A second language is any language other than the first, or native, language

learned; it is typically used because of geographical or social reasons. The term is to be

distinguished from foreign language; linguist Eric Lenneberg uses second language in his
critical period hypothesis to mean a language consciously learned or used by its speaker
after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and
comprehension in their second languages as in their first language.
Historically in Europe, the most widely used second language (or lingua franca) was
Latin. It was used by the Church; by the Law (as it still is today); in Medicine (starting
much later); Horticulture and biological classification of plants, animals, fruits, nuts, etc.
Latin was used so much across Europe that it was called the vulgar (or common tongue);
this is why the Latin version of the Bible is called the Vulgate.
Nowadays, English is considered the world's most widespread second language; it is used
in areas as diverse as the internet, television and radio, and international aviation.
The success of English throughout the world stems from two major causes: the far
reaching influence of the British Empire, and the 20th century (and continuing)
dominance of the United States in the fields of business and entertainment.
French was for a time the lingua franca in Europe. In history, both England and France
were ruled by a single crown - the language used by the royal court was French (English
was considered "the peasant's language"). Afterwards, as was the case with English, the
French empire spread its language through colonization. French continues to be one of
the world's most widely spoken languages.

Mother tongue or first language is perhaps the most favorite thing for any person.
Language is an important aspect of our lives. In Bangladesh language played a key role in
our liberation movement. In 1952, we observed the Language Movement which
culminated into a nine month long liberation war in 1971. Today, Bangladesh is an
independent country. Bangladesh is considered to be a monolingual country in which
more than 98% of the population is speakers of Bangla language. However, there are
more than ten languages in such a small country like Bangladesh. Monipuri, Urdu,
Chakma, Santali, Garo, Rakhain, Tipra- are just some of the other languages present in
Bangladesh, but another language that gained lots of importance over the year is English.
Bangladesh was ruled by the British for two hundred years. Hence, English has been used
for quite some times in our country. Though English does not have the status it used to
have during the colonial period it still plays a very important role in our country. Along
with Bangla, English is taught to students in schools and colleges in our country but in
the constitution of Bangladesh, there is no mention of English language.
English language has been used in Bangladesh for quite sometime. During British period
and Pakistan period, English enjoyed the status of official language. It served as a lingua
franca between people of two different nations. During British period, English enabled
communication between people of the subcontinent and Europe. In Pakistani era, it
enabled communication between Urdu speakers and Bengali speakers. Post
Independence, there was a surge in nationalism and the government tried to implement
Bengali language in every sector. However, teaching of English continued in primary,
secondary and tertiary level not because it was the official language but it became the
language of trade and commerce. Over the years, the prominence of English continued to
rise but the government yet failed to clarify its position in Bangladesh.
On the other hand we can not live in isolation. We have to be in contact with the speakers
of other languagesThe interesting thing is that Urdu is a Indo-European language but
written in Arabic script, Santali belongs to the Mono-Khemar language family while
Chakma belongs to the Chinese-Barmese language group. So, although Bangladesh is
often portrayed as a country of linguistic unity based on Bangla language in reality it has
notable linguistic diversity. To communicate with the speakers of other languages we
either need to know their language or communicate in a Lingua-Franca that is
comprehensible to both of us.
English language is dominantly present in every side of our national life while on the
other hand in our constitution it is clearly declared that the language of the country is
Bangla. In fact, nothing is said about the status of English language in our constitution.
On one hand, economic activities in the private companies are carried out in English
while there is a government law (Bangla procholon ain1987) that government offices
must use Bangla in their official works. So from the government point of view Bangla is
the national- official language of Bangladesh and English is the most important foreign
language. But in reality English is the second language of the country and in many places
English is more important than Bangla in Bangladesh.
Today, the world has become a global village. Thanks to the advancement of
communication system and technology. Every country is dependent on others for trade
and commerce, education, politics etc. As a result, to constantly communicate with other
countries and speakers of other languages. Third world countries like Bangladesh have to
depend on foreign aid because they are not self-sufficient. As a result, many foreigners
come to Bangladesh. A third factor is the factor of religion. The sacred language of the
Muslims is Arabic, Sanskrit for Hindus, Pali for the Buddhists and Latin for the
Christians. All these factors remind the necessity for learning other languages in addition
to our mother tongue. According to this reality many countries of the world have adopted
a European language as second language which is often used in education, law court,
economic activities and government works. These languages have most of the time
official status in the constitution of those countries. Many of the cases the countries have
adopted the language of their past colonial rulers as the second language. Sometimes
these languages are also called official language. In many African countries we can see
this picture. On the other hand, some European languages have become very important in
the world for literary and economic purposes.

History of English Language in Bangladesh

Through history, Bangladesh has gone through various phases of development in English
language. From the time of the English rule to Pakistani regime and finally Bangladeshi
system, English language has evolved not only in methods but also in fundamental
aspects like use of language and governance.

During the British rule, education was mainly reserved for the wealthy class. The
language of pedagogy was English as schools were run by religious nuns and other
British people. The few natives who were fortunate to receive education were either from
wealthy families (Nawabs) or whose family had ties with the British governing body. For
one to receive higher education, such as a university degree, to become a professional,
one had to attend schools in England. As native people were treated as second-class
citizens, education was largely deprived from the general population. Thus at that time
Bangladeshi people knew little or almost nothing about English language.
After the British had left the Indian Subcontinent, the territory presently known as
Bangladesh came under Pakistani regime as the state of East Pakistan. Education during
this period was still very scarce but those who had the means of acquiring it were no
longer considered second-class citizens. The state language, however, was Urdu: the
mother tongue of Pakistan. In the region of East Pakistan, the native language was
Bengali and not Urdu. Hence, a conflict over language was eminent. School systems were
still largely functioned in the English language as few schools, such as the Holy Cross
and numerous Cadet Colleges, were still taught by the British and the nuns. However, in
order to obtain government jobs, one had to know Urdu as it was the state language.
Bengalis did not want to learn Urdu as the felt obliged to submit their rights to the
Pakistanis. As such, after a long and bloody language movement, Bengalis were given the
practice the language Bengali in their own homeland. So, to recap, during the Pakistani
era, the educational system was mainly to indoctrinate students to the Urdu language. But
through all these, English language evolved in to being used in schools, colleges, and in
universities. Most primary schools now taught English in fact it had become a
compulsory subject in some Bengali medium schools.

After the liberation war of Bangladesh in 1971, the People's Republic of Bangladesh
became an independent nation free to choose its own educational destiny. As Bangladesh
was, and still is, a secular state, many forms of education were permitted to co-exist. The
formidable British system was, and still is, largely practiced. English medium schools
emerged as being available to all.

Development of English Language through time

The tentative beginnings of English language acquisition in Bengal date from the 1630s
when the first English factories started being set up, first at Balasore and then at Hughli.
In 1651 the East India Company was born, which marked the beginning of the political
domination of the British in Bengal and India, also ushered in the use of the English
language. Though today English is no longer the official language as it was during the
British Raj, it is the most important foreign or second language in Bangladesh. It is taught
at most educational institutions as a subject and is a compulsory paper in almost all
public examinations. Many English words have also become part of Bangla vocabulary.

Recent research has also revealed that Deen Mahomed wrote what was the first book in
English by an Indian: The Travels of Dean Mahomet, A Native of Patna in Bengal,
Through Several Parts of India, While in the Service of The Honourable The East India
Company Written by Himself, In a Series of Letters to a Friend. Published by
subscription in 1794, its epistolary style conforms to the popular convention of the 18th
century.

This early acquisition of English was, however, sporadic and based on individual efforts
and circumstances. The large-scale spread of English came with the setting up of schools.
As early as the 17th century, schools were being set up for European children. The first
English institution established in Kolkata was in 1731 by the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge. In 1759 Rev. Kiernander opened another English school with 48
scholars. By the end of the year the number had risen to 174. It was not, however, till the
Free School Society of Bengal was founded in 1789 that Kolkata became the centre for
English medium education. Side by side with the numerous missionary schools, English
teaching schools mushroomed in and around Kolkata. Unlike the missionary schools,
these were commercial ventures Along with accounting and bookkeeping necessary for
procuring jobs with the British factors these schools trained students in reading and
writing English. Among the prominent writers and thinkers who had gone to these
academies were Radhkanta Deb (1783-1867), who studied at the Calcutta Academy run
by Mr Cummings, and Henry Derozio (1809-1831), who studied at Dhurramtallah
Academy run by David Drummond.

Two other associations that furthered the spread of English were the Calcutta School
Book Society (1817) and the Calcutta School Society (1818). The Calcutta School-Book
Society was set up to provide good texts in English as well as in Indian languages. The
Calcutta School Society was established to help improve old schools and set up new
schools where needed. One of its objectives was to promote in Kolkata, and elsewhere,
higher branches of education, including English..
Perhaps more important than what was taught at the college were the debates introduced
by Henry Derozio that trained the students in oration. The ability with which the students
debated in English on a variety of topics was remarkable. Before Derozio's unfortunate
departure from the college-he was accused by the management of corrupting and
misguiding the young men under his care-he had formed the nucleus of the Academic
Association and encouraged the students to publish a journal named Parthenon.

Though the Anglicist-Orientalist controversy continued through the first few decades of
the19th century, it came to a close with Macaulay's famous Minute of 1835 and the
subsequent decision by Sir Henry Hardinge to encourage the intake of new recruits from
the English schools. Hardinge's resolution of 10 October 1844 gave English the formal
recognition that in practice it was assuming as a language of economic importance.
Hardinge's resolution advanced the cause of English by making it the passport to higher
appointments. Though Bengali Muslims were initially hesitant about western education
and the English language, they also gradually realised the importance of English. This
awareness is clearly reflected in the introduction of English language in the curriculum of
the Calcutta Madrasa in 1826.

One of the most important factors that led to the establishment of English as the language
of higher education was Charles Wood'sEducational Dispatch (1854), which laid fresh
emphasis on primary education, but also encouraged the development of high schools and
colleges by a grants-in-aid system. Most important of all was the recommendation to set
up universities in the three presidency towns: Kolkata, Madras and Bombay. The medium
of instruction at the lower levels was to be the vernacular, while English was to be the
medium of instruction at the universities. University of Calcutta was founded under this
programme in 1857. By the middle of the 19th century, English became the medium of
instruction at the higher stages of education. Because all aspirants for higher education
were required to know the language, an impetus was also given to the development of
English at the school level.

A major role in the spread of the English language was played by English language
journals. Not only did Bengalis contribute to these journals, they also started a number of
them. The first newspaper to be published in Bengal was the BENGAL GAZETTE in 1780, by
James Hicky, but the paper was better known as Hicky's Gazette. The Bengal
Gazette lasted for only three years, but was followed by other newspapers published in
English: the India Gazette (1780) the Calcutta Gazette (1784), the Bengal
Journal (1785), the Oriental Magazine or Calcutta Amusement (1786) and the Calcutta
Chronicle (1786). Perhaps more important than these papers, as showing the state of
English-language journalism in Bengal, were those published by Indians, such as
Ramgopal Ghose's Bengal Spectator which echoed the title of Addison and Steele's well-
known periodical and Tarachand Chakravarti's publication, Quill. The Bengal
Herald (1829), of which Raja Rammohun was the proprietor for a few months, also
displays the interest of Indians in English-language journalism. Keshab Chandra Sen also
started several periodicals: The Sunday Mission, The Liberal and The New Dispensation.

English, however, was not just the language of everyday discourse; there were a few
Indians who had literary aspirations as well. Nawab Samsudaullah of Dhaka (1770-
1831), for example, despite his attempts to oust the British from Bengal, was fond of
writing poetry in English. Imprisoned on charges of conspiracy, the nawab was found
writing inside the jail by William Hickey. When asked what he was writing,
Samsudaullah replied that he was writing a Shakespearean sonnet. Hickey in
his Memoirs notes that the nawab was writing grammatical English. Bishop Heber (1783-
1826) met the nawab in Dhaka after he was released. In his Narrative of a
Journey (1827), Heber too avers that the nawab spoke good English and had literary
skills.

While the attempt of Samsudaullah remains a footnote in history, the efforts of others at
using the English language for poems and stories is part of the literary history of Bengal.
Even though these were perhaps not much more than experiments, the experimenters
acquired considerable literary skill which they later transferred to Bangla writing. Both
Michael Madhusudan Dutt (1824-1873) and Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay (1838-1894)
were part of the emerging intellectual and well-to-do Bengali middle class that benefited
from English and western education. Madhusudan joined Hindu College in 1833, after
the departure of Derozio. Thus the influence of Derozio on him was indirect.
Nevertheless, the spirit of free thinking and love for English literature at Hindu College,
part of it due to Derozio, undoubtedly lingered. Madhusudan converted to Christianity,
adopting the name Michael. He left for Madras in 1848 where his poem 'The Captive
Ladie' was published in the Madras Chronicle. In the poem Madhusudan used the
English language and the ballad form to write an Indian story. It was not, however,
through this English poem that Madhusudan made his name but through his Bangla
epic, MEGHNADBADH KAVYA (1861), and his Bangla sonnets. Though, like Bankimchandra
later, Madhusudan discarded English to produce his Bangla masterpieces, he drew upon
his English learning to write his sonnets and epic based upon English models.

Bankimchandra, acknowledged as one of the first masters of the Bangla novel, initially
tried his hand at English fiction: The Adventures of a Young Hindu and Rajmohan's Wife.
Though neither of these two English books nor his earlier Bangla attempts drew the
attention of readers, his English reading, particularly of Walter Scott's romances, helped
to inspire, and also occasionally to structure, the subsequent novels which brought him
fame.

Rev. Lalbehari Day (1824-1894), less famous than either Madhusudan or

Bankimchandra, is nevertheless an acknowledged folklorist whose English writings have
stood the test of time. Though Lalbehari was born in a poor family, his father,
Radhakanta, realised the importance of English education and sent his son to Alexander
Duff’s free school. Lalbehari, like Madhusudan, converted to christianity, but, unlike
Madhusudan, he was actively involved in the Church. It was while working in Burdwan,
that Lalbehari saw the life of the rural Bengali from close quarters and wrote about his
observations in Bengal Peasant Life (1874). Lalbehari also collected Folk Tales, which
were published asFolk Tales of Bengal (1875).

Toru Dutt (1856-1877) was educated in England along with Aru, her sister (1869-73),
and learned both English and French. When Aru died of consumption, Toru published A
Sheaf Gleaned in French Fields, consisting of English translations of 165 French poems.
Barring eight poems, which had been translated by her sister, Toru had translated the rest.
The collection was favourably reviewed in both England and France. Toru returned to
India and started contributing poems and essays to local magazines, especially to
the Bengal Magazine. At the time of her premature death in 1874, Toru left behind
French and English manuscripts. Ancient Ballads and Legends of Hindustan was
published five years after her death. Though Toru died young, her English contribution
along with that of her better known male contemporaries suggests the ferment that
English language and literature were causing in Bengal.

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) was essentially a Bangla writer. Nevertheless, he too

wrote fine English. His translation of the Gitanjali(1912) made his name known in the
western world and merited him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. He also translated
a number of his other writings such as The Gardener (1913), Fruit-
Gathering(1916), Fugitives (1921) and The Crescent Moon. Some of his prose writings
were originally in English such as Personality and The Religion of Man (1932).

English had been introduced in madrasah education by the third decade of the 19th
century. However, opposition to English was so great that English classes were
practically boycotted. Some Bengali Muslims like Nawab Abdool Luteef (1828-1893)
realised the importance of English. At Calcutta Madrasah where he had studied, Abdool
Luteef had realised the necessity of English for success. Accordingly, he had taken
advantage of the English classes offered at the madrasah and gained considerable fluency
in the language. He also tried to explain to his fellow Muslims that English was necessary
if they wished to improve their lot. It was with this aim in mind that he offered a prize for
an essay written in Persian on the benefits to Muslim students of a scientific education
acquired through the medium of English. Abdool Luteef also founded the Muhammadan
Literary Society (1863), where the proceedings were in English.

Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928) was another Muslim who realised the importance of the
English language. Like Nawab Abdool Luteef, Ameer Ali was also a madrasah student,
having studied at Hoogli Madrasah before going on to college and then Calcutta
University. Syed Ameer Ali believed that the regeneration of Muslims was possible only
if they remembered their past glories. Accordingly, Ameer Ali took it upon himself to
remind them of their past in several books. Two of these books, The Spirit of
Islam (1891) and A Short History of the Saracens(1898), have become classics.

While by the early 19th century, Muslim Bengalis were being educated in English, the
knowledge of English-and even of Bangla-was taboo for Muslim Bengali women. The
example of Roquiah Sakhawat Hossain (1880-1932), however, suggests how Muslim
Bengali women were also learning the language. Roquiah learnt Arabic, Persian and
Urdu from a home tutor. It was by dint of her own efforts and with the support of her
brother and later her husband that she learned Bangla and English. Roquiah learned
English well enough to write Sultana's Dream (1908) in English, later translating the
story herself into Bangla. Sultana's Dream,about a female utopia where women reign, is
still eminently readable and in recent years has drawn considerable attention for its
feminist imagination and lucid English.

Much of the fine writing in English, however, in the first half of the century was not
creative but political.AK Fazlul Huq (1873-1962) and Huseyn Shaheed
Suhrawardy (1892-1963) were both fluent in English. Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy later
wrote his memoirs in English, as did his sister, Shaista Ikramullah. Apart from a memoir,
Hasan Shaheed Suhrawardy, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy's brother, also wrote poetry in
English. While the Suhrawardy family, like that of Fazlul Huq, were born in affluent
circumstances, it was also possible at that time for an educated person from a humble
background to gain proficiency in English. Thus Tamizuddin Khan (1889-1963), born in
a humble peasant family and obliged to find a jagir to continue his studies, was able to
obtain an MA in English from Calcutta University. In later years, he wrote an
autobiography in English. Though incomplete, it reads lucidly and reveals the level of
English available to the educated person of the period.

Among the other writers of Bengal who wrote in English was Nirad C Chaudhari (1897-
1999). Despite the many controversies attending The Autobiography of an Unknown
Indian (1951), it has become a classic. Though Chaudhuri also wrote in Bangla, he
continued to write in English, books such as A Passage to England and Thy Hand, Great
Anarch.
University education in English had been available at all degree colleges under the
University of Calcutta since 1858. With the founding of the University of Dhaka in 1921,
English university education became available in East Bengal. English was one of the
twelve departments that opened in 1921. The medium of instruction in all departments
except languages was English. Academic papers were read and monographs were
published in English periodically by the university. A few years after its establishment,
the Dacca University Journal was published. In 1935, the journal was replaced by the
biannual Dacca University Studies. This publication underwent a slight change of
spelling with the change in the name of the capital, but continues to be published today,
in three parts.

At the time of partition in 1947, education at the primary and secondary levels was in the
vernacular, with the exception of a couple of missionary schools that offered instruction
in English. The level of English, however, at the matriculation level was fairly high with
students having to sit for two English papers. One could also opt to sit for the
matriculation examination in Bangla, Urdu or English. Intermediate, however, was only
offered at the colleges in English.

Immediately after partition, the demand for Bangla to be recognised as one of the state
languages of Pakistan grew intense. The language movement led to the acceptance of
Bangla as one of the two state languages of Pakistan along with Urdu. While the
nationalist sentiment led to the growth of Bangla literature, English language remained
the medium of instruction at the higher institutions as well as the common link language
between the two wings of East and West Pakistan. Although primary and secondary
education was mainly in the vernacular, education at the colleges and the universities-
first the University of Dhaka and then the universities of Rajshahi and Chittagong-
continued to be in English.

In 1972, Bangla became the official language of Bangladesh. The language of the
Foreign Office, however, remained English, as did the language of the army. Bangla
became the medium of instruction in all schools and colleges. At the universities, apart
from the English departments, students had the option of answering examinations in
either Bangla or English. The wholesale change, however, saw almost simultaneously the
growth of what were initially small, informal, private endeavours to preserve English
language education at the school level. A number of English medium kindergartens and
tutorials started offering alternative English language education and prepared students for
British O' and A' levels. Till the 80s these tutorials were on a minor key. From the early
90s, however, these tutorials proliferated into 'international schools'. The late 90s saw the
establishment of a number of full-fledged international schools run as commercial
ventures and often headed by foreign nationals.

By the 1980s, however, the general standard of English fell drastically. English was
eliminated as a compulsory subject at the BA pass level. This lead to a further
deterioration in the standard of English. Some students who had done well in the national
examinations and had gone abroad on scholarships were sent back because they could not
cope with the English medium of instruction. Affluent parents started sending their wards
abroad in an attempt to get quality education in English. With the passage of the Private
Universities Act in 1992, private universities, where the medium of instruction is English,
have proliferated. To improve the standard of English at the national level, the public
universities have also reconsidered their Bangla-only policy and have introduced an
English language course in the first year.

In addition to the growth of private universities, the 1990s saw the founding of English
language newspapers of a fairly high standard. There has also been a growth of English
language periodicals and magazines. Apart from Friday magazines, some English
newspapers bring out children's magazines, lifestyle magazines, and literary magazines
where columns, stories and poems are published-some of them revealing fairly
sophisticated linguistic skills in English.

Despite the emphasis on Bangla, there has been a consistent amount of academic
publishing in English. Most serious research whether in journals or books has been in
English. All the public universities publish journals in English. In addition, the
departments of English at the universities of Dhaka, Rajshahi, Chittagong and
Jahangirnagar publish their own journals. Other departments too publish academic
journals in English. The Dhaka law reports are published in English. Many government
publications are in English. The Constitution of Bangladesh is in both Bangla and
English. Most of the publications of the Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, including its
journal, are in English. The Bangladesh Institute of Strategic Studies also publishes an
English journal.

Though English is mainly a language of communication with the outside world, and a
functional language, there has been a steady stream of translation literature and a less
prolific growth of creative writing. While the Bangla Academy has been mainly engaged
in publishing books in Bangla and translating from English to Bangla, it publishes
the Bangla Academy Journal in English and, over the years, has published a considerable
amount of Bangla literature translated into English. While the quality of the translations
varies, this has meant that there has been a fairly large amount of literary material
available in English.

Creative literature in English is rather limited. Nevertheless, there is a fair amount of

writing in English, which feeds the Friday magazines and literary sections. Among the
earliest Bangladeshi creative writers in English was Syed Waliullah. Though he wrote
mainly in Bangla, he translated many of his writings into English himself and also wrote
a few short stories in English. Similarly, Razia Khan is another bilingual writer, writing
equally fluently in both Bangla and English. Kaiser Haq, who only writes in English, is
an internationally known poet.

There has also been some fiction published in English. SM Ali, better known as a
journalist, wrote a novel published posthumously: Rainbow Over Padma (1995). Adib
Khan, a Bangladeshi writer now settled in Australia, became internationally famous when
he won a Commonwealth Writers' Prize for his first novel, Seasonal Adjustments(1995).

Though the standard of English nationally in Bangladesh is not high, and English is still
an urban, elite language, with independence, globalisation, satellite television, FM radio,
etc, Bangladesh is being exposed to English as never before. The entrance of Bangladesh
into the garment industry has created an increasing awareness of the need for English
communication skills. The phenomenal growth of the IT industry in Bangladesh has also
made people aware of the importance of English as a language of communication. As in
the past, English has become essential for economic purposes. The importance of English
in Bangladesh today may be gauged by the formal recognition of English as a second
language in 2001.

Barriers to English Language

In Bangladesh, English is treated as a foreign language rather than as a second language.
As such the learning of it depends more on the aptitude and ability of the teacher and the
usage and, or necessity of the learner. Bangladesh has undergone a series of political and
socio-economic changes that have greatly influenced the learning of English as a foreign
language. The partition of Bengal in 1905 and its unification in 1906, the creation of
Pakistan in 1947 and finally the birth of Bangladesh in 1971 have all had their impacts of
the attitudes and motivation of learning English. In 1971, the spirit of Bengali
nationalism dimmed the urge of English as an international language. Also the cost of
education rose and the poor people especially those living outside the capital were
deprived of higher education. As a result, in the post-liberation period in Bangladesh the
learning of English has deteriorated and the practice still continues.

The reasons for the decline in learning of English are not difficult to find. The learning of
English, or any language for that matter is a two-way action. That is the teacher and the
learner. This is, of course, to be supported by the social, economic and political
environment, The necessity of learning English as an international language has to be felt
and understood. The merits and advantage of English has be nationally accepted and
given due attention. This aspect is primarily known as motivation for learning. Unless
you have a clear and comprehensive target for learning English the pursuit of English will
be deterred.
Bangladesh has a monolingual setting. Bangla is the only language that reigns here. It is
the state language and the mother tongue of the majority of the population. In this set-up
it is not very difficult to propagate a motivation for learning English as a foreign
language. The motivation has to be created indicating the privileges and advantages of
learning English in the present era of globalization. Once the motivation is established,
the attitudes of the learners will be significant and positive.

It is not that the students, who are mainly the young learners, are averse towards learning
English. Tests and sub-tests in this regard prove that 70% of the students are eager
towards learning English.

Some factors, mainly due to the lack of trained English teachers hamper the learning of
English in Bangladesh. One chief factor is the English class anxiety-students fear English
like a child that fears darkness. A discomfort prevails among the students while learning
English. Only experienced and trained teachers can help the students overcome the
tension and anxiety in the class.

The efficiency of the English teacher plays a vital rule in creating the attitude of students
towards leaning English. Besides knowing the subject well, he/she is required to have
qualities essential to become a successful teacher.

One main problem of learning English in Bangladesh results from saturation of English
teachers in the capital city, Dhaka. English teachers mainly reside and work in the capital
only. As a result the schools and colleges in the whole country outside Dhaka suffer
immensely due to lack of English teachers. This again is due to the economic status of
English teachers in Bangladesh. An English teacher in Dhaka gets a handsome salary and
also earns enough money through private tutoring. The schools and colleges in 'muffasal'
and remote areas in Bangladesh cannot offer such money. A national awareness in this
respect is necessary.

It is important to take into consideration all the factors integratedly and approach English
teaching in a positive manner. The teacher-learner relationship must be effectively
evaluated and only then can English teaching in Bangladesh be constructive and
productive.

English in Education sector in Bangladesh:

Frmal and institutionalized education system started in Bangladesh during the British
rule. At that time Bangladesh was part of British India. There was a debate about the
medium of education. Raja Rammohan Roy argued that the medium should be English
rather than Sanskrit or Persian. During the British period, the medium of education was
largely in English. Calcutta University took an initiative in 1935 to introduce Bangla as a
medium of education along with English. In Bangladesh the use of Bangla in college
level started in the 1960s. Now students can answer in the examinations in Bangla or
English. In the college level and university level, after 1971, the government tried to
patronize Bangla and implement it by replacing English in the education sector but this
did not came into reality because of some basic problems. The first problem is that there
were not enough books of any field in Bangla language. This problem is more acute in
science and technology. For example, there are almost no books in Bangla about
computer technology that can be used as a reference book in the University level.
Actually there are three kinds of education systems in our country- Bangla medium,
English medium, and Madrasa system. Bangla medium schools can be divided into two
sections- government schools, and kindergarten schools. In the kindergarten schools more
emphasis is given on English language than government schools. Some of the famous
kindergarten schools of Dhaka are Viqarunnisa Noon School, Willes Little Flower Higher
Secondary School, and Holy Cross Girls' High School. Although these schools belong to
Bangla medium the students have to study 3-4 English books like: Radiant Way, Active
English, Desk Work, Fundamental English, Brighter Grammar, and so on. On the other
hand, in the government schools there is only one English book (English for Today)
which is published by Bangladesh Text Book Board. The English medium schools do not
follow Bangladeshi education system and are under the supervision of British Council.
The medium of instruction in these schools is English and many of the students of
English medium are even very weak in Bangla language. There are two kinds of
Madrassas - Dakhil and Kawmi. The Kawmi Madrassas are not recognized by the
government and do not receive any assistance from the government. In these Madrassas
emphasis is given on learning Arabic, Persian, and Urdu while Bangla and English are
neglected. In Dakhil Madrassas, emphasis is mainly given on Arabic and Bangla and
English are not so much neglected.
So we can clearly see that the difference in education system in Bangladesh is solely
based on the difference in the medium of education. Although Bangla is the national and
official language of Bangladesh, it is the English medium education institutions that get
more money. The rise of private universities has only increased the status and importance
of English language in Bangladesh. There are now more than 50 private universities in
Bangladesh and the medium of education in all of them is English. These universities
charge 2 lakh to 5 lakh taka for bachelor courses. If the medium of education was in
Bangla then hardly any student or parents would get interested to pay such huge money
for the education in private universities.
From the above discussion it is clear that in our general education system, English has,
equal if not, more importance than Bangla. In our education system, English is really the
second language as all the students have to study it as a compulsory subject for twelve
years.

English policy and proficiency in public schooling

The standard of English may have fallen since independence in 1971. Policy and
practice have been fragmented and inconsistent. Lack of competent teachers has been
a crucial limitation. In 1974 the first commission report explicitly stated that Bengali
would be the medium of instruction and positioned English as the second language
(Ministry of Education, 1974). English was to be taught only from Grades VI to XII.
In 1988 the Ministry maintained a common starting point for English at Grade 6, but
also stated that English could be introduced in primary education at Grade 3
(Ministry of Education, 1988). It also specified a weekly time allotment for Bengali
of 33.3% from Grades 1–2, and 20.6% from Grades 3–5. If a school provided English
in Grades 3–5, the time allotment was 14.5% (Ministry of Education, 1998). In 1991,
the government recommended that English be taught from Grade 1, but this was not
implementable in 1997. The Ministry commented that this might not matter because
most graduates from basic primary education were expected to enter jobs where
English was not required. It recommended that the starting point for English be not
Grade 1 but Grade 3 (Ministry of Education, 1997). Even so, this goal has not been
achieved. However, in recent times the Bangladesh government has become more
concerned in promoting English language education. The President of Bangladesh
stated, ‘with a view to promoting employment abroad and encouraging transfer of
technology, emphasis will be laid on teaching English language along with the mother
tongue’ (The Daily Observer, 2002). It can be also mentioned here that since 1998, as
per the agreement between the Ministry of Education, the Bangladesh and the US
government, every year around 200 US volunteers come to Bangladesh in order to
teach English at the secondary schools (http://peacecorpsonline.org/messages/
messages/467/2012870.html). Moreover, English teacher training specialists from
abroad come as resource persons in order to train up English as a Second Language
(ESL) teachers of Bangladesh (The Daily Star, 2005). A new policy is expected, focusing
on the training of teachers of English. The curriculum in teacher training is presently
being upgraded, using British Council funding.
Simply providing classes does not guarantee communicative competence. One
survey found that the average English language skill level of university students is
equivalent to the Grade 7 standard (The Daily Star, 2002). Another survey, on the
basic competencies of primary students, found that girls achieved 10% and boys
achieved 8% in English (Chowdury et al., 1999). In a study of selected English
language skills among 200 students in classes 11 and 12 in Dhaka City—where
English language skills should be better developed than in rural districts—less than
one in five students scored well. In contrast with primary education, girls performed
much less well than boys. Many students scored zero, as follows:
● 58% on ability to write independently;
● 40% on comprehension of a passage of reading;
● 19% on ability to use sentence patterns;
● 9% on ability to recognize words (Khatun & Begum, 2000).
Situation of English in Bangla Medium

Communicative English, one of the major objectives of which is to emphasize on

speaking skill, was introduced in the national curriculum more than a decade ago in order
to enhance our students' overall skills, specially speaking skill, that were neglected in our
curriculum since independence. But have we achieved any level of success and are we on
the right track to achieve our objectives? The answer is a big "no."
Our students in general are not able to achieve even a rudimentary level of speaking skill
even after they have studied English as a compulsory subject from the primary level to
the higher secondary level.

Firstly communicative method of language learning is a global phenomenon, and proper

implementation can produce positive result. Regrettably, in Bangladesh we have not been
able to use this method properly till now and probably success will not come until we
take necessary steps.

Although the introduction of communicative English in Bangladesh has not enhanced the
quality of our students' English language skill, it has contributed a lot towards the
increase in pass rate in SSC and HSC examinations. In fact, one of the major reasons for
the very poor output from communicative English is the exam system.

In Bangladesh, researchers have found that students are highly exam oriented and have
no interest in things that are not included/important in the exam (this is not the fault of
the students because we traditionally judge a student's merit by the marks s/he gets in the
exam).

The text books (English for today) up to higher secondary level provide materials to
engage students in oral communication by group work, pair work, dialogues, role-play
etc. But since these things are not included in the public exams, students do not feel
interested in such oral practice and language teachers face a lot of trouble in the
communicative language classes.

Experts, while designing communicative English language materials for the students and
guidelines/instructions for the teachers, provided sample questions that later turned into
so-called model questions and students got real interest here. Now, in most schools and
colleges, communicative English has dwindled to the practice of model questions that
exclude the oral practice of language. These models, which are almost the same items
from class six through twelve, have made the bar of exams much easier to cross.
In the present system of examination, it is very difficult for a student to fail in English
because if s/he answers even randomly without being sure of any correct answer, he or
she is likely to get at least pass marks, and in case s/he gets below the pass marks,
examiners these days are liberal enough to enhance the score to the pass mark. One of the
reasons, perhaps, is the pressure from the education boards that always want to raise the
pass rates higher.

We all know that pass rates in English matter much to the average pass rates because
most of the students who fail to pass in the SSC and HSC exams fail in English. In the
present situation the education board authorities may feel complacent because the pass
rate in English is no less than 70%, and that the number of students getting A+ in English
far outnumbers those getting A+ in Bangla. The pass rate in both papers of English in
2009 is nearly 90 percent as against around 70 percent in the last couple of years. The
number of A+ achievers in English this year is more than that in Bengali, according to
sources in the education boards.
Under Dhaka Board, the average pass percentage in English first paper and second paper
is 87.08. Last year it was 74.39 percent. The average pass percentage of SSC, SSC
(Vocational) and Dakhil examinations, held under 10 education boards, showed a
tremendous boost with pass rate of 79.98 percent, a leap of 9.09 percent from last year’s
70.89 percent. The pass percentage in English was 72.18 in 2008, 58.36 in 2007, 62.22 in
2006 and 54.10 in 2005.

Also, those who are not familiar with the exam system may have this delusion that our
students are doing better in English than in Bangla, meaning that they are gaining better
in English than in Bangla. But the reality is different, and this can be guessed from the
general impression that a huge number of our educated youths who have gained
certificates but not good jobs in the country or elsewhere due to their lack of English
language skill.

In a service oriented economy our country is bound to be more impoverished and

vulnerable if we cannot educate our youths with speaking skill in English. Moreover, our
agenda for building a digital Bangladesh through vision 2021 will be jeopardised because
in the present global context English language will be a driving force for digital
Bangladesh.

In the present context of necessity of English as a tool for development the prevailing
communicative method of English language teaching needs to be reshaped along with the
exam system. In the public exam at least 20% marks needs to be allotted for speaking
skill (that will cover listening skill as well). Then, students will be encouraged to develop
their speaking skill. Practice of speaking English should be enhanced at least in the
educational institutions and English classes must be conducted in English.

suggestion is that a lot of materials for discussion in English could be chosen from
Bangla literature, including the literary materials of Bangla syllabuses of the respective
classes. This will not only hold students' interest but also increase their passion for
Bangla language and literature, simultaneously developing speaking skill in English.

From personal experience it is found that a very good output engaging my students to talk
about some Bangla poets or writers or on Bangla short stories and poems. Teachers
should be aware that not all Bangla words have English synonyms because "no two
languages are similar." Besides we can use our culture bound relationship words such as
abba, amma, bhabi, assalamu alaikum, namasker etc. while speaking in English.

Situation of English in English Medium

The British rule in the Indian Subcontinent is still very influential as the second
official languages of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. are still English. Students in
Bangladesh have the right to attend schools in the English medium where courses are all
taught in English using English books with the exception of the Bengali courses and the
Religious course which are offered in Bengali and Arabic. However, English medium
schools are mainly private and thus reserved for the wealthy class. After three years of
pre-school, students must successfully pass through ten grades to be eligible for writing
the Ordinary Level Exams, also called the O-Levels. Then after one more year of studies,
students can write the Advanced Level (A-Level) Exams. Both these routines are offered
for Arts students and to Science students. The O-Levels and A-Levels are both prepared
in England and are common to every country in the world at the same time. To write
these exams, students must go to the British Council in Dhaka (capital city of
Bangladesh). Once the exams are written, they are sealed in envelopes and sent to
England for corrections. After the A-Levels, students are free to choose their subjects in
the Universities but most tend to leave the country to study abroad.

Although in recent times English medium education is very much affordable, even for the
middle class. The number of English medium schools in Bangladesh is increasing
rapidly. This increase is not only because it is profitable but also due to the increased
number of students and parents eagar to go for English medium schools. English medium
schools have not only within Dhaka but in recent times other districts of Bangladesh have
also experienced increase in English medium schools.

In Bangladesh, English is treated as a foreign language rather than as a second language.

As such the learning of it depends more on the aptitude and ability of the teacher and the
usage and, or necessity of the learner. Bangladesh has undergone a series of political and
socio-economic changes that have greatly influenced the learning of English as a foreign
language. The partition of Bengal in 1905 and its unification in 1906, the creation of
Pakistan in 1947 and finally the birth of Bangladesh in 1971 have all had their impacts of
the attitudes and motivation of learning English. In 1971, the spirit of Bengali
nationalism dimmed the urge of English as an international language. Also the cost of
education rose and the poor people especially those living outside the capital were
deprived of higher education. As a result, in the post-liberation period in Bangladesh the
learning of English has deteriorated and the practice still continues.

The reasons for the decline in learning of English are not difficult to find. The learning of
English, or any language for that matter is a two-way action. That is the teacher and the
learner. This is, of course, to be supported by the social, economic and political
environment, The necessity of learning English as an international language has to be felt
and understood. The merits and advantage of English has be nationally accepted and
given due attention. This aspect is primarily known as motivation for learning. Unless
you have a clear and comprehensive target for learning English the pursuit of English will
be deterred.

Bangladesh has a monolingual setting. Bangla is the only language that reigns here. It is
the state language and the mother tongue of the majority of the population. In this set-up
it is not very difficult to propagate a motivation for learning English as a foreign
language. The motivation has to be created indicating the privileges and advantages of
learning English in the present era of globalization. Once the motivation is established,
the attitudes of the learners will be significant and positive.

It is not that the students, who are mainly the young learners, are averse towards learning
English. Tests and sub-tests in this regard prove that 70% of the students are eager
towards learning English.

Some factors, mainly due to the lack of trained English teachers hamper the learning of
English in Bangladesh. One chief factor is the English class anxiety-students fear English
like a child that fears darkness. A discomfort prevails among the students while learning
English. Only experienced and trained teachers can help the students overcome the
tension and anxiety in the class.

The efficiency of the English teacher plays a vital rule in creating the attitude of students
towards leaning English. Besides knowing the subject well, he/she is required to have
qualities essential to become a successful teacher.

One main problem of learning English in Bangladesh results from saturation of English
teachers in the capital city, Dhaka. English teachers mainly reside and work in the capital
only. As a result the schools and colleges in the whole country outside Dhaka suffer
immensely due to lack of English teachers. This again is due to the economic status of
English teachers in Bangladesh. An English teacher in Dhaka gets a handsome salary and
also earns enough money through private tutoring. The schools and colleges in 'muffasal'
and remote areas in Bangladesh cannot offer such money. A national awareness in this
respect is necessary.

It is important to take into consideration all the factors integratedly and approach English
teaching in a positive manner. The teacher-learner relationship must be effectively
evaluated and only then can English teaching in Bangladesh be constructive and
productive.

Situation of English in Madrasah

Currently, there are three different systems of madrasah education in Bangladesh.
They are the old darse nizami system, the revised and modified nizami system, and the
alia nisab (higher syllabus). The first two categories are popularly called Qawmi or non-
government madrasahs. Amongst them the most notable are Al-Jamiatul Ahlia Darul
Ulum Moinul Islam in Hathazari, Al-Jamiah Al-Islamiah Patiya, in Patiya and Jamia
Tawakkulia Renga Madrasah in Sylhet.

As of 2009, there were 17,000 registered Qawmi madrasahs with the Befaqul
Mudarressin of Bangladesh Qawmi Madrasah Education Board, though the figure could
be well over double that number if unregistered madrasahs were counted. The situation of
English in madrasah is not very pretty. The madrasahs in Dhaka city and in other citys
did manage to increase the capability of students to write English. But the speaking
quality of English in both rural and urban area is poor. Most of the students in Madrasah
does not have any actual English teacher in madrasahs. So English language is the subject
is not the subject they favors to like. Madrasah students need to learn Arabic language,
Arabic is most emphasized there, after that learning English language becomes more and
more harder. After the introduction of madrasah board in Bangladesh in 1979, English
language was introduced much later.
Official language:
An official language is something that is given a unique status in the countries,
states, and other territories. It is typically the language used in a nation's legislative
bodies, though the law in many nations requires that government documents be produced
in other languages as well.
Officially recognized minority languages are often mistaken for official languages.
However, a language officially recognized by a state, taught in schools, and used in
official communication is not necessarily an official language. For example, Ladin and
Sardinian in Italy and Mirandese in Portugal are only officially recognized minority
languages, not official languages in the strict sense.
Half of the countries in the world have official languages. Some have only one official
language, such as Albania, France, or Lithuania, despite the fact that in all these countries
there are other native languages spoken as well. Some have more than one official
language, such as Afghanistan, Belarus, Belgium, Bolivia, Canada, Eritrea, Finland,
India, Paraguay, South Africa, and Switzerland.
In some countries, such as Iraq, Italy, Russia and Spain, there is an official language for
the country, but other languages are co-official in some important regions. Some
countries, such as Australia, Sweden, Tuvalu, and the United States have no official
languages.
The official languages of some former colonies, typically French or English, are not the
national languages or the most widely spoken language.
In contrast, as a consequence of nationalism, Irish is the "national language" of the
Republic of Ireland and its first official language, although it is spoken by only a small
fraction of its people. English, which is spoken by the majority, is described only as the
second official language (Constitution of Ireland, Article 8).
In some countries, the issue of which language is to be used in what context is a major
political issue.(Source-Wikipedia)
From the above definition, it is seen that the notion of official language is complicated.
According to our constitution English can not be termed as the official language of
Bangladesh since it has no status in our constitution. The only language that is mentioned
in our constitution is Bangla. But English is allowed in our parliament and many
government events. For example, when there is a government event in which some
foreigners attend then in many cases the speakers use English language. Many important
government documents are written both in Bangla and English. The parliament
proceedings are kept into these two languages. When a government body organizes a fair
then often the souvenir is published in English.

English in Law court in Bangladesh:

After Independence the government took the initiative to implement Bangla language
in law court. As a result, now the lower courts carry out their activities in Bangla but
English is yet very influential in High Court and Supreme Court. If a lawyer wants to
practice in Supreme court then he must have a good command over English language.
Many of the judges still give their verdicts in English language. It seems that this trend of
using English will remain for the foreseeable future.

English and Administration:

During the language movement, the people of Bangladesh were afraid that if Urdu
was established as the state language of Pakistan, then all the government activities will
be carried out in Urdu and our people will suffer. As a result of the language movement,
the Pakistani regime kept on carrying out government activities in English language.
After Bangladesh became independent, the government of Awami League decided to
replace English with Bangla in administrative works but after the death of Sheikh Mujib,
this process came to a halt and English continued to remain as the dominant language. It
was during the rule of Ershad, “Bangla Procholon Aeen of 1987” was created and
implemented. From that time, English started to lose its significance in administration.
However, it has to be mentioned that all the international communication of Bangladesh
government is carried out in English.
English in Economic activities:
The economy of Bangladesh is dependent on foreign aids and export of some
common items like ready-made garments, jute, tea, fish etc. We also import a lot of
things. Bangladesh is not economically self-sufficient. Trading is more popular than
production. Trading requires constant communication with foreign companies. Many of
the companies that are involved in trading have to use English in dealing with foreigners.
Suppose, a company is trading with China, which is not an English speaking country,
then the company has to contact the Chinese company in English. If we look at the
advertisements of the private sector jobs then we would notice that most of the job
advertisements are posted in English. Even most of the private sector job advertisements
that are posted in Bengali newspapers are posted in English. Almost all the private jobs
state that the applicants must have good proficiency in English language. Almost all the
public limited companies publish their annual reports in English. Some of these
companies produce a Bangla version of their annual report but the emphasis is always on
English. So it is clear that English is the dominant language in our economic activities.

Comparison of English with foreign languages in Bangladesh:

Arabic, Sanskrit and Pali are the religious languages of Muslims, Hindus and
Buddhists respectively. Even the uneducated people try to learn these languages as they
are considered to be holy. If we compare the learning of English with these languages
then we can see that English is given more importance. For example, the tuition fee of a
English coaching center is much higher than that of an Arabic coaching centre. English
private tutors get 4-5 times more money than Arabic private tutors (Huzur). So although
Arabic has religious sentiment attached to it, English is considered to be more important
as it has economic benefit.
French and German have become very popular for economic reasons in our country.
Learning these languages help us to increase our possibility to get jobs in various
international organizations. Learning French is also helpful for getting immigration to
Canada. There are good facilities to learn these languages in Dhaka University, Alliance
Francaise, and Goethe Institute. Recently, the English Institute of North South University
has introduced French course. On the other hand, during the Muslim reign, Persian was
the language of the Royal administration and law court in Bangladesh. At present, a
student can attend Farsi course for one semester by just paying tk. 250 in Iran Cultural
Center but there are not many students who are interested to learn Farsi, French, and
German. On the other hand, hundreds of students each year appear for TOEFL and
IELTS exams in English language.
From the above picture it is clear that the status of English is much higher than foreign
languages like German, French, and Persian. We can not deny the reality that if a person
is good at English then he can earn money in any part of Bangladesh but if a person is
good in French, German, or Persian he has hardly any scope to earn money by using his
linguistic skills.

Problems of global English in Bangladesh

Continuity with the colonial period
The global role of the English language and English-speaking cultures derives not
from an inherent superiority, nor from the natural outcome of market forces on a level
playing field, nor from a spontaneous movement towards global unity (despite Crystal,
1997). Rather it derives from the past and present hegemony of the USA and the UK
in economics, politics and in the cultural sphere. The English language is a chief
instrument of global hegemony. The necessity for global English is a function of
institutions,
trans-national companies, and governments able to ensure their own culture
is given universal respect. Pennycook (1995) argues that the spread of English constitutes
the ‘deliberate policy of English-speaking countries protecting and promoting
their economic and political interest’ (p. 42). Here certain governmental and private
agencies play a key role, such as the British Council (Pennycook, 2001, p. 61).
The promotion of English as standard British or American English, enforced by
international examinations and credentials, is in direct continuity with the colonial
period (Carnoy, 1974). Naysmith (1987) argues that teaching English is ‘part of the
process whereby one part of the world has become politically, economically and
culturally dominated by another’ (p. 3). While Britain no longer directly rules the
Indian sub-continent, it can be argued that in education it is playing the same old
game. In the postcolonial world, the medium of the continued Anglo-American
colonization,
one less visible and more subtle, is not so much economic seizure or military
intervention as trade, technology, education and language. But colonization always
was more than economic or political-military domination. It is also an attitude of
mind, rooted in a sense of superiority that at bottom is often racist (Pennycook, 2001,
p. 67). In countries such as Bangladesh the colonizers’ sense of superiority is
absorbed by the colonized locals as a sense of inferiority, admiration and imitation.
Edward Said quotes Coleridge: ‘Language is the armoury of the human mind; and at
once contains the trophies of its past and the weapons of its future conquests’ (Said,
1991, p. 136).
Within Bangladesh the English medium school directly reproduces Anglo-American
hegemony. Arguably, these schools play a similar global role in most Asian countries
once directly ruled by the UK: India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore,
Hong Kong, Burma. In these countries, English has become dominant not so much
in the number of speakers but in the power–knowledge relations that govern its use
and are sustained by its use. Likewise, in many African countries, English medium
education is strengthening (Brock-Utne, 2001). Demand for the English medium is
encouraged by government policy and sustained by a globally aspirant middle class.
Globally connected English-speaking elites tend to monopolize national privileges.
Popular appeal and popular illusions
The paradox here is the popular demand for English in the developing world, where
English is widely seen as a tool of economic and social advancement. Nevertheless,
when English language skills become more widely diffused in developing countries,
the effects are two-sided. Nationally the country becomes more globally connected—
but is also rendered more globally vulnerable. Individually, the acquisition of English
allows members of the social elite to maintain their position within the country, and
perhaps to gain more freedom of action offshore—but by no means everyone who
acquires English will join the local or global elite. Many people in Bangladesh believe
that with access to English they will gain secure high profile jobs and perhaps a
‘luxury’ life abroad. Good local jobs are limited in numbers and entry often determined
‘not by English language as much as by political connections’ (Judd, 1983,
p. 271). Many English educated persons who go abroad secure non-career jobs.
Rogers (1982, p. 145) asks whether it is ethical to allow education to sustain this kind
of illusion.
In contrast, the benefits to economic, political and educational institutions in the
first world are clear-cut. The diffusion of English opens up developing country
markets. In Bangladesh it is now essential for even factory workers, who earn less than
the minimum wage, to know some English, the language of the labels on goods and
packaging. The western world secures the main benefits of their cheap labour, not
Bangladesh. These workers learn ‘enough English to read the boxes but not enough
to take over the factory’ (Judd, 1983, p. 271). Nor can factory workers use English as
a tool for becoming rich. The spread of English also facilitates those non-government
organizations (NGOs) that use programmes of aid, credit, or business activities
through micro-finance (Chowdhury, 2001) to control key social and governmental
policies. Again this helps to open Bangladesh to western markets. Gibbons (1985)
argues that ‘the third world itself began to experience a measure of disenchantment,
when it was discovered that development aid was not really aid, but a business
investment
camouflaged to look like development aid’ (p. 40).10 Likewise the promotion of
western education in English creates a market for western publications, and encourages
local students to pursue international education, which is three times the cost of
local education and generates revenues for the developed nations. English language
education and NGOs also promote employment for western people as teachers—
especially in English teaching—and consultants who take half the money of development
projects (Altbach, 1981).

Social polarization
Within Bangladesh global English functions as a tool for social-political differentiation
and discrimination since English education is restricted to a specific class only.
Judd (1983) finds that ‘one reason for the poor quality of ESOL instruction in several
countries is government awareness … if too many nationals acquire English at a
highly functional level, they will agitate for changes and potentially become a threat
to those in power’ (p. 271). Pennycook (1995) notes that English acts as a gatekeeper
to positions of wealth and prestige both within and between nations, and is the
language through which much of the unequal distribution of wealth, resources and
knowledge operates.

English as displacer of national tradition

Given that the national language is particularly important to the national identity of
Bangladesh, the growing prestige of English, which poses a medium term threat to
the unifying and standardizing functions of the national language, poses a great challenge
—
the more so because of the dominance of English within the Bangladeshi elite.
To assess the character of the problem it is necessary to monitor the respective roles
of English and Bangla in all domains, and to examine the cultural contents of
language use in each case.
One key is the extent to which Bangla is the medium for government, education
and public discourse. These spheres all affect each other: for example, an advance of
English in the educational or cultural sphere is likely to affect its role in government,
and vice versa. Thus one issue is the relative prestige of Bangla and English medium
schools. Another is the medium of expression used in communications, the arts and
university education. Artists who want to be part of the global conversation as well as
the national one, can face agonizing choices about the medium of expression.
Another key is the content of English language courses. Pennycook (1995) remarks
that ‘students around the world are not only obliged to reach a high level of competencies
in English to pursue their studies, but they are also dependent on forms of
western knowledge that are often of limited value and extreme inappropriateness to
the local context’ (p. 43). There is a profound difference between English language
courses moulded to fit the national context, and English language courses that treat
the national context as irrelevant.

Situation of English in rural areas

 Shortage of good English language teachers in rural schools is a significant factor
that results in an increase in gap between education of urban and of rural students,
educationalists say. Most schools in rural area are suffering from an English teacher
shortage. In lot of schools, there is no specialized English teacher. Teachers of other
subjects teach English.

The shortage of English teachers contributed to poor performance of rural schools.

Almost every rural school has shortage of English teachers. It is not possible to improve
the quality of education in rural areas without increasing the number of teachers and
developing the infrastructure.

The Junior School Certificate exams results published on December 30 showed that
students outside Dhaka did far less well in the exams.

While students under the Dhaka education board had a pass rate of 80.58, under the
Comilla board the pass rate was 73.56, under the Chittagong board, it was 70.26, under
the Rajshahi board the pass rate was 63, under the Jessore board it was 62.45, under the
Dinajpur board it was 62.18 and under the Sylhet board the pass rate was 61.97

Students under the Barisal education board were, however, an exception with a pass rate
of 81.75.

The number of students scoring GPA 5 was also higher in Dhaka than in areas outside the
capital.

Under the Dhaka education board, 3,218 students scored GPA 5, under the Rajshahi
board 1,508 students, under the Dinajpur board 763 students, under the Jessore board
740, under the Comilla board 624, under the Chittagong board 518, under the Barisal
board 478, and under the Sylhet board 203 students scored GPA 5.

Teachers of rural schools said that in many schools, no student at all could score GPA 5.
It is a social problem. The poor results of rural schools indicate a class division in the
education sector. Nowadays well-to-do families do not want to stay in rural areas. As
result, it is only children of comparatively poor families that stay in the rural schools.

If children of well-to-do families had studied in rural schools, such schools would have
got good teachers and good infrastructure. Schools in rural areas must be improved.

The education minister, Nurul Islam Nahid, said, ‘The education ministry is working to
bring about equality in education in rural and urban areas. We have taken various
measures to bridge the gap between the education standards of rural and urban areas. But,
it is not possible overnight and it will take time,’

Future Of English Language:

English is very important component of our education. ELTIP is interested to
promote the present state of English Teachers as well as our education system of our
country. The importence of English is increasing.
The last decade or so has been marked by a new phenomenon called globalization. This
has a profound impact on different domains of life-social, political and economic. It has
also experienced significant changes in the communication dynamics of the world.
English language and Information and Communication Technology (ICT)-have become
the two most crucial gears of this new communication euphoria. English as a subject is of
paramount importance in equipping the secondary level students to take up the challenges
of the competitive survival and growing globalization. This is high time that we see the
future development of English as a world language and take proper initiatives to develop
our English language learners to a global standard. It can be done by upgrading the
secondary level English teaching capacity. The government of Bangladesh is very much
concerned with the reform of teacher education which includes pre-service and in-service
training for English teachers. Particularly, there has been a dying need for a time befitting
and well structured training programme for the secondary English teachers of the
country. ELTIP is addressing this need by training the secondary English teachers
through its 27 centres across the country.
In the recent past very purpose of learning English has been changed in the context of
Bangladesh. Many old Bangladeshi school teachers (who learned in a different socio-
political context) still speak and teach English as a second language (ESL) while their
students need English to speak to people from other countries (as in EFL). Since the
beginning of the 90s, in Bangladesh, there has been a growing demand for using English
as a foreign language (EFL) rather than as a second language (ESL). But to introduce the
learning of English as a Foreign Language was not an easy task and some innovative
methodological reforms made the whole thing more complicated. In this consideration
ELTIP is trying to make a shift from the Grammar Translation method to Communicative
approach. In ELTIP training courses, teachers have been trained in communicative
language teaching so that they can make the best possible uses of the newly written
communicative textbooks with a view to developing the four language skills (listening,
speaking, reading and writing) of their learners.
This action plan is intended to give an overview of the past, present and future activities
of ELTIP with particular focus on its prospects and limitations. The plan also puts
forward a line of action to be followed in order to achieve the expected outcomes of the
project within the project tenure. The objectives of ELTIP are:
a) To strengthen human resource development efforts of GoB through the teaching and
learning of Communicative English.
b) To continue the already introduced Communicative English language Methodology
i) A program to create more and effective teachers training.

ii) Developing appropriate teaching and earning materials

iii) Reform initiatives in examination system.

iv) Developing communicative competence in English language among the secondary

education learners.

c) To introduce contextualized grammar teaching and learning.

d) To monitor the performances of the trained teachers in the classrooms.

Recommendations:
There is no doubt that English is the second language of Bangladesh but this reality is not
reflected in our constitution. Officially Bangladesh is not known as an ESL country to the
outside world. So, Bangladesh should be declared as an ESL country by the government
without any delay. We learn English not because we like Shakespeare or Dickens. We
learn English out of every day necessity. If Bangladesh is declared as an ESL country and
English language is given a clear status in the constitution then it will not only reflect the
reality but also will help us in many ways. Now, Bangladesh is desperately trying to
attract foreign investors. Before any company comes to Bangladesh for exploring
investment opportunities, one of the key areas they would look for is the availability of
English graduates and they also expect that the normal workers will have basic
understanding of English language. If we become an ESL country, then these foreign
companies while searching about Bangladesh will get assured about the strong presence
of English language in this country.
The same picture is there about educational sector. Many Bangladeshi students want to
go to developed countries like USA, UK, Canada, and Australia for higher education. If
Bangladesh is declared as an ESL country then these students will be benefited because
then the universities of those countries will get the idea that English has special
significance in Bangladesh.
So, I recommend to the government of Bangladesh that English should be declared as the
second language of the country by amending the constitution.

Conclusion:
Bangladesh is the only country in the world whose people sacrificed their lives for
the language. Now the historical language movement of 1952 is acknowledged
internationally as the International Mother Language Day. It is true that our people are
emotional about their language, Bangla. However, it is equally true that now our people
have become desperate about getting skilled in English language. And the amount of
people knowing English is increasing day by day. Even the people in the rural areas are
also trying to learn English and English. After 10 to 15 years people of speak every
aspect of our country will be able to speak little or enough bit of English.

Language planning and strategy in Bangladesh

In language policy, there is no general rule about national/global language
policy that
holds for all times and places. It cannot be argued that promotion of a local
language
instead of a dominant language, or promotion of a dominant language at the
expense
of local language, are in themselves good or bad (Pennycook, 2001).
Sometimes the
emphasis will be on uniform standards, at other times the main task is to
safeguard
diversity and difference. Sometimes the crucial educational issue is to build
competence in the global language, sometimes to sustain the local dialect, or
the
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482 S. R. Imam
national language, or an optimum mix of each. In other words, language
policy can
only be judged in terms of the historical and cultural circumstances of each
particular
case. From the Bangladeshi national viewpoint, the crucial educational issue
is to
identify the policies, plans and strategies that will best contribute to the
economic,
social, political and cultural development of Bangladesh as an independent
nation.
Because the national identity is unusually language-dependent, it is all the
more
essential to pursue a language policy that sustains Bangla language and ways
of seeing
the world. Because the other conditions underlying nation-building are
relatively
weak, it is all the more essential to augment long-term national capacity by
building
a strong education system (Sen, 1999). At the same time, the connection to
the global
is inescapable. Notwithstanding the problems posed by global English, not
being
competent in English is a non-option. The task is to ensure that the global
connection
is conducted on national terms, that is, Bangla terms.
One problem for national language policy is that in the minds of most
people,
national identity and learning English are positioned as antagonistic, not
complementary.
This is a direct result of the colonial tradition itself with its long usage of
English
as tool of divide-and-rule; the comprador character of the English-focused
elite (which
ought to be at the heart of national leadership); and the polarization of the
school
system between English medium schools weak in Bangla, and Bangla
medium schools
weak in English. Arguably, the notion of learning English and learning
Bangla as
contradictory is also fostered by World Bank policy strategy. The Bank sees
education
in Bangladesh as a market: a notion which rests on private investment in
global English
as the source of individual advantage, an investment pursued without regard
for the
development of the nation as a whole. One problematic result is that global
English
and international education are seen as the source of good quality in
education. Public
schooling and local university education are relegated to lower status, unable
to hold
the social support of the elite or attract sufficient government investment. It
is vital
that national policy secures more effective control over educational
development.
Educational language policy and planning must help to build both universal
literacy
in Bangla and competence in global English. If a path that combines global
English and national identity is not found, ideologically insular forces within
the
nation may take advantage of this, adversely affecting both national progress
in
science and technology, and sociocultural development. In summary, there
are three
starting points for educational planning.
The first starting point for language planning is that a strong Bangla medium
education system, necessarily funded primarily by government, is the
foundation for
both universal literacy and the building of widespread competence in
English.
Developing nations that have lifted literacy to high levels have mostly used
the mother
tongue as the medium of instruction, at least at primary level. Students with
a sound
foundation of literacy in the mother tongue acquire literacy in a second
language
more quickly (Mehrotra, 1998, p. 479). One reason is that psychological
factors
relating to the sustainability of local culture are central to identity and self-
respect,
which form the basis of all human agency, and are at the heart of learning
(Sen, 1999;
Brock-Utne, 2001, p. 116).
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Nation-building education in Bangladesh 483
All else being equal, educating people in their own language both maximizes
the
take-up of the curriculum and helps to break down the old colonial era
barriers
between masses and elite. Learning English is not the only element in a
global modernization
strategy. Learning the national language is foundational to Bangladesh’s
global
strategy, the first necessary condition for modernization.
The second starting point for language planning is to provide more
extensive,
better quality and higher standard English classes. The typical provision in
public
schools is less than five hours of English classes per week, often with
untrained
teachers. This is not good enough.
The third starting point for language planning is to provide English classes
within
the terms of the nation-building project, founded on a living developing
Bangla identity:
● English should be provided primarily in specific language classes within
Bangla
medium schooling, rather than English medium schooling;
● English should be acquired not as a global or foreign culture that replaces
the
national culture, but within the educational context of national culture. It is
important
to learn English more as a survival skill than as a set of values and a way of
life,
thereby following the knowledge of others not Bangladeshi knowledge,
becoming
caught in their purposes not our own purpose. Language is always culture-
bound,
the question here is which culture should be dominant in the national
education
system;
● The English curriculum should draw on local cultural examples, rather
than British
or American examples, and it should enable students to adopt a critical,
nationallyindependent
vantage point on the English language countries themselves;
● Standards in English should be determined not by authorities in London,
or
American linguistic norms but by local boards. The old imperial controls
and elite
training circuits should be broken up. A levels and British examinations
should no
longer define what is prime educational quality in Bangladesh;
● There should be space for the evolution of a more distinctively
Bangladeshi style
of English that is inflected by national characteristics.

Conclusion
Phillipson (2000) argues, ‘education policy should have multilingual aims
and means,
and build on local resources, rather than being articulated in terms of the
false dichotomy
between local language and English’. Thus the argument here is to develop a
strong educational base through a strong language education policy that will
resist all
kinds of threatening forces and help establish its own identity and serve its
own interest.
Perhaps Pennycook’s (1995) notion of ‘counter-discourse’ provides a
strategic
orientation for non-English-speaking developing countries like Bangladesh.
If non-
English-speaking nations are to address global inequalities within the global
setting
dominated by English language powers, the language of dominance and
inequality
must become the medium for developing a counter-discourse, using non-
standard
English to express a critical national viewpoint. Mazrui (1975) describes
how in
Africa the language of the colonizer helped to form opposition to
colonization. In the
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484 S. R. Imam
case of Bangladesh, both in Bangla education and English classes
Bangladesh needs
its own educational content, which will reflect its own counter-discourse,
and which
takes account of the fact of imperialist influence and understands that fact
critically.
Critical language teaching practices allow students, and teachers, ‘to resist
and
change the discourses that construct their lives’ (Pennycook, 2001, p. 112).
Pennycook
also notes that if we pluralize control of English, we begin to shift global
relations
of power. ‘If we elevate language, culture and discourse to a central role in
the
(re)production of global inequalities, the relationship between English and
these
inequalities becomes on one hand stronger but on the other more open to
resistance’
(Pennycook, 1995, p. 48).
It is precisely because they are integral to identity and self-determination
that
language and culture, joined to national political leadership, can provide a
way out of
the determinist trap that the imperialist variant of globalization has set for
the
developing ountries.