the resultant force is zero and therefore Κ112 = K2,
So that
I = K 2 / K1 =constant.
In order to control the value at which the relay starts to operate, the restraining tension
of the spring or the resistance of the solenoid circuit can be varied, thus modifying the
restricting force. Attraction relays effectively have no time delay and, for that reason, are
widely used when instantaneous operations are required.
T = B.l.a.N.i
Where:
T= torque
B = flux density
L =length of the coil
a = diameter of the coil
N = number of turns on the coil
i = current flowing through the coil
3 . 2 . 3 Induction relays
An induction relay works only with alternating current. It consists of an electromagnetic system
which operates on a moving conductor, generally in the form of a disc or cup, and functions
through the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with the parasitic Fault currents which are
induced in the rotor by these fluxes. These two fluxes, which are mutually displaced both in
angle and in position, produce a torque that can be expressed by
T= Κ1.Φ1.Φ2 .sin θ,
Where Φ1 and Φ2 are the interacting fluxes and θ is the phase angle between Φ1 and Φ2. It
should be noted that the torque is a maximum when the fluxes are out of phase by 90º, and zero
when they are in phase.
dΦ1
iΦ1 α α Φ1 cosωt
dt
And
dΦ 1
i Φ1 α α Φ 1 cos ( ωt + θ )
dt
Figure 4 shows the interrelationship between the currents and the opposing forces. Thus:
∴ F α Φ2 Φ1 sin θ α T
Induction relays can be grouped into three classes as set out below.
Shaded-pole relay
In this case a portion of the electromagnetic section is short-circuited by means of a copper
ring or coil. This creates a flux in the area influenced by the short circuited section (the so-
called shaded section) which lags the flux in the nonshaded section, see Figure 5.
Cup-type relay
This type of relay has a cylinder similar to a cu which can rotate in the annular air gap between the
poles of the coils, and has a fixed central core, see Figure 7. The operation of this relay is very similar
to that
The torque is a function of the product of the two currents through the coils and the cosine of
the angle between them. The torque equation is
Where K, .Κs and Φ are design constants, Ι1 and I2 are the currents through the two coils and
θ12 is the angle between I1 and I2.
In the first two types of relay mentioned above, which are provided with a disc, the inertia of
the disc provides the time-delay characteristic. The time delay can be increased by the addition
of a permanent magnet. The cup-type relay has a small inertia and is therefore principally used
when high speed operation is required, for example in instantaneous units.
2.Calculation of short circuit current
The current that flows through an element of a power system is a parameter which can be used to
detect faults, given the large increase in current flow when a short circuit occurs.
For this reason a review of the concepts and procedures for calculating fault currents will be
made in this chapter, together with some calculations illustrating the methods used.
Although the use of these short-circuit calculations in relation to protection settings will be-
considered in detail, it is important to bear in mind that these calculations are also required for
other applications, for example calculating the substation Earthing grid, the selection of
conductor sizes and for the specifications of equipment such as power-circuit breakers.
V max Sin (ω t + α )
R
This is a differential equation with constant coefficients, of which the solution is in two
parts:
ia (t ) : ih (t ) + ip (t )
Where:
ih(t) Is the solution of the homogeneous equation corresponding to the transient period and
ip(t) is the solution to the particular equation corresponding to the steady-state period.
By the use of differential equation theory, which will not be discussed in detail here, the
complete solution can be determined and expressed iii the following form:
Vmax
i(t ) = (Sin (ω t + α ) − Sin(α − Φ).e −( R / L) ) 2.2
Z
Where:
Z = R 2 + ω 2 L2
α = the closing angle which defines the point on the source sinusoidal voltage when the fault
occurs and
Φ = tan −1 (ωL / R )
It can be seen that, in eqn. 2.2, the first term varies sinusoidally, while the second
term decreases exponentially with a time constant of L/R. The latter term can be recognised
as the DC component of the current, and has an initial maximum
value when α − Φ = ±π / 2 , and zero value when Φ=α, see Figure 2.
It is impossible to predict at what point the fault will be applied on the sinusoidal cycle and
therefore what magnitude the DC component will reach. If the tripping of the circuit, owing
to a fault, takes place when the sinusoidal component is at its negative peak, the DC
component reaches its theoretical maximum value half a cycle later.
Figure 2 Variation of fault current with time
a (α–Φ) =0
b (α–Φ)=π/2
An approximate formula for calculating the effective value of the total asymmetric
current,
including the AC and DC components, with acceptable accuracy can be obtained from the
following expression:
I rms . asym = 2
I rms + I DC
2
2 .3
The fault current which results when an alternator is short circuited can easily be
analysed since this is similar to the case which has already been analysed, i.e. when voltage is,
applied to an RL circuit. The reduction in current from its value at the onset, owing to the
gradual decrease in the magnetic flux caused by the reduction of the e.m.f. of the induction
current, can be seen in Figure 3. This effect is known as armature reaction.
The physical situation that is presented to a generator, and which makes the
calculations quite difficult, can be interpreted as a reactance which varies with time.
Notwithstanding this, in the majority of practical applications it is possible to take account of
the variation of reactance in only three stages without producing significant errors. In Figure
4 it will be noted that the variation of current with time, 1(t), comes close to the three
discrete levels of current, I", 1 ' and I, the subtransient, transient and steady-state currents,
" '
respectively. The corresponding values of direct axis reactance are denoted by X d , X d and
Xd,
The asymmetrical values are calculated as the square root of the sum of the squares of
the DC component and the r.m.s. value of the AC current, i.e.:
I peak = I Dc + I AC
= (0.9 2V / Xd" ) + (0.9 2V / Xd" )
I /I
The expression ( rms.asym. int rms . sys . int
) has been drawn for different
Values of X/R, and for different switchgear contact-separation times, in ANSI Standard
C37.5–1979. The multiplying factor graphs are reproduced in Figure 6
NOTE: Fed predominantly through two or more transformations or with external reactance in
series equal to or above 1.5 times generator subtransient reactance
As an illust r ation of the validity of the curves for any situation,
Consider a circuit breaker with a total contact-separation time of two c y c l e s o n e cycle
due to the relay and one related to the operation of the breaker mechanism. If the
frequency, f is 60 Hz and the ratio X/R
With this arrangement, voltage values of any three-phase system,
Va Vb and Vc can be represented thus:
Va =Vao + Va1 + Va2
Vb =Vbo + Vb1 + Vb2
Vc =Vco + Vc1 + Vc2
V b= V ao+a 2V a1+aV a2
V c= V ao+aV a1+ a 2V a2
where a is a so called operator which gives a phase shift of 120° clockwise and a
multiplication of unit magnitude, i.e. a=1 ∠120 °,
and a 2 similarly gives a phase shift
of 240°, i.e. a 2=1 ∠240° Therefore,
the following matrix relationship can be established:
⎡Va ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡Va 0 ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥ × ⎢V ⎥
⎢ b⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ a1 ⎥
⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 a a ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦
2
⎡Va 0 ⎤ ⎡1 1 1 ⎤ ⎡V a ⎤
⎢V ⎥ = 1 ⎢1 a a 2 ⎥ × ⎢V ⎥
⎢ a1 ⎥ 3 ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ b⎥
⎢⎣Va 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢ ⎥
⎣1 a a ⎦ ⎢⎣Vc ⎥⎦
2
The foregoing procedure can also be applied directly to currents, and gives:
I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2
I b = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2
I b = I a 0 + a I a1 + a 2 I a 2
Therefore:
1
Ia0 = (Ia + Ib + Ic )
3
1
I a1 = ( I a + aI b + a 2 I c )
3
1
I a 2 = ( I a + a 2 I b + aI c )
3
In three-phase systems, the neutral current is equal to In = (Ia + Ib + Ic) and, therefore, l n= 3 I 0
By way of illustration, a three-phase unbalanced system is shown in Figure 8 together with the
associated symmetrical components.
2.1 Importance and construction of sequence networks
For transformers, the positive and negative-sequence impedances are equal because in static
circuits these impedances are independent of the phase order, provided that the applied
voltages are balanced. The zero-sequence impedance is either the same as the other two
impedances, or infinite, depending on the transformer connections. The resistance of the
windings is much smaller and can generally be neglected in short-circuit calculations. When
modelling small generators and motors it may be necessary to take resistance into account.
However, for most studies only the reactance's of synchronous machines are used. Three
values of positive reactance are normally quoted-subt r ansient, transient and synchronous
reactance, denoted by X", Xd' and Xd. In fault studies the subtransient and transient reactance
of generators grid motors must be included as appropriate, depending on the machine
characteristics and fault clearance time.
Table 1 Typical per-unit reactance for three -phase synchronous machines
Type of
machine
X d" X d' Xd X2 X0
Turbine 2 pole 0.09 0.15 1.20 0.09 0.03
generator 4 pole 0.14 0.22 1.70 0.14 0.07
The subtransient reactance is the reactance applicable at the onset of the fault occurrence.
Within 0.1 sec. the fault level falls to a value determined by the transient reactance and then
decays exponentially to a steady-state value determined by the synchronous reactance.
Typical per-unit reactance's for three phase synchronous machines are given in Table 1.
In connecting sequence networks together, the reference busbar for the positive- and
negative-sequence networks is the generator neutral which, in these networks, is at earth
potential so that only zero-sequence currents flow through the impedances between neutral
and earth. The reference busbar for zero-sequence networks is the earth point of the
generator. The current which flows in the impedance between the neutral and earth are three
times the zero-sequence current. Figure 2.9 illustrates the sequence networks for a generator.
The zero sequence networks carries only zero-sequence current in one phase which has an
impedance of Zo = 3Ζn + Zeo
The voltage and current components for each phase are obtained from the equations given
for the sequence networks. The equations for the components of voltage, corresponding to the
phase of the system, are obtained from the point an on phase a relative to the reference bus
bar, and can be deduced from Figure 2.9 as follows:
Va1 = E a − I a1 Z 1
Va 2 = − I a 2 Z 2
Va 0 = − I a 0 Z 0
Where
Εa = no load voltage to earth of the positive-sequence network
Z1 = positive-sequence impedance of the generator
Z2 = negative-sequence impedance of the generator
Zo= zero-sequence impedance of the generator (Zeo) plus three times the impedance to
earth
The above equations can be applied to any generator which carries unbalanced currents and
are the starting point for calculations for any type of fault. The same approach can be used
with equivalent power systems or applied to loaded generators, Ea then being the voltage
behind the reactance before the fault occurs.
Phase-to-Phase fault
The conditions for a solid fault between
lines h and c are represented by the equations
I a = 0, I b = –I c and Vb = V c .
Equally, it can be shown that
I ao = 0 and I a1 = Ea /(Z 1 +Z 2 ) = I a2 .
For this case, with no zero-sequence current,
the zero-sequence network is not involved and the overall sequence network is composed
of the positive- and negative-sequence networks in parallel as indicated in Figure 2.10b.
Phase-to-Phase-to-earth fault
The conditions for a fault between lines b and c and earth are represented by the equations 1a = 0
and Vb=Vc =0. From these equations it can be proved that:
Ea
I a1 =
ZoZ2
Z1 +
Zo + Z2
Where:
Z = Equivalent positive and negative-sequence impedances
V =nominal phase-to-phase voltage
P = three-phase short circuit power
The equivalent zero-sequence of a system can be derived from the expressions of sequence
components referred to for a single-phase fault, i.e.
Where:
VLN = the line-to-neutral voltage.
For lines and cables the positive and negative ímpedances are equal.
Thus, on the basis that the generator ímpedances are not significant in most distribution-network
fault studies, it may be assumed that overall
Ζ2 = Z1 which simplifies the calculations.
Thus, the above formula reduces to Ia = 3I0 = 3 VLN / (2Z1 + Zo),
Where VLN = line-to-neutral voltage and Zo= (3VLN / Ia) - 2Z1
Therefore, in the majority of cases, the relays operate on the basis of the corresponding values
of fault current and / or voltages, regardless of the values of the sequence components. It is
very important to emphasise that, given this, the advantage of using symmetrical components
is that they facilitate the calculation of fault levels even though the relays in the majority of
cases do not distinguish between the various values of the symmetrical components.
Figure 11a Currents and voltages for various types of faults
Figure 11b Currents and voltages for various types of faults
a Sequence currents for different types of fault
b Sequence voltages for different types of fault
In Figure 11a & b the positive and negative sequence values of current and voltage for
different faults are shown together with the summated values of current and voltage.
Relays usually only operate using the summated values in the right-hand columns.
However, relays are available which can operate with specific values of some of the
sequence components.
In these cases there must be methods for obtaining these components, and this is
achieved by using filters which produce the mathematical operations of the resultant
equations to resolve the matrix for voltages and for currents.
Although these filters can be constructed for electromagnetic elements, the growth of
electronics has led to their being used increasingly in logic circuits. Among the relays which
require this type of filter in order to operate are those used ιn negative-sequence and earth-
fault protection.
Current or voltage instrument transformers are necessary for isolating the protection,
control and measurement equipment from the high voltages of a power system, and for
supplying the equipment with the appropriate values of current and voltage - generally these
are 1A or 5Α for the current coils, and 120 V for the voltage coils.
The behavior of current and voltage transformers during and after the occurrence of a
fault is critical in electrical protection since errors in the signal from a transformer can cause
maloperation of the relays.
In addition, factors such as the transient period and saturation must be taken into account
when selecting the appropriate transformer.
When only voltage or current magnitudes are required to operate a relay then the relative
direction of the current flow in the transformer windings is not important. However, the
polarity must be kept in mind when the relays compare the sum or difference of the currents.
1- Voltage transformers:
With voltage transformers (VTs) it is essential that the voltage from the secondary
winding should be as near as possible proportional to the primary voltage.
In order to achieve this, VTs are designed in such a way that the voltage drops in the
windings are small and the flux density in the core is well below the saturation value so that
the magnetization current is small; in this way magnetization impedance is obtained which is
practically constant over the required voltage range. The secondary voltage of a VT is usually
110 or 120 V with corresponding line-to-neutral values. The majority of protection relays have
nominal voltages of 110 or 63.5 V, depending on whether their connection is line-to-line or
line-to-neutral.
Figure 1 Voltage transformer equivalent circuits
VTs can be considered as small power transformers so that their equivalent circuit is
the same as that for power transformers, as shown in Figure 1a. The magnetization branch
can be ignored and the equivalent circuit then reduces to that shown in Fig 1b.
The vector diagram for a VT is given in Figure.2, with the length of the voltage
drops increased for clarity. The secondary voltage Vs lags the voltage Vp/n and is smaller
in magnitude. In spite of this, the nominal maximum errors are relatively small. VTs have
an excellent transient behaviour and accurately reproduce abrupt changes in. the primary
voltage.
1.2 Errors
When used for measurement instruments, for example for billing and control
purposes, the accuracy of a VT is important, especially for those values close to the
nominal system voltage.
Notwithstanding this, although the precision requirements of a VT for protection
applications are not so high at nominal voltages, owing to the problems of having to cope
with a variety of different relays, secondary wiring burdens and the uncertainty of
system parameters, errors should he contained within narrow limits over a wide range of
possible voltages under fault conditions.
This range should be between 5 and 173% of the nominal primary voltage for VTs
connected between line and earth.
Referring to the circuit in Figure 1a, errors in a VT are clue to differences in
magnitude and phase between Vp/n, and Vs. These consist of the errors under open-circuit
conditions when the load impedance Ζ B is infinite, caused by the drop in voltage from
the circulation of the magnetization current through the primary winding, and errors due to
voltage drops as a result of the load current IL flowing through both windings. Errors in
magnitude can be calculated from
Error V T = {(n Vs - Vp) / Vp} x 100%. If the error is positive, then the secondary voltage
exceeds the nominal value.
1.3 Burden
The standard burden for voltage transformer is usually expressed in volt-amperes (VΑ) at a
specified power factor.
Table 1 gives standard burdens based on ANSI Standard C57.1 3. Voltage transformers
are specified in IEC publication 1 8 6 Α by the precision class, and the value of volt-
amperes (VΑ).
The allowable error limits corresponding to different class values are shown in Table 2,
where Vn is the nominal voltage. The phase error is considered positive when the
secondary voltage leads the primary voltage. The voltage error is the percentage
difference between the voltage at the secondary terminals, V2, multiplied by the nominal
transformation ratio, and the primary voltages V1.
The capacitor divider differs from the inductive divider in that the equivalent impedance
of the source is capacitive and the .fact that this impedance can be compensated for by
connecting a reactance in series at the point of connection.
With an ideal reactance there are no regulation problems - however, in an actual
situation on a network, some resistance is always present. The divider can reduce the
voltage to a value which enables errors to be kept within normally acceptable limits. For
improved accuracy a high voltage capacitor is used in order to obtain a bigger voltage at
the point of connection, which can be reduced to a standard voltage using a relatively
inexpensive trans-former as shown in Figure 3.
Α simplified equivalent circuit of a capacitor VT is shown in Figure 4 in which Vi is
equal to the nominal primary voltage, C is the numerically equivalent impedance equal to (
C1 + C2 ), L is the resonance inductance, Ri represents the resistance of the primary winding
of transformer Τ plus the losses in C and L, and Ze is the magnetization impedance of
transformer Τ. Referred to the inter-mediate voltage, the resistance of the secondary circuit and
2 Current transformers
Although the performance required from a current transformer (CT) varies with the type of
protection, high grade CTs must always be used. Good quality CTs are more reliable and result
in less application problems and, in general, provide better protection.
Figure 6 Current transformer equivalent circuits
The quality of CTs is very important for differential protection schemes where the
operation of the relays is directly related to the accuracy of the CTs under fault
conditions as well as under normal load conditions.
CTs can become saturated at high current values caused by nearby faults; to avoid
this, care should be taken to ensure that under the most critical faults the CT operates on the
linear portion of the magnetization curve. In all these cases the CT should be a ble to
supply sufficient current so that the relay operates satisfactorily.
2.1 Equivalent circuit
An approximate equivalent circuit for a CT is given in Figure 4.6a,
Where n2ZH represents the primary impedance ZH referred to the secondary side, and the
secondary impedance is, ZL, Rm and Xm represent the losses and the excitation of the core.
The circuit in Figure 4.6a can be reduced to the arrangement shown in figure 4.6b where
ZH can be ignored, since it does not influence either the current IH/n or the voltage across Xm.
The current flowing through Xm is the excitation current Ιe.
The vector diagram, with the voltage drops exaggerated for clarity, is shown in Figure 4.7. In
general, ZL, is resistive and Ιe lags Vs by 90°, so that Ie is the principal source of error. Note that
the net effect of Ie is to make I lag and be much smaller than ΙH /n, the primary current referred
to the secondary side.
Figure 7 Vector diagram for the CT equivalent circuit
2.2 Errors
The causes of errors in a CT are quite different to those associated with VTs. In effect, the
primary impedance of a CT does not have the same influence
On the accuracy of the equipment it only adds an impedance in series with the line, which can
be ignored. The errors are principally due to the current which circulates through the
magnetizing branch.
The magnitude error is the difference in magnitude between ΙH / n and IL and is equal to Ir
the component of Ie in line with k (see Figure 7).
The phase error, represented by θ, is related to Iq the component of Ie which is in quadrature
with IL. The values of the magnitude and phase errors depend on the relative displacement
between Ie and IL, but neither of them can exceed the vectorial error it should be noted that a
moderate inductive load, with Ie and IL approximately in phase, has a small phase error and the
excitation component results almost entirely in an error in the magnitude.
2.3 AC saturation
CΤ errors result from excitation current, so much so that, in order to check if a CT is
functioning correctly, it is essential to measure or calculate the excitation curve. The
magnetization current of a CT depends on the cross section and length of the magnetic circuit,
the number of turns in the windings, and the magnetic characteristics of the material.
Thus, for a given CT, and referring to the equivalent circuit of Figure 4.6b, it can be seen
that the voltage across the magnetization impedance, Es, is directly proportional to the secondary
current. From this it can be concluded that, when the primary current and therefore the secondary
current is increased, these currents reach a point where the core commences to saturate and the
magnetization current becomes sufficiently high to produce an excessive error.
When investigating the behaviour of a CT, the excitation current should he measured at
various values of voltage the so-called secondary injection test. Usually, it is more convenient to
apply a variable voltage to the secondary winding, leaving the primary winding open-circuited.
Figure 4.8a shows the typical relationship between the secondary voltage and the excitation
current determined in this way.
In European standards the point Κp on the curve is called the saturation or knee point and
is defined as the point at which an increase in the excitation voltage of ten per cent produces an
increase of 50 % in the excitation current. This point is referred to in the ANSI / IEEE standards
as the intersection of the excitation curves with a 45° tangent line, as indicated in Figure 4.8b.
The European knee point is at a higher voltage than the ANSI/IEEE Knee point.
2.4 Burden
The burden of a CT is the value in ohms-of the impedance on the secondary side of the CT
due to the relays and the connections between the CT and the relays. By way of example, the
standard burdens for CTs with a nominal secondary current of 5 A are shown in Table 3, based
on ANSI Standard C57.13.
IEC Standard Publication 185(1987) specifies CTs by the class of accuracy followed by the
letter Μ or P, which denotes whether the transformer is suitable for measurement or protection
purposes, respectively. The current and phase-error limits for measurement and protection CTs
are given in Tables 4a and 4.4b. The phase error is considered positive when the secondary
current leads the primary current.
The current error is the percentage deviation of the secondary current, multiplied by the
nominal transformation ratio, from the primary current, i.e. {(CTR x Ι2) – I1} ÷ I1 (%), where I1
= primary current (A), I2 = secondary current (A) and CTR = current transformer transformation
ratio. Those CT classes marked with `ext' denote wide range (extended) current transformers
with a rated continuous current of 1.2 or 2 times the nameplate current rating.
2.5 Selection of CTs
When selecting a CT, it is important to ensure that the fault level and normal load
conditions do not result in saturation of the core and that
CT magnetization curves
The errors do not exceed acceptable limits. These factors can be assessed from:
formulae;
CT magnetization curves;
CT classes of accuracy.
The first two meth ods provide precise facts for the selection of the CT. The third only
provides a qualitative estimation. The secondary voltage Ε in Figure 4.6U has to be
determined for all three methods. If the impedance of the magnetic circuit, Xm is high,
this can be removed from the equivalent circuit with little error' giving Es=Vs and thus:
Where
Vs = r.m.s. voltage induced in the secondary winding
=maximum secondary current in amperes;
this can be determined by dividing the maximum
Fault current on the system by the transformer
turns ratio selected
ZB = e x t e r n a l impedance connected
ZL = impedance of the secondary winding
ZC =impedance of the connecting wiring
Use of the formula
This method utilizes the fundamental transformer equation:
Vs = 4.44.f. Α. N. Bmax.1 0 -8 V (2)
Where
f =frequency in Hz,
Α =cross-sectional area of core (cm2)
Ν =number of turns
Bmax =flux density (lines/cm2)
2.0*1.2 1.000.500.20 0.10 2.0* 1.2 1.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.05
0.05
-
0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.4 5 - 5 8 10 15
0.2 0.2 0.2 0.350.50 0.75 10 - 10 15 20 30
ext
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.751.00 1.5 30 - 30 45 60 90
ext
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 2.00 60 - 60 - 90 120 -
ext
3.0 3.0 - - 3.0 - - - 120 - - 120 - - -
ext
*ext = 200 %
Table 4b Error limits for protection current transformers
+/- percentage
Accuracy +/- Phase error
Current
Class (minutes)
ratio error
% Current 5 20 100 120 5 20 100 120
0.1 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 15 8 5 5
0.2 0.75 0.35 0.2 0.2 30 15 10 10
0.5 1.5 0.75 0.5 0.5 90 45 30 30
1.0 3 1.5 1.0 1.0 180 90 60 60
Total error for nominal error limit current and nominal load is five per cent for 5P and 5Ρ ext
CTs and ten per cent for 10P and 10P ext CTs.
The cross-sectional area of metal and the saturation flux density are sometimes difficult to
obtain.
The latter can be taken as equal to 100 000 lines/Cm2, which is a typical value for modern
transformers. To use the formula, V is determined from eqn. 4.1 and Bmax. is then calculated
using eqn. 2. If Bmax.
Exceeds the saturation density, there could be appreciable errors in the secondary current and
the CT selected would not be appropriate.
Example 1.
Assume that a CT with a ratio of 2000/5 is available, having a steel core of high
permeability, a cross-sectional area of 3.25 In cm2 and a secondary winding with a resistance of
0.31 Ω. The impedance of the relays, including connections, is 2 Ω. Determine whether the CT
would be saturated by a fault of 35 000 A at 50 Hz.
Solution
If the CT is not saturated, then the secondary current, IL, is
35 000x 5/2000=87.5 A. N= 2000/5 = 400 turns
And Vs=87.5x (0.31+2) =202.1 V. Using eqn. 4.2, Bmax, can now be calculated:
Bmax = 202.1X108/4.44X50X3.25X400=70 030 lines/ cm2
Since the transformer in this example has a steel core of high permeability, this relatively low
value of flux density should not result in saturation.
Using the magnetization curve
Typical CT excitation curves which are supplied by manufacturers state the r.m.s. current
obtained on applying an r.m.s. voltage to the secondary winding, with the primary winding open-
circuited.
The curves give the magnitude of the excitation current required order to obtain a specific
secondary voltage.
The method consists of producing a curve which shows the relationship between the
primary and secondary currents for one tap and specified load conditions, such as shown in
Figure 4.9.
Starting with any value of secondary current, and with the help of the magnetisation curves, the
value of the corresponding primary current can be determined. The process is summarized in the
following steps:
(a) Assume a value for IL.
(b) Calculate Vs in accordance with eqn. 4.1.
(c) Locate the value of Vs on the curve for the tap selected, and find the associated value of
the magnetization current, Ie.
(d) Calculate I H / n (=IL + Ie) and multiply this value by n to refer it to the primary side of the
CT.
(e) This provides one point on the curve of IL against IH, and the process is then repeated
to obtain other values of IL and the resultant values of IH. By joining the points together the
curve of IL against IH is obtained.
2.6 DC saturation
Up to now, the behavior of a CT has been discussed in terms of a steady state, without
considering the DC transient component of the
DC saturation is particularly significant in complex protection schemes since, in the case of
external faults, high fault currents circulate through the CTs.
If saturation occurs in different CTs associated with a particular relay arrangement,
this could result in the circulation of unbalanced secondary currents which would cause the
system to malfunction.
2.7 Precautions when working with CTs
Working with CTs associated with energized network circuits can be extremely hazardous. In
particular, opening the secondary circuit of a CT could result in dangerous over voltages
which might harm operational staff or lead to equipment being damaged, because the current
transformers are designed to be used in power circuits which have impedance much greater
than their own.
As a consequence, when secondary circuits are left open, the equivalent primary-circuit
impedance is almost unaffected but a high voltage will be developed by the primary current
passing through the magnetizing impedance Thus, secondary circuits associated with CTs
must always he kept in a closed condition or short-circuited in order to prevent these adverse
situations occurring. To illustrate this, an example is given next using typical data for a CT
and a 13.2 kV feeder.
The c. t. primary rating is usually chosen to be equal to or greater than the normal full load
current o f the protected circuit. Standard primary ratings are given in B.S. 3938:1973.
Generally speaking, the maximum ratio of CT’s is usually limited to about 3000/1. This is due
to
(I) limitation of size of CT’s and more importantly
(II) the fact that the open circuit volts would be dangerously high for large CT’s Primary
ratings, such as those encountered on large turbo alternators, e.g. 5,000 amperes. It is standard
practice in such applications to use a cascade arrangement of say 5,000/20A together with
20/1A interposing auxiliary CT’s
Class P method of specification will a suffice. A secondary accuracy limit current greatly in
excess of the value t o cause relay operation serves no useful purpose and a rated accuracy
limit of 5 will usually be adequate.
When such relays are set to operate at high values of over current, say from 5 to 15 times the
rated current o f the transformer, the accuracy limit factor must be at least as high as the value
of the setting current used in order to ensure fast relay operation.
Rated outputs higher than 15VA and rated accuracy limit factors higher than 10 are not
recommended for general purposes. It is possible, however, to combine a higher rated accuracy
limit factor with a lower rated output and vice versa. But when the product of these two
exceeds 150 the resulting current transformer may be uneconomical, and/or of unduly large
dimensions.
Over current relays with Inverse and Definite Minimum Time
(IDMT) lag characteristic
In general, for both directional and non-directional relays class 10P current transformers
should be used
(1) Schemes in which phase fault current stability and accurate time grading are not required.
Class 10P current transformers are generally recommended in which the product of rated
output and rated accuracy limit fact or approaches 150 provided that the earth fault relay is
not set below 20% of the rated current of the associated current transformer and that the
burden of the relay at its setting current does not exceed 4VA.
(2) Schemes in which phase fault stability and/or where time grading is critical.
Class 5P current transformers in which the product of rated output and accuracy
limit factor approaches 150 should be used.
They are in general suitable for ensuring phase fault stability up to 10 times the rated primary
current and for maintaining time grading of the earth f a u l t relays, up to current values of the
order of 10 times the earth fault setting provided t h a t the phase burden effectively imposed
on each current transformer does not exceed 50% of it s rated burden.
The rated accuracy limit factor is not less than 10 the earth fault relay is not set below 30 %
The burden of the relay at its setting does not exceed 4VA
The use of a higher relay setting the use of an earth fault relay having a burden of less than
4VA at its setting The use of current transformers having a product of rated output and rated
accuracy factor in excess of 150.
Where
K - Is a constant found by realistic heavy current tests?
In - rated current of C.T. and relay
RCT - secondary winding resistance of the line current transformers
RL - lead burden (route length) in ohms
Ro - any other resistance (or impedance) in circuit
4.Protection Scheme
• 500 KV O. H. T Line
• 400 KV O. H. T Line
• 275 KV O. H. T Line
• 220 KV O. H. T Line
• 132 KV O. H. T Line
• 66 KV O. H. T Line
• 33 KV O. H. T Line
• 22 KV O. H. T Line
• 11 KV O. H. T Line
B – U. G. Cables
• 275 KV U. G. Cable
• 220 KV U. G. Cable
• 132 KV U. G. Cable
• 66 KV U. G. Cable
• 33 KV U. G. Cable
• 11 KV U. G. Cable
500, 400, 275 and 220 KV O.H.T. Lines
Protection Schemes
• Main (A) Protection:
Distance Protection Permissive Over Reach Scheme. (POTT)
• Main (B) Protection:
Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT)
• Backup Protection:
1. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
2. Circuit Breaker Fail to Tripe.
3. Inter Trip.
4. SF6 Pressure Low Trip
5. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail )
Drawing : single Line diagram for
protection scheme Click Here
132 and 66 KV O.H.T. Lines
Protection Schemes
• Main Protection:
Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT)
• Back up Protection:
1. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
2. Circuit Breaker Fail To Tripe.
3. Inter Trip.
4. SF6 Pressure Low Trip
5. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail)
Drawing : single Line diagram for
protection scheme Click Here
33 and 22 KV O.H.T. Lines
Protection Schemes
• I.D.M.T Direction O/C & EF Relay
• I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & EF Relay
11 KV O.H.T. Lines
Protection Schemes
• Backup Protection:
1. Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding.
2. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 33 KV side
3. Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
4. Buchhols Trip.
Bus-Bar Protection Schemes
• 500, 400, 275, 220 and 132 KV. Bus-Bar Protection Scheme.
- Differential Protection For each section of bus-bar.
- SF6 Pressure low Trip.
• 500, 400, 275, and 220 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme.
- I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
- C.B Fail to Trip.
- SF6 Pressure Trip.
- Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
A – O. H. T. Lines
• 500 KV O. H. T Line
• 400 KV O. H. T Line
• 275 KV O. H. T Line
• 220 KV O. H. T Line
• 132 KV O. H. T Line
• 66 KV O. H. T Line
• 33 KV O. H. T Line
• 22 KV O. H. T Line
• 11 KV O. H. T Line
B – U. G. Cables
• 275 KV U. G. Cable
• 220 KV U. G. Cable
• 132 KV U. G. Cable
• 66 KV U. G. Cable
• 33 KV U. G. Cable
• 11 KV U. G. Cable
• Backup Protection:
• Main Protection:
Distance Protection Permissive Under Reach Scheme. (PUTT)
• Back up Protection:
1. I.D.M.T Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
2. Circuit Breaker Fail To Tripe.
3. Inter Trip.
4. SF6 Pressure Low Trip
5. Cable Oil Pressure Low Trip (For Cable Tail)
11 KV O.H.T. Lines
Protection Schemes
• I.D.M.T Direction O/C & EF Relay
• Back up Protection:
• Main Protection:
Differential Protection (Solkor – R)
• Back up Protection:
• Main Protection:
Differential Protection (Solkor – R)
• Back up Protection:
11 KV U.G.C. Line
Protection Scheme
• Main Protection:
Differential Protection (Solkor – R)
• Back up Protection:
• Backup Protection:
1. Stand-By Earth Fault relay at the neutral of LV. Winding.
2. I.D.M.T Non Direction O/C & E/F relay on 33 KV side
3. Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
4. Buchhols Trip.
Bus-Bar Protection Schemes
• 500, 400, 275, 220 and 132 KV. Bus-Bar Protection Scheme.
- Differential Protection For each section of bus-bar.
- SF6 Pressure low Trip.
• 500, 400, 275, and 220 KV BB section & BB couplers protection scheme.
- I.D.M.T Non Directional O/C & E/F Relay.
- C.B Fail to Trip.
- SF6 Pressure Trip.
- Inter Trip (through pilot cable).
As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is more than load current.
If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is reduced to a low value and therefore a fault is
accompanied by large current.
Over-current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of
current exceeds the pickup level.
The Over-current relays are connected to the system, normally by means of CT's.
Over-current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is most widely used
protection. Overloading of a machine or equipment generally) means the machine is taking
more current than its rated current. Hence with overloading, there is an associated temperature
rise. The permissible temperature rise has a limit based on insulation class and material
problems.
Over-current protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.
Over-current protection includes short-circuit protection. Short circuits a be phase faults, earth
faults or winding faults. Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5 to 20) full load
current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short-circuits.
When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is provided in addition
as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine from sustained through fault.
Several protective devices are used for over-current protection these include:
1. Fuses
• The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible over-current,
and current surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in case of
inverse relays). If time delay cannot be permitted, high-set instantaneous
relaying is used.
• The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over-current protections
so as to discriminate.
Over-current protection has a wide range of applications. It can be applied where there is an
abrupt difference between fault current within the protected section and that outside the
protected section and these magnitudes are almost constant.
v Motor Protection
Over-current protection is the basic type of protection used against overloads and short-circuits
in stator windings of motors. Inverse time and instantaneous phase and ground over-current
relays can be employed for motors above 1200 H.P. For small/medium size motors where cost
of CT's and protective relays is not economically justified, thermal relays and HRC fuses are
employed, thermal relays used for overload protection and HRC fuses for short-circuit
protection.
v Transformer Protection
Transformers are provided with over-current protection against faults, only, when the cost of
differential relaying cannot be justified. However, over-current relays are provided in addition
to differential relays to take care of through faults. Temperature indicators and alarms are
always provided for large transformers.
Small transformers below 500 kVA installed in distribution system are generally protected by
drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuit-breakers is not generally justified Line
Protection.
The furnaces, industrial installations commercial, industrial and domestic equipment are all
provided with over-current protection.
The choice of relay for over-current protection depends upon the Time / current characteristic
and other features desired. The following relays are used.
1. For instantaneous over-current protection. Attracted armature type, moving iron type,
permanent magnet moving coil type and static.
Not: Now Digital Numerical Relay you can used for all types
There is a wide variety of relay-units. These are classified according to their type and
characteristics. The major characteristic includes:
1. Definite characteristic
2. Inverse characteristic
3. Extremely Inverse
4. Very Inverse
I0*T=K
Where:
T = Relay lime
K = Constant.
I1*T=K
In*T=K
Where n can be between 2 to 8 the choice depends on discrimination desired.
Instantaneous relays are those which have no intentional time lag sod which operate in less
than 0.1 second, usually less than 0.08 second. As suck they are not instantaneous in real sense.
The relays which are not instantaneous are called Time Delay Relay'. Such relays are provided
with delaying means such as drag magnet, dash poss. bellows, escape mechanisms, back-stop
arrangement, etc.
The operating time of a relay for a particular setting and magnitude actuating quantity can be
known from the characteristics supplied by the manufacturer. The typical characteristics are
shown in (Fig. 1)
An inverse curve is one in which the operating time; becomes less as the magnitude of the
actuating quantity is increased. However for higher magnitudes of actuating quantity the time
is constant. Definite time curve is one in which operating time is little affected by magnitude of
actuating current. However even definite time relay has a characteristic which is slightly
inverse
The characteristic with definite minimum time and of inverse type is also called Inverse
Definite Minimum Time (IDMT) characteristics (Fig.1).
(Fig.1) Inverse Definite Minimum Time (IDMT)
characteristics
Principle of trip circuit
Referring to (Fig. 2) the three current transformers and relay coils connected in star and the star
point is earthed. When short circuit occurs in the protected zone the secondary current of CT's
increases.
These current flows through relay coils and the relay picks-up, the relay contacts close,
thereby the trip circuit is closed and the circuit breaker-operates The over-current protection
scheme with three over-current relays (Fig. 2) responds to phase faults and earth faults
including single-phase to earth fault.
Therefore such schemes are used with solidly earthed systems where phase to phase and phase
to earth faults are likely to occur.
For proper functioning of over-current and earth fault protection, the choice of CT's and
polarity connections should be correct.
Fig.2) Over Current protection with
three phase OC relays
Over-current protection can be achieved by means of three over-current relays or by two over-
current relays (See Table 1).
Table 1
v Earth-Fault Protection
When the fault current flows through earth return path, the fault is called Earth Fault. Other
faults which do not involve earth are called phase faults. Since earth faults are relatively
frequent, earth fault protection is necessary in most cases. When separate earth fault protection
is not economical, the phase relays sense the earth fault currents. However such protection
lacks sensitivity. Hence separate earth fault protection is generally provided. Earth fault
protection senses earth fault current. Following are the method of earth fault protection.
Referring to Fig. 3 In absence of earth-fault the vector sum of three line currents is zero. Hence
the vector sum of three secondary currents is also zero.
IR+IY+IB=0
The sum (IR+IY+IB) is called residual current
The earth-fault relay is connected such that the residual current flows through it (Figs.3 and
Fig. 4), in the absence of earth-fault,
Therefore, the residually connected earth-fault relay does not operate. However, in presence of
earth fault the conditions is disturbed and (IR+IY+IB) is no more zero. Hence flows through
the earth-fault relay. If the residual current is above the pick-up value, the earth-fault relay
operates.
In the scheme discussed here the earth-fault at any location near or away from the location of
CT's can cause the residual current flow. Hence the protected
Another method of connecting an earth-fault relay is illustrated in Fig 5. The relay is connected
to secondary of a CT whose primary is connected in neutral to earth connection. Such protection
can be provided at various voltage levels by connecting earth-fault relay in the neutral-to-earth
connection of that voltage level. The fault current finds the return path through the earth and
then flows through the neutral-to-earth connected. The magnitude of earth fault current is
dependent on type of earthing (resistance, reactance or solid) and location of fault. In this type of
protection,
The zone of protection cannot be accurately defined. The protected area is not restricted to
the transformer/generator winding alone. The relay senses the earth faults
beyond the transformer/generator winding hence such protection is called unrestricted
earth-fault protection. The earth-fault protection by relay in neutral to earth circuit
depends upon the type of neutral Earthing. In case of large generators, voltage transformer
is connected between neutral and earth
(Fig. 5) Earth-fault protection by earth-fault-relay
connected
in neutral-to-earth circuit.
. Let Ia, Ib and I c , be the three line currents and Φa, Φb and Φc be corresponding
components of magnetic flux in the core. Assuming linearity, we get resultant flux Φ as,
Φ=k (Ia + Ib + I c )
(Ia + Ib + I c )= 3 I c= I n
Where, Io is zero sequence current and In, is current in neutral to ground circuit. During
normal condition, when earth fault is absent,
(Ia + Ib + Ic) = 0
If = 3Iao = In
Hence the zero-sequence component of I o produces the resultant flux Φr in the core.
Hence core balance current transformer is also called as zero sequence current
transformers (ZSCT).
The termination of a three core cable into three separate lines or bus-bars is through cable
terminal box. Ref. (Fig. 7), the Core Balance Protection is used along with the cable box and
should be installed before making the cable joint.
The induced current flowing through cable sheath of normal healthy cable needs particular
attention with respect to the core balance protection.
The sheath currents (Ish) flow through the sheath to the cover of cable-box and then to earth
through the earthing connection between cable-box. For eliminating the error due to sheath
current (Ish) the earthing lead between the cable-box and the earth should be taken through
the core of the core balance protection.
Thereby the error due to sheath currents is eliminated. The cable box should be insulated
from earth.
1. Cable terminal box
2. Sheath of 3 core cable connection to (1)
3. Insulator support for 1
4. Earthing connection passing through 5
5. Core balance CT
Frame-leakage Protection
The metal-clad switchgear can be provided with frame leakage protection. The switchgear is
lightly y insulated from the earth. The metal-frame-work or enclosure of the switchgear is
earthed with a primary of a CT in between (Fig. 8).
The concrete foundation of the switchgear and the cable-boxes and other conduits are slightly
insulated from earth, the resistance to earth being about 12 ohms. In the event of an earth
fault within the switchgear, the earth-fault current finds the' path through the neutral
connection. While doing so, it is sensed by the earth fault relay.
(Fig.
8) Principle of frame-leakage protection
of metal-clad-switchgear
Circulating current differential protection also responds to earth-faults within its protected
zone.
Directional operation of relay is used where the selectivity can be achieved by directional
relaying. The directional relay recognizes the direction in which fault occurs, relative to
the location of the relay. It is set such that it actuates for faults occurring in one direction
only. It does not act for faults occurring in the other direction. Consider a feeder AC (Fig.
9) passing through sub-section B. The circuit breaker CB3 is provided with a directional
(Fig.
9) Principle of directional protection
Relay `R' which will trip the breaker CB3 if fault power flow in direction C alone.
Therefore for faults in feeder AB, the circuit breaker CB3 does not trip unnecessarily.
However for faults in feeder BC the circuit-breaker CB3 trips
Because it's protective relaying is set with a directional feature to act in
direction AC
Another interesting example of directional protection is that of reverse power protection
of generator (Fig. 10). If the prime mover fails, the generator continues to run as a motor
and takes power from bus-bars.
(Fig.
10) Reverse powers protection against motoring
action of a generator
Directional power protection operates in accordance with the direction of power flow.
Reverse power protection operates when the power direction is reversed in relation to the
normal working direction. Reverse power relay is different in construction than
directional over-current relay.
In directional over-current relay, the directional element does not measure the
magnitude of power. It senses only direction of power flow. However, in Reverse Power
Relays, the directional element measures magnitude and direction of power flow.
The current coils in the directional over-current relay are normally connected to a
secondary of line CT. The voltage coil of directional element is connected to a line VT,
having phase to phase output (of 110 V). There are four common methods of connecting
the relay depending upon phase angle between current in the current coil and voltage
applied to the voltage coil.
Fig.11 Numerical Over
current, and Overload
Protection Relay
When fault current can flow in both directions through the relay location, it is
necessary to make the response of the relay directional by the introduction of
directional control elements. These are basically power measuring devices in which
the system voltage is used as a reference for establishing the relative direction or
phase of the fault current.
Although power measuring devices in principle, they are not arranged to respond to
the actual system power for a number of reasons:
1. The power system, apart from loads, is reactive so that the fault power factor
is usually low. A relay
Responding purely to the active component would not develop a high torque and
might be much slower and less decisive than it could be.
1. The system voltage must collapse at the point of short circuit. When the
fault is single-phase, it is the particular voltage across the short-circuited
points which are reduced. So a B—C phase fault will cause the B and C phase
voltage vectors to move together, the locus of their ends being the original line
be for a homogeneous system, as shown in (Fig.12)
At the point of fault the vectors will coincide, leaving zero voltage across the fault, but
the fault voltage to earth will be half the initial phase to neutral voltage. At other
points in the system the vector displacement will be less, but relays located at such
points will receive voltages which are unbalanced in their value and phase position.
The effect of the large unbalance in currents and voltages is to make the torques
developed by the different phase elements vary widely and even differ in sign if the
quantities applied to the relay are not chosen carefully. To this end, each phase of the
relay is polarized with a voltage which will not be reduced excessively except by close
three-phase faults, and which will remain in a satisfactory relationship to the current
under all conditions.
Relay connections
This is the arrangement whereby suitable current and voltage quantities are applied
to the relay. The various connections are dependent on the phase angle, at unity
system power factor, by which the current and voltage applied to the relay are
displaced.
The most satisfactory maximum torque angle for this connection, that ensures
correct operation when used for the protection of plain feeders, is 0°, and it can be
shown that a directional element having this connection and 0° MTA will provide
correct discrimination for all types of faults, when applied to plain feeders
If applied to transformer feeders, however, there is a danger that at least one of the
three phase relays will operate for faults in the reverse direction; for this reason a
directional element having this connection should never be used to protect
transformer feeders.
This connection has been used widely in the past, and it is satisfactory under all
conditions for plain feeders provided that three phase elements are employed. When
only two phase elements and an earth fault element are used there is a probability of
failure to operate for one condition. An inter-phase short circuit causes two elements
to be energized but for low power factors one will receive inputs which, although
correct, will produce only a poor torque. In particular a B—C fault will strongly
energize the B element with lb current and Vba voltage, but the C element will
receive Ic and the collapsed Vcb voltage, which quantities have a large relative phase
displacement, as shown in (Fig. 13b). This is satisfactory provided that three phase
elements are used, but in the case of a two phase and one earth fault element relay,
with the B phase element omitted, operation will depend upon the C element, which
may fail to operate if the fault is close to the relaying point.
A phase element connected l a Va c
B phase element connected l b Vba
C phase element connected Ic Vcb
(a) Characteristic and inputs
for phase A element
The relay torque at unity power factor is 0.707 of the maximum torque and the same at
zero power factor lagging; see (Fig.17).
It should be remembered, however, that the conditions assumed above to establish the
maximum angular displacement between the current and voltage quantities at the
relay, are such that, in practice, the magnitude of the current input to the relay would
be insufficient to cause the over current element to operate. It can be shown
analytically that the possibility of mal-operation with the 90°- 45° connection is, for all
practical purposes, non-existent.
Parallel feeders
If non-directional relays are applied to parallel feeders, any faults that might occur on
any one line will, regardless of the relay settings used, isolate both lines and completely
disconnect the power supply. With this type of system configuration it is necessary to
apply directional relays at the receiving end and to grade them with the non-
directional relays at the sending end, to ensure correct discriminative operation of the
relays during line. faults. This is done by setting the directional relays R'1 and R'2 as
shown in (Fig.18) with their directional elements looking into the protected line, and
giving them lower time and current settings than relays R1 and R2. The usual practice
is to set relays R'1 and R'2 to 50% of the normal full load of the protected circuit and
0.1 TMS, but care must be taken to ensure that their continuous thermal rating of twice
rated current is not exceeded.
Ring mains
Directional relays are more commonly applied to ring mains. In the case of a ring main
fed at one point only, the relays at the supply end and at the mid-point substation,
where the setting of both relays are identical, can be made non-directional, provided
that in the latter case the relays are located on the same feeder, that is, one at each end
of the feeder.
It is interesting to note that when the number of feeders round the ring is an even
number, the two relays with the same operating time are at the same substation and will
have to be directional, whereas when the number of feeders is an odd number, the two
relays with the same operating time are at different substations and therefore do not
need to be directional.
It may also be noted that, at inter-mediate substations, whenever the operating times of
the relays at each substation are different, the difference between their operating times
is never less than the grading margin, so the relay with the longer operating time can be
non-directional.
The usual procedure for grading relays in an inter-connected system is to open the ring
at the supply point and to grade the relays first clockwise and then anti-clockwise; that
is, the relays looking in a clock-wise direction round the ring are arranged to operate in
the sequence 1—2—3—4—5—6 and the relays looking in the anti-clockwise direction are
arranged to operate in the sequence 1'—2'—3'—4'—5'—6', as shown in (Fig.19)
The arrows associated with the relaying points indicate the direction of current flow
that will cause the relays to operate.
A double-headed arrow is used to indicate a non-directional relay, such as those at the
supply point where the power can flow only in one direction, and a single-headed
arrow a directional relay, such as those at intermediate substations around the ring
where the power can flow in either direction. The directional relays are set in
accordance with the invariable rule, applicable to all forms of directional protection
that the current in the system must flow from the substation bus-bars into the
protected line in order that the relays may operate.
Disconnection of the faulty line is carried out according to time and fault current
direction. As in any parallel system, the fault current has two parallel paths and
divides itself in the inverse ratio of their impedances.
Thus, at each substation in the ring, one set of relays will be made inoperative because
of the direction of current flow, and the other set operative. It will also be found that
the operating times of the relays that are inoperative are faster than those of the
operative relays, with the exception of the mid-point substation, where the operating
times of relays 3 and 3' happen to be the same.
The relays which are operative are graded downwards towards the fault and the last to
be affected by the fault operates first. This applies to both paths to the fault.
Consequently, the faulty line is the only one to be disconnected from the ring and the
power supply is maintained to all the substations.
When two or more power sources feed into a ring main, time graded over current
protection is difficult to apply and full discrimination may not be possible. With two
sources of supply, two solutions are possible. The first is to open the ring at one of the
supply points, whichever is more convenient, by means of a suitable high set
instantaneous over-current relay and then to proceed to grade the ring as in the case of
a single infeed, the second to treat the section of the ring between the two supply points
as a continuous bus separate from the ring and to protect it with a unit system of
protection, such as pilot wire relays, and then proceed to grade the ring as in the case
of a single infeed.
In the directional over-current protection the current coil of relay is actuated from
secondary current of line CT. whereas the current coil of directional earth fault relay is
actuated by residual current.
In directional over-current relay, the voltage coil is actuated by secondary of line VT. In
directional earth fault relay, the voltage coil is actuated by the residual voltage.
Directional earth fault relays sense the direction in which earth fault occurs with respect
to the relay location and it operates for fault in a particular direction. The directional
earth fault relay (single phase unit) has two coils. The polarizing quantity is obtained
either from residual current
I RS = (Ia + Ib + Ic)
Referring to (Fig. 11) the directional earth-fault relay has two coils. One to the coils is
connected in residual current circuits (Ref. Fig. 5). This coil gets current during earth-
faults. The other coil gets residual voltage,
V RS= V a + V b + V c
('Three phase five limb potential transformer or three separate single phase potential
transformers connected as shown in Fig. 20). The coil connected in potential-transformer
secondary circuit gives a polarizing field.
The residual current I RS i.e. the out of balance current is given to the current coil and the
residual voltage VRs is given to the voltage coil of the relay. The torque is proportional to
T = I RS * V RS * cos (Φ - α)
Φ = angle between I RS and VRs
α = angle of maximum torque.
Summary
Over-current protection responds to increase in current above the pick-up value over-
currents are caused by overloads and short-circuits.
The over-current relays are connected the secondary of current transformer. The
characteristic of over-current relays include inverse time characteristic, definite time
characteristic.
Earth fault protection responds to single line to ground faults and double line to ground
faults. The current coil of earth-fault relay is connected either in neutral to ground circuit
or in residually connected secondary CT circuit.
Core balance CTs are used for earth-fault protection.
Frame leakage protection can be used for metal clad switchgear.
Directional over-current relay and Directional Earth fault relay responds to fault in which
power flow is in the set direction from the CT and PT locations. Such directional relays
are used when power can flow from both directions to the fault point.
Co-ordination
Correct current relay application requires knowledge of the fault current that can flow
in each part of the network. Since large scale tests are normally impracticable, system
analysis must be used. It is generally sufficient to use machine transient reactance X'd
and to work on the instantaneous symmetrical currents. The data required for a relay
setting study are:
1. A one-line diagram of the power system involved, showing the type and
rating of the protective devices and their associated current
transformers.
2. The impedances in ohms, per cent or per unit, of all power
transformers, rotating machines and feeder circuits.
3. The maximum and minimum values of short circuit currents that are
expected to flow through each protective device.
4. The starting current requirements of motors and the starting and
stalling times of induction motors.
5. The maximum peak load current through protective devices.
6. Decrement curves showing the rate of decay of the fault current
supplied by the generators.
7. Performance curves of the current transformers.
8. The relay settings are first determined so as to give the shortest
operating times at maximum fault levels and then checked to see if
operation will also be satisfactory at the minimum fault current
expected. It is always advisable to plot the curves of relays and other
protective devices, such as fuses, that are to operate in series, on a
common scale. It is usually more convenient to use a scale corresponding
to the current expected at the lowest voltage base or to use the
predominant voltage base. The alternatives are a common MVA base or
a separate current scale for each system voltage.
9. The basic rules for correct relay co-ordination can generally be stated as
follows:
10. Whenever possible, use relays with the same operating characteristic in
series with each other.
11. Make sure that the relay farthest from the source has current settings equal
to or less than the relays behind it, that is, that the primary current required
operating the relay in front is always equal to or less than the primary current
required operating the relay behind it.
Circuit breaker protection is provided at B, C, D and E, that is, at the infeed end of
each section of the power system. Each protection unit comprises a definite time delay
over current relay in which the operation of the current sensitive element simply
initiates the time delay element. Provided the setting of the current element is below
the fault current value this element plays no part in the achievement of discrimination.
For this reason, the relay is sometimes described as an 'independent definite time delay
relay' since its operating time is for practical purposes independent of the level of over
current.
It is the time delay element, therefore, which provides the means of discrimination. The
relay at B is set at the shortest time delay permissible to allow a fuse to blow for a
fault on the secondary side of trans-former A. Typically, a time delay of 0.25s is
adequate.
If a fault occurs at F, the relay at B will operate in 0.25s, and the subsequent operation
of the circuit breaker at B will clear the fault before the relays at C, D and E have time
to operate. The main disadvantage of this method of discrimination is that the longest
fault clearance time occurs for faults in the section closest to the power source, where
the fault level (MVA) is highest.
1. Discrimination by current
Discrimination by current relies on the fact that the fault current varies with the
position of the fault, because of the difference in impedance values between the source
and the fault. Hence, typically, the relays controlling the various circuit breakers are
set to operate at suitably tapered values such that only the relay nearest to the fault
trips its breaker. (Fig. 22) illustrates the method.
For a fault at F1, the system short circuit current is given by:
So a relay controlling the circuit breaker at C and set to operate at a fault current of
8800 A would in simple theory protect the whole of the cable section between C and
B. However, there are two important practical points which affect this method of co-
ordination.
Where
ZS = source impedance
=112 / 250 = 0.485 ohms
For this reason, a relay controlling the circuit breaker at B and set to operate at a
current of 2200 A plus a safety margin would not operate for a fault at F4 and would
thus discriminate with the relay at A. Assuming a safety margin of 20% to allow for
relay errors and a further 10% for variations in the system impedance values, it is
reasonable to choose a relay setting of 1.3 x 2200, that is, 2860 A for the relay at B.
Now, assuming a fault at F3, that is, at the end of the 11 kV cable feeding the 4 MVA
transformers, the short-circuit current is given by:
I = 6350 /(Zs + ZL1 + ZL2 +ZT)
I = 6350 /(0.485 + 0.24 + 0.04)=8300 Amp.
Alternatively, assuming a source fault level of 130 MVA:
I = 6350 /(0.93 + 0.24 + 0.004)=5250 Amp.
In other words, for either value of source level, the relay at B would operate
correctly for faults anywhere on the 11 kV cable feeding the transformer.
Discrimination by both time and current
3 Discrimination by both time and current
Each of the two methods described so far has a fundamental disadvantage. In the
case of discrimination by time alone, the disadvantage is due to the fact that the more
severe faults are cleared in the longest operating time. Discrimination by current can
only be applied where there is appreciable impedance between the two circuit breakers
concerned.
In order to carry out a system analysis, before a relay co-ordination study of the
system shown in (Fig. 23), it is necessary to refer all the system impedances to a common
base and thus, using 10 MVA as the reference base, we have:
=22.5 X 10 / 30 =7.5 %
The graph in (Fig.23) illustrates the use of 'discrimination curves', which are an
important aid to satisfactory protection co-ordination. In this example, a voltage base of
3.3kV has been chosen and the first curve plotted is that of the 200 A fuse, which is
assumed to protect the largest outgoing 3.3kV circuit. Once the operating characteristic
of the highest rated 3.3kV fuse has been plotted, the grading of the over current relays at
the various sub-stations of the radial system is carried out as follows:
Substation B
That is, 6260 A at 3.3kV or 1880 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 250 A and 4.76 MVA at 11 kV,
and at a time multiplier setting of 0.2, suitable discrimination with the 200 A fuse is
achieved.
Substation C
That is, 17,280 A at 3.3kV or 5180 A at 11 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 9.52 MVA at 11 kV,
and at a time multiplier setting of 0.7, suitable discrimination with the relay at substation
B is achieved.
(Fig.23) Time and current grading
Substation D
That is, 21,500 A at 3.3kV or 538 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 150 A and 34.2 MVA at 132 kV
and at a time multiplier setting of 0.25, suitable discrimination with the relay at
substation C is achieved.
Substation E
That is, 270,000 A at 3.3kV or 6750 A at 132 kV. The operating characteristics of the
CDG 14 relay show that at a plug setting of 100%, that is, 500 A and 114 MVA at 132 kV,
and at a time multiplier setting of 0.9, suitable discrimination with the relay at sub-
station D is achieved.
A comparison between the relay operating times shown in (Fig. 21) and the times
obtained from the discrimination curves of (Fig. 23) at the maximum fault level reveals
significant differences. These differences can be summarized as follows:
These figures show that for faults close to the relaying points the inverse time
characteristic can achieve appreciable reductions in fault clearance times.
Even for faults at the remote ends of the protected sections, reductions in fault
clearance times are still obtained, as shown by the following table:
This comparison clearly shows that when there is a large variation in fault level all
along the system network the overall performance of the inverse time over current relay
is far superior to that of the definite over current relay.
4 GRADING MARGIN
The time interval between the operations of two adjacent relays depends upon a
number of factors:
The circuit breaker interrupting the fault must have completely interrupted the
current before the discriminating relay ceases to be energized.
B. Overshoot
When the relay is de-energized, operation may continue for a little longer until any
stored energy has been dissipated. For example, an induction disc relay will have stored
kinetic energy in the motion of the disc; static relay circuits may have energy stored in
capacitors. Relay design is directed to minimizing and absorbing these energies, but some
allowance is usually necessary.
The overshoot time is not the actual time during which some forward operation takes
place, but the time which would have been required by the relay if still energized to
achieve the same amount of operational advance.
C. Errors
All measuring devices such as relays and current transformers are subject to some
degree of error. The operating time characteristic of either or both relays involved in the
grading may have a positive or negative error, as may the current transformers, which
can have phase and ratio errors due to the exciting current required to magnetize their
core. This does not, however, apply to independent definite time delay over current
relays.
Relay grading and setting is carried out assuming the accuracy of the calibration
curves published by manufacturers, but since some error is to be expected, some
tolerance must be allowed.
D. Final margin
After the above allowances have been made, the discriminating relay must just fail to
complete its operation. Some extra allowance, or safety margin, is required to ensure that
a satisfactory contact gap (or equivalent) remains.
E. Recommended time
The total amount to be allowed to cover the above items depends on the operating
speed of the circuit breakers and the relay performance. At one time 0.5s was a normal
grading margin. With faster modern circuit breakers and lower relay overshoot times
0.4s is reasonable, while under the best possible conditions 0.35s may be feasible.
In some instances, however, rather than using a fixed grading margin, it is better to
adopt a fixed time value, to allow for the operating time of the circuit breaker and relay
overshoot, and to add to it a variable time value that takes into account the relay errors,
the CT errors and the safety margin.
A value of 0.25s is chosen for the fixed time value, made up of 0.1 s for the fault
current interrupting time of the circuit breaker, 0.05s for the relay over-shoot time and
0.1 s for the safety margin. Considering next the variable time values required, it is first
assumed that each inverse time over current relay complies with Error Class E7.5
defined as normal British practice in BS 142:1966.
The normal limits of error for an E7.5 relay are ±7.5% but allowance should also be
made for the effects of temperature, frequency, and departure from reference setting. A
practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2 x 7.5, that is, 15%, this to
apply to the relay nearest to the fault, which shall be considered to be slow.
To this total effective error for the relay a further 10% should be added for the
overall current transformer error. Hence, for the time interval t' required between
inverse time over current relays it is proposed to adopt the equation:
As far as the independent definite time delay over-current relays are concerned, it is
assumed that these comply with Error Class El 0, defined as normal British practice in
BS 142:1966. The normal limits of error for an El 0 relay are ± 10%, but allowance
should also be made for the effects of temperature, voltage, frequency and departure
from reference setting. A practical approximation is to assume a total effective error of 2
x 10, that is, 20%, this to apply to the relay, nearest to the fault, which shall be considered
to be slow. However, unlike the inverse time over current relay, it is not necessary to add
a further error for the current transformers. Hence, for the time interval t' required
between independent definite time delay over current relays, it is proposed to adopt the
equation:
Limits of accuracy have been considered by various national committees and (Fig.24)
shows a typical example of the limits set by the British Standards Institution specification
BS 142:1966 for the standard inverse definite minimum time over current relay.
The discriminating curves shown in (Fig.25) illustrate the application of such a relay
to a sectioned radial feeder; it will be seen that with the assumed relay settings and the
tolerances allowed in BS 142:1966 the permissible grading margin between the over
current relays at each section breaker is approximately 0.5s. With the increase in system
fault current it is desirable to shorten the clearance time for faults near the power source,
in order to minimize damage. It is therefore necessary to reduce the time errors, which
are in this situation disproportionately large when compared with the clearance time of
modern circuit breakers; this can only be achieved by improving the limits of accuracy,
pick-up and overshoot
(Fig. 24) Typical limits of accuracy set by BS
142: 1966 for an inverse
Definite Minimum Time over current relay
NOTE: The allowance error in operating time should not be less than 100ms
All this must be obtained without detriment to the general performance of the relay;
in other words, there must be no reduction in the operating torque or weakening of the
damper magnets or contact pressures, and the construction must remain simple with the
minimum number of moving parts. While these requirements present considerable
difficulties in manufacture, owing to variations in materials and practical tolerances, the
progress made in the GEC Measurements relays has made it possible to discriminate
more closely by reducing the margin between both the current and the time setting of the
relays on adjacent breakers.
(Fig.25) application of an IDMT over current
relay to a sectioned
Radial feeder
These relays will thus enable the time setting of the relay nearest the power source to
be reduced, or, alternatively, make it possible to increase the number
of breakers in series without increasing the time setting of the relays
at the power source.