Stones, Bricks and

UNIT 1 STONES, BRICKS AND CLAY Clay Products

PRODUCTS
Structure
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 Stone
1.2.1 Uses of Stones
1.2.2 Classification of Stones
1.2.3 Characteristics of Good Building Stones
1.2.4 Tests of Stones
1.2.5 Quarrying of Stones
1.2.6 Natural Bed
1.2.7 Deterioration of Stone
1.2.8 Preservation of Stone Work
1.2.9 Dressing of Stones
1.3 Bricks
1.3.1 Classification and Characteristics of Bricks
1.3.2 Uses of Bricks
1.3.3 Brick Sizes
1.3.4 Brick Earth
1.3.5 Manufacturing of Bricks
1.3.6 Qualities of Good Bricks
1.3.7 Tests for Burnt Clay Bricks
1.4 Tiles
1.4.1 Classification of Tiles
1.4.2 Manufacture of Tiles
1.4.3 Properties of Good Tiles
1.4.4 Types of Tiles
1.5 Summary
1.6 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Stones, Bricks and clay products are inert materials used in building construction,
roads, dockyards, airfields etc. Stone is a natural material of construction and it is
in use since prehistoric days. Bricks are blocks of tempered day moulded to
suitable shape and sizes, used for most of the building works. Sometime bricks
are used as substitute for stone, where stone is not cheaply available. Tile is one
of the clay product used for roof covering and paving. The focus of this unit will
be on stone, bricks and tile and we will be studying their classification, uses,
characteristics, manufacturing and tests.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• classify rocks, bricks and tiles,
• describe uses of stones, bricks and tiles, 5
Engineering Materials • explain characteristics of good building stones, bricks and tiles,
• appreciate the importance of tests of stones and bricks, and
• distinguish between stone and brick as a material of construction.

1.2 STONE
Stone is a natural material of construction and is obtained from quarries. It has
been used for constructing different components of buildings like foundations,
walls, lintels, floors, roofs, bridges, weirs, dams etc.
Stones that are used for construction of structures are known as building stones.
1.2.1 Uses of Stones
Stones are extensively used for the following purposes :
(i) It is used as stones ballast for railway track, for road construction, for
preparing cement concrete required for foundations, flooring, hollow
and solid blocks, artificial stones and reinforced cement concrete.
(ii) It is used as a crushed stone (stone dust) as a substitute for sand.
(iii) It is used as blocks in the construction of buildings, lintels, arches,
walls, columns, abutments and piers of bridges, in weirs and in dams
etc.
(iv) It is used as blocks and slabs for face work of buildings requiring
architectural treatments.
(v) It is used as thin slabs for roofing and for flooring buildings and
pavements.
(vi) It is used as lime stone in the manufacture of lime, cement and in
various other chemical processes.
(vii) Thin slabs of impervious stones are used for laying Damp Proof
Course in buildings.
(viii) Base material for water and sewage filters, in case of water works and
sewage treatment plants.
(ix) Stone may be used to give massive and pleasing appearance.
(x) Lime stone is also used as a flux in the blast furnaces.
Limitations in Uses of Stones
Stones are gradually losing their Universal use as a building material
because of following reasons :
(i) Important buildings these days are being constructed of steel or RCC,
because of their being less bulky, stronger and more durable.
(ii) Strength of structures made of stones cannot be so rationally analysed
as of those made with steel and RCC.
(iii) Suitable, durable and more easily workable alternatives materials are
now available.
(iv) Cast stone, sand faced rusticated bricks, furnace ware etc. can be
given architectural treatment more easily and have, therefore,
overshadowed the use of stones.
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 (v) Stones are not cheaply and conveniently available in the plains. Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
(vi) Bringing the stone to required shape and size is time-consuming and
results in slow pace of construction.
1.2.2 Classification of Stones
Stones are obtained from rocks. A rock forms portion of earth’s crust having no
definite shape or chemical composition. It is usually a mixture of two or more
minerals and is not homogeneous.
Rocks from which stones can be had for building purposes are classified in the
three different ways :
(i) Geologically
(ii) Physically
(iii) Chemically
Classification based on hardness of the stone are :
Geological Classification
This classification depends upon how the rock was originally formed.
Geologists classify rocks into three main categories:
Igneous Rocks
Inner layers of earth are at such high temperatures that masses of
silicates melt. This molten mass, known as magma, is forced up.
Magma solidifies into rocks when it reaches the surface of earth and
forms basalts and traps. If, however, the magma solidifies before
reaching the surface of earth it forms solid crystalline rock known as
Granite. Basalt, Trap and Granite are Igneous rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
Surface of earth is subjected to the destructive action of rain, frost,
winds and chemical actions. These destructive agents break up the
surface of earth which gets further broken up when carried down by
rains and rivers. In the journey of river from mountains to sea the
velocity goes on decreasing as the river moves further. Figure 1.1
shows the formation of sedimentary rocks.

Figure 1.1: Sedimentary Rock Formation

Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
(i) Sedimentary rocks are often well stratified and show
well-defined bedding planes.
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Engineering Materials (ii) Sedimentary rocks can be split and cleared easily both in the
bedding direction and normal to the bedding planes giving
building blocks of fairly regular shape.
(iii) Properties of sedimentary rocks vary considerably depending
upon the nature of sediment and the type of bonding that exists
between the adjacent sediment grains.
(iv) Sand stone formed by consolidation of sand deposits consist
primarily of small rounded grains of silica. The sand stone will
be relatively soft or hard depending upon the nature of binding
material.
Metamorphic Rocks
Due to structural changes in earth, igneous or sedimentary rocks find
their way deep in earth where they are subject to high temperature and
heavy pressure which cause changes in texture or in mineral
composition or in both resulting in the formation of new types of
rocks known as metamorphic rocks.
Following are some of the changes to “metamorphic rocks”.
Sl. Name of Original Rock Name of Metamorphic
No Rock
1. Granite (igneous rocks) Gneiss
2. Sand stone (sedimentary rock ) Quartzite
3. Lime stone (sedimentary rock) Marble
4. Shale (sedimentary rock) Slate

Physical Classification of Rocks

This classification depends upon the structure of rock. Physically rocks are
classified in three types :
(i) Stratified rocks,
(ii) Unstratified rocks, and
(iii) Foliated or laminated rocks.
Stratified Rocks
These rocks show distinct layers along which it can be easily split into
thin slabs. Slate, sand stone and lime stone belong to this category.
Unstratified Rocks
These rocks do not show any sign of stratification and cannot be
easily split into thin layers. Granite, Basalt and Trap belong to this
category.
Foliated or Laminated Rocks
These rocks comprise of thin laminations. They can be split in
definite direction and size. Metamorphic rocks come under this
category.
Chemical Classification of Rocks

8
 This classification depends upon the chief constituent mineral of the rock. Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
Chemically, rocks are classified into three categories :
(i) Agrillaceous Rocks
The chief constituent of agrillaceous rocks is clay (Alumina, Al2O3).
Slate and laterite belong to this category.
(ii) Silicious Rocks
The chief constituent of silicious rocks is sand (Silica, SiO2).
Quartzite and Granite come under this category.
(iii) Calcareous Rock
The chief constituent of calcareous rocks is lime. Lime stone and
marble stone belong to this category.
Classification Based on Hardness of the Stone
According to this classification stone may be classified as
(i) very hard ,
(ii) hard,
(iii) medium, and
(iv) soft.
Very Hard Rocks
Granite, trap, taconite are the very hard varieties of rocks.
Hard Rocks
Granite, basalt, trap, gravel, quartzite are the hard varieties of rocks.
Medium Rocks
Dolomite and lime stone are the medium varieties.
Soft Rocks
Talc, gypsum, sand stone, slate etc. are the soft varieties of stones.
1.2.3 Characteristics of Good Building Stones
A good building stone should essentially have the following qualities:
(i) Appearance
This property is of extreme importance for face work of buildings.
Also, from architectural point of view, colour of the stone should be
such as to go well with the surroundings. Stones should be of uniform
colour and free from clay holes, bands or spots of colour whatsoever.
(ii) General Structure
It should show uniformity of texture. It must be either crystalline in
structure or homogeneous and close-grained. It should be free from
cavities, cracks or patches of soft or loose material.
(iii) Heaviness
Heavier varieties of stones are more compact, less porous and have
greater specific gravities. Heavier varieties of stones are preferred for
constructions in water like weirs, barrages, dams, docks, harbours and 9
Engineering Materials retaining walls. Lighter varieties of stones are used for construction of
domes and roof coverings and similar other usages.
(iv) Strength
The stones used should be quite strong to withstand the forces likely
to be encountered yet in case of construction where unusually bigger
forces are likely to come the stone to be used should be tested for its
strength.
(v) Hardness
It is the resistance of stone to abrasive forces caused by much wear
and friction as in floors, pavements and aprons of bridges and weirs in
rivers. Stones to be used at such places should be hard.
(vi) Toughness
It is a measure of the impact that a stone can withstand. Stones used at
places subjected to vibrations of machinery and to moving loads
should be tough.
(vii) Ease of Working
The ease with which the stone can be worked upon, i.e. cut, dressed,
carved and mounded etc. is an important consideration from economy
point of view. The ease of working is opposed to strength, durability
and hardness.
(viii) Porosity
More porous building stones are unsuitable for use in construction
especially for exposed surfaces of structures. These stones should be
used at places where they are not likely to encounter frost, rain or
moisture in any other form.
(ix) Seasoning
All freshly quarried stones contain a certain amount of moisture
known as quarry sap, which makes them soft and easier to work upon.
Dressing, carving and moulding etc., should be done as early after
quarrying as possible. The stones should be left for seasoning after
quarrying when all the work has been done. Stones become
considerably harder on seasoning.
(x) Weathering
It is the extent to which the face of a stone resists the action of
weather. Stones with good weathering properties only should be used
in the construction of important buildings.
(xi) Resistance of Fire
To be fire resistant stones should be free from calcium carbonate and
oxide of iron and be not composed of minerals with differing
co-efficients of thermal expansion.
(xii) Fineness of Grains
Fine grained stones are considered most suitable for carving and
moulding works. Stones having non crystalline or amorphous texture
are liable to be easily disintegrated. A good building stone should
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 have crystalline structure, because such stones are generally durable Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
and strong.
(xiii) Compactness
Compact stones are generally more durable. The stones found at
larger depths under earth are considered the best stones, as they have
been subjected to a larger pressure of earth above them.
(xiv) Durability
A good building stone should be durable. The durability of stone
depends on its chemical composition, physical structure, homogeneity
and closeness of grains and type of cementing material. Location of
the stone in the structure also affects durability.
(xv) Presence of Wear
Resistance to wear is measured by attrition test. Good stone should
not show wear of more than 3%. This property is useful for the stone
to be used as road aggregate and railway ballast.
1.2.4 Tests of Stones
Building stones are required to be tested for their different properties before they
may be recommended for any specific use. Following are the tests which can be
carried out on stones :
(i) Smith’s test
(ii) Freezing and thawing test
(iii) Water absorption test
(iv) Frost action test
(v) Impact test
(vi) Attrition test
(vii) Crushing strength test
(viii) Hardness test
(ix) Acid test
(x) Microscopic examination
(xi) Crystallization test
You may go through any book on building material listed in the section “Further
Readings” for details of these tests.
1.2.5 Quarrying of Stones
The site from where stones are excavated is known as quarry or quarry site. The
process of taking out stones of various sizes from quarry is known as quarrying of
stones. Purpose of quarrying is to obtain stones for masonry or ballast in concrete
or road construction or railway track or for any other purpose.
Selection of Quarry Site
Selection of site for quarrying of stones should be done very carefully. The
following points should be considered while making selection of site :
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(i) Distance of quarry from road, railways, etc. should not be very large.
Engineering Materials (ii) Sufficient stone should be assured from the site.
(iii) Availability of equipment, labour, power, water etc. also affect the
selection of site.
(iv) Quality of stone available from quarry should be good.
(v) Drainage from quarry should be easy.
(vi) Adequate facilities for transportation of stone should be available.
(vii) Geological formation of the site should be properly studied.
(viii) The site should be away from built up areas, in case blasting has to be
resorted to.
(ix) Site for the dumping of refuse should be easily available nearby.
Methods of Quarrying Stones
Depending upon the nature and structure of rocks and the purpose for which
stones are needed, quarrying is done by one of the following methods in
common use :
(i) Excavating or digging
(ii) Wedging
(iii) Heating
(iv) Use of channelling machine
(v) Blasting
Excavating or Digging
The method is employed when stones to be quarried are lying buried
in earth or under loose overburden. Tools like crow bars, pick-axes,
kassi, etc. are mainly required.
Wedging
This method is suitable for quarrying soft stratified rocks. In this
method, first of all naturally occurring cracks or fissures are located in
the rocks, to be excavated. The steel wedges or points are then driven
with the help of hammer, in such fissures or cracks and stones are
detached. The split out blocks of stone can be converted into
marketable forms and supplied to users.
This method is employed for the rock of sedimentary type, which are
comparatively soft, such as sand stone, lime stone, marble, slate and
laterite.
Heating
In this method of quarrying, fire wood is piled on the surface of the
stone to be excavated. The fire is burnt steadily for some time.
Heating of the stone causes upper layers of stone expand, in relation
to the lower layers. Due to unequal expansion, upper layers of rock
separate from the lower layers. Splitting of the rock is indicated by
dull bursting sound. The detached stones are then taken out of quarry
with the help of wedges and crow bars etc. The stones are suitably,
12 shaped with the help of hammers and marketed.
 This method is suitable where only smaller blocks of more or less Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
regular shape are required and suitable rocks bedded in horizontal
layers of not much thickness are to be quarried.
Blasting
Blasting is a method in which quarrying of stone is done with the help
of explosives first. This method is used when stone to be excavated is
of very hard variety and it has no cracks or fissures. Moreover, if
stone is to be excavated on very large scale, blasting method will have
to be adopted. No definite size blocks can be excavated by this
method. After blasting, the excavated stone is sorted out in different
sizes and categories.
Channelling Machine Method
This method of excavation or rocks is adopted when stone in definite
large sizes is required, and stone involved is of softer variety. Marble,
lime stone, and soft sand stones can be quarried by this method. In
this method a special machine channelling machine is used. It is such
a machine which can make vertical as well as oblique grooves in the
stone. This machine can cut out 5 to 8 cm wide and 2 to 4 m deep
grooves. A groove is cut around the stone block to be excavated with
the help of this machine. The stone block is then detached from the
bottom by drilling horizontal holes and then by wedging.
1.2.6 Natural Bed
The stone used in buildings is obtained from rocks. The rocks, particularly
sedimentary type have distinct planes of division along which stones can be easily
split. The plane alongwhich stones can be easily split is known as natural bed of
stone. In stone masonry work, stones should always be placed in such a manner
that the natural bed is at right angles to the pressure that the stone is to carry. In
other words, the position of the stone blocks in the walls should be same in which
they were originally deposited. This position gives maximum strength to the stone
work in the walls.
Stone in the walls should further be placed with layers at right angle to the face of
wall. This will offer greatest resistance to disintegration of the stone by frost and
other weather actions (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 : Natural Bed of Stone

In the case of arches, the bedding plane should be radial and at right angles to the
face of the arch. Such an arrangement causes the thrust of arch, act normal to the
direction of the natural bed.
In the case of cornices and strong courses, stones remain unsupported. In their
case, natural bed of the stone should be kept vertical.
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Engineering Materials 1.2.7 Deterioration of Stones
Deterioration of stones is caused by the chemical and physical changes brought
about by various agencies of weather. Following are the main climatic agencies
bringing about deterioration of stones.
Rain
Frequent wetting and drying of stones by rains and sun causes internal
stresses thereby resulting in the disintegration of stones causing its
deterioration.
Frost
At very cold places, frost on entering the pores of stones freezes and
consequent increase in volume resulted in its disintegration.
Wind
Dusty winds cause deterioration of stones because of the abrasive effect of
dust particles. Also wind force, rain water and frost enter the pores of stones
deeper resulting in deterioration of stone as explained above.
Atmospheric Impurities
Atmosphere, especially in big industrial towns, is generally polluted with
smoke and acidic gases. These react readily with stones containing
carbonate of lime resulting in their deterioration.
Nature of Binding Material Used
Binding materials used for laying stones sometimes are such that they react
chemically with any one of the constituents of stones, thereby causing the
stones to disintegrate. Such a combination should be avoided.
Vegetable Growth
Roots of trees that penetrate the joints of stone masonry keep stones damp
and secrete organic and acidic matters which cause deterioration of stones.
Temperature Variations
Stones should not be used at places where temperature variations are too
much or quite frequent. Stones, if used at these places, would crumble
because of the setting up of internal stresses.
Mutual Decay
If materials having different physical characteristics are used together then
they may cause mutual decay. For example, if sand stone were used under a
lime stone then the chemicals brought down from the lime stone by rain
water will cause decay of the sand stone.
Living Organism
There are some living organism which slowly act upon stones and cause
their disintegration. Lichens destroy lime stone, and worms or molluses
destroy all the stones except granite.
Water
Sea water, river water, or ground water may also cause deterioration of
stone. The water coming in contact with stone may dissolve some of the
mineral constituents of stone and cause their decay.

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1.2.8 Preservation of Stone Work
To increase the life of a stone structure, it should be cleaned with water or with Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
steam so that dirt and soluble salts are removed and threat of decay is reduced.
The following points, if given due consideration, will help to increase the life of a
stone structure particularly in the polluted atmosphere of big industrial towns.
Selection
It is suggested to initially use a durable compact and crystalline stone rather
than to depend upon preservatives later.
Seasoning
Use of seasoned stones after they had been cut and dressed immediately
after quarrying will increase the life of structure. Also, seasoned stones are
less liable to deterioration because of frost and acids.
Size
Bigger sized stones are more durable than the smaller ones.
Natural Bed
Care should be taken to place the stones in such a way that loads act at right
angles to the natural bed of stones used as otherwise the stone will flake off.
Also with the natural bed vertical, effect of rain and frost shall be more
detrimental.
Surface Finish
Well dressed, smoothly finished and polished surfaces are more durable
than the rough and rugged ones.
Workmanship
Good workmanship helps in the preservation of stone work. All joints
should be properly filled in leaving no hollows or cavities inside the
masonry.
External Rendering
Either the entire external surface should be plastered with cement sand
plaster or at least it should be properly pointed so as to stop rain water from
entering the joints.
Proper Maintenance
Maintenance of structure in neat condition is quite effective in preserving it.
To ensure this, it should be washed with water or with steam so that the dirt
and soluble salts are removed and the rate of decay is reduced.
Application of Preservative
The best way of preserving a stone is to eliminate the causes of its
deterioration as far as possible. A good preservative should possess
following properties :
(i) It should be economical, non-corrosive and harmless for health.
(ii) It should maintain its effectiveness for long time.
(iii) It should easily penetrate into the surface of stone.
(iv) It should be easy in applying on the surface of stone.
15
Engineering Materials (v) It should not develop objectionable colour and it should not allow
deep penetration of moisture into the stone.
(vi) Preservatives should be hard enough to withstand the effects of
atmospheric agencies.
Following are preservatives which may be used :
• Paint
• Linseed oil
• Coaltar
• Paraffin
• Alum and Soap
• Use of baryta or barium hydroxide
• Pointing and plastering
1.2.9 Dressing of Stones
Stone blocks, obtained from quarry, are in irregular size and shapes and cannot be
used as such in masonry work, without dressing. Dressing of stones is a process,
carried out with the help of hand tools, to give proper shape and surface to the
stone, before its use in masonry or in any other work. The dressing of the stones
is done for the following purposes :
(i) To get the good appearance of stone masonry.
(ii) To suit to the requirements of stone masonry.
(iii) To make transportation of stone easy and economical from the quarry.
(iv) To take the advantage of softness in dressing due to presence of
quarry sap in freshly quarried stones.
The degree of dressing of the stone, depends upon the type of masonry and the
type of stone available. Following are the varieties of finishes that can be
obtained by dressing of stones :
Tooled Finish
In this type of dressing, the surface of the stone is finished by means of a
chisel. This finishing has continuous parallel chisel marks throughout the
width and length of stone blocks. By using different chisels, different
pattern of finished surfaces can be obtained.
Punched Finish
In this type of finishing, the surface of the exposed face of the stone is
prepared by using punches. The full surface consists of uniformly
distributed punch mark on its surface.
Cut Stone Finishing
In this type of dressing, the surface is finished using very sharp chisel in
such a way that chisel marks can hardly be recognized. It is a sort of very
high class of finishing.
Furrowed Finish
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 The surface of the exposed face is finished by making a number of vertical Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
or horizontal grooves about 10mm wide. 2 cm wide margin is also made
around the edges of the exposed face.
Reticulative Finish
In this finishing, 2 cm wide margin chamfered at 45o is marked around the
edges and irregular depressions are developed on the enclosed space of the
exposed face.
Axed Finish
This finish is mostly given to the surfaces of hard stones such as granite.
This finish is given with the help of an axe.
Scabbling Finish
In this type of finish, the projections from the quarried stone blocks are
removed using scabbling hammer. It is also a sort of rough dressing of
stones.
Hammer Dressed Finish
This finish is slightly more finer than quarry and scabbling finishes. The
stones in this dressing are made roughly square or rectangular and 2 cm to
5 cm wide margin is made about the edges of the exposed face.
Vermiculated Finish
This finished surface appears just like worm eaten surface. It is more or less
similar to reticulated finish except that depressions in this surfacing are
more curved and good looking in appearance.
Quarry Faced Finish
Some of the stone blocks, as obtained from the quarry, can be used in
masonry work directly without any dressing at the site of work. The large
projections are knocked off from the stone blocks with the help of quarry
hammer, as soon as the stone is quarried. The faces of such stone blocks are
rough. The surface of such a stone is termed as self-faced, rock faced or
hammer faced or quarry faced.
Rubbed Finish
In this finishing, instead of finishing surface with the help of suitable chisel,
it is finished by rubbing the surface either with the help of hand or with
machine.
Polished Finish
The rubbed surface may be furthur improved in its appearance by polishing.
Polishing may be done using pumice stone, sand and water, or by rubbing
machine.
Chisel-draughted Margin
In this case, a uniform margin about 2 cm wide is draughted around the
stone with the help of chisel. Rest of the face may have any finishing.
SAQ 1
(a) What are the essential qualities of good building stone?
(b) Describe the methods of preservations of building stones. 17
Engineering Materials (c) Differentiate between stratified and unstratified rocks.
(d) Fill in the blanks :
(i) Main ingredient of silicious rocks is ___________
(ii) Clay is the main ingredient of ______________ rocks.
(iii) Geologically marble is called ________________.
(iv) Rocks having Alumina as their main constituent are called
______________.
(v) ______________ rocks are formed by the cooling of magma at
a great depth.
(vi) _______________rocks can be split along definite planes.
(vii) _______________ rocks are formed by gradual deposition.
(viii) _______________ rocks are formed by alteration of original
structure under heat and pressure.
(e) Choose the correct answers from amongst those given below :
(i) Natural bed of stone is always kept:
(a) Parallel to applied load
(b) At 90o to applied load
(c) At 45o to applied load
(d) None of above
(ii) For construction of heavy engineering works like piers, bridges,
dams, docks and harbours the best suited stone is:
(a) Granite
(b) Marble
(c) Slate
(d) Lime stone
(iii) For ornamental carved work the best suited stone is :
(a) Sand Stone
(b) Slate
(c) Lime Stone
(d) Marble
(iv) Stones should be dressed :
(a) Immediately after quarrying
(b) After seasoning
(c) Immediately before use in work
(d) None of these
(v) Hardest rock is
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 (a) Slate Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
(b) Marble
(c) Granite
(d) Sand stone

1.3 BRICKS
Brick is not only one of the oldest but also the most extensively used material of
construction. Popularity of bricks as a material of construction is because of their
local and cheap availability, strength, durability, reliability and insulating
property against heat and sound.
Brick is a regular sized rectangular unit, used for most of the building works.
Bricks are obtained by moulding plastic mass of suitably proportioned earth in
timber or steel moulds. Moulded bricks are first allowed to dry and then burnt in
kilns designed for the purpose. Bricks are always rectangular in shape and of such
proportion that the length is generally twice the width plus the thickness of mortar
joint. Thickness of the brick is less than or at the most equal to the width of the
brick. The size of the brick is such that it can be easily lifted and handled with
one hand. They do not require any lifting appliances. It is used as substitute for
stone, where stone is not available. Comparison of stone with brick as a material
of construction is given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 : Comparison of Stone with Bricks as a Material of Construction
Sl. Stone Brick
No.
1. It is a natural material. It is manufactured from clay.
2. It is heavier. It is lighter.
3. It costs much to dress it to required shape It can easily be moulded to any shape or size.
and size.
4. It is more costly except in hilly areas. Except in hilly areas, it can be locally
manufactured and is cheaper.
5. It is less porous and therefore better suited It is more porous and requires costly water
for construction of water retaining proofing treatment when used for constructing
structures. water retaining structures.
6. Because of more strength, it is better suited Reasonably good for normal loads.
for constructing structures carrying extra
heavy loads or subjected to heavy
pressures, e.g. harbour, dock and forts etc.
7. It is a better conductor of heat. It is a poorer conductor of heat.
8. It withstands attacks of weather better. It is good for normal conditions but needs
protection by way of plastering and pointing.
9. Superior qualities of stones are used for Good quality bricks are sometimes left
constructing monuments and for decoration. unplastered to achieve some Architectural
effect.

1.3.1 Classification and Characteristic of Bricks

I.S.I. Classification of Bricks

19
Engineering Materials The I.S.I. has classified the bricks into HI, HII, FI, FII, I, II, LI and LII
categories, primarily according to the compressive strength. Table 1.2 gives
the I.S.I. classification of bricks.
Table 1.2 : I.S.I. Classification of Bricks
Class of Minimum Minimum Efflorescence Tolerance Shape and other
Bricks Compressive Absorption in Properties
Strength in in Dimension
(kg/cm2) 24 hours (%)
(%) of Dry
Weight
HI 440 5 No ±3 Metallic sound,
smooth,
rectangular.
HII 440 5 No ±8 Slight deformation
in shape permitted.
FI 175 12 Very little ±3 Smooth,
rectangular,
metallic sound
when two bricks
strike.
FII 175 12 Very little ±8 Slight deformation
in shape permitted.
I 70 20 Very little ±3 Smooth,
rectangular,
metallic sound
when two bricks
strike.
II 70 20 Very little ±8 Slight deformation
in shape permitted.
LI 35 25 Very little ±3 Rectangular, sharp
edge, metallic
sound on striking
need not be
present.
LII 35 25 Little ±8 Slight deformation
in shape allowed.

In general, bricks may be classified into following five categories :

(i) First class bricks
(ii) Second class bricks
(iii) Third class bricks
(iv) Over burnt or Jhama bricks
(v) Under burnt or pilla bricks
First Class Bricks
The earth from which bricks have been made should be suitably
proportioned. It should be free from small pebbles, lime lumps, organic,
matter, and sodium salts.
A first class bricks should possess the following properties :
(i) Size of the burnt brick should be exactly 19 × 9 × 9cm.
20
 (ii) It should be well burnt Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
(iii) Its colour should be uniform yellow or red.
(iv) It should not absorb water more than 20% of its own dry weight after
24 hours of immersion.
(v) It should have a firm, compact, and uniform texture.
(vi) Its surface should be regular and sides parallel. Edges should be
sharp and at right angles to each other.
(vii) Its fractured surface should not show fissures and bubbles or lumps of
lime.
(viii) Its crushing strength should not be less than 105 kg/cm2.
(ix) Two first class bricks when struck with each other give a sharp
metallic ringing sound.
(x) It should not show any signs of efflorescence when bricks are dried
after soaking in water.
(xi) The brick should not break when it is dropped on a hard ground from
a height.
(xii) Its surface should be so hard that finger nails should not be able to
make any impression on its surface.
Second Class Bricks
Brick of this category should possess the following properties :
(i) The brick of this class should also be well burnt. They can even
slightly be over burnt.
(ii) Minimum crushing strength should be 70 kg/cm2.
(iii) They should not absorb water more than 22% of its own dry weight
after 24 hours of immersion in cold water.
(iv) Two second class bricks when struck with each other give a metallic
ringing sound.
(v) These bricks should not show appreciable signs of efflorescence
when soaked bricks are dried.
(vi) The shape, size and colour of the brick should be generally regular
and uniform. Slight distortion and surface cracks may however be
allowed.
(vii) Texture of these bricks should be uniform. Presence of small
pebbles may however be allowed. Presence of limestone and kanker
should not be allowed to occur.
Third Class Bricks
A third class brick should possess the following properties :
(i) These bricks are generally under burnt.
(ii) They are soft and light coloured.
(iii) They may suffer from intensive efflorescence.
(iv) They emit a dull sound when struck against each other. 21
Engineering Materials (v) It should not absorb water more than 25% of its own dry weight when
kept immersed in water for 24 hours.
(vi) Texture of above brick is not uniform and it may show lot of pebbles
on freshly fractured surface of the brick.
(vii) Size and shape of these bricks is not regular. But the irregularities
should not be so much that it may become difficult to have the course
of uniform thickness, in masonry work.
Over Burnt or Jhama Bricks
These are over burnt vitrified bricks. They are so distorted that they cannot
be used in construction works. They are used for making aggregate for lime
concrete for foundations and as a road metal in the construction of roads.
Under Burnt or Pilla Bricks
Under burnt bricks are known as pilla bricks. They are just half burnt and
have yellow colour. These bricks do not have any strength. These bricks
may be burnt by using them again in the kilns, or they can be ground to
powder form and used as surkhi.
1.3.2 Uses of Bricks
(i) First class bricks are used for following purposes :
(a) It is used for all sound work of a permanent character.
(b) It is used in the face work of structures not to be plastered but
only pointed.
(c) It is used in flooring and reinforced brick work.
(ii) Second class bricks are used for the following purposes :
(a) It is used in unimportant situations or at places where the
masonry is to be plastered.
(b) Used as brick ballast in R.C.C. work and in Lime concrete.
(iii) Third class bricks are used for the following purposes :
(a) These bricks are not used for important and permanent works.
(b) These bricks are used in temporary constructions not subjected
to heavy loads or heavy rains.
1.3.3 Brick Sizes
According to I.S.I., the size of the brick without the thickness of mortar joint is
19 cm × 9 cm × 9 cm. The size with mortar joint becomes 20 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm.
Hence, the effective size of brick is taken as 20 cm × 10 cm × 10 cm. If thinner
bricks are required, their standard size is 19 cm × 9 cm × 4 cm and effective size
is 20 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm. The minimum compressive strength of the standard
bricks should be 35 kg/cm2.
1.3.4 Brick Earth
Composition

22
 A good brick earth mainly consists of silica (sand) and alumina (clay), Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
mixed in such a proportion that the resulting mass with water is a plastic
mass which could be easily moulded and dried without undergoing
shrinkage, cracking or warping. It should contain a little finely divided lime
which enables silica to melt at furnace heat and bind the particles of brick
together. It should also contain a small quantity of oxide of iron. It acts as a
flux like lime, and more over gives red colour to the bricks on burning.
Functions of Constituent
Silica or Sand
It is present in the earth either in free or combined form. As free sand,
it remains mechanically mixed with clay. In combined form, it exists
in chemical composition with alumina forming silicate of alumina.
The percentage of silica in a good brick earth should lie between 50 to
60%. Presence of silica prevents cracking, shrinking and warping of
raw bricks. Its excess amount destroys the cohesion between particles
and makes the bricks brittle and weak. Hence, durability of the bricks
depends largely on the proper proportion of silica in brick earth.
Alumina (Clay)
Alumina is the chief constituent of every kind of clay. A good brick
earth should contain between 20 to 30% of alumina. Alumina
provides plasticity to the earth, so that it can be moulded. If bricks
contain excess amount of alumina, and insufficient sand they shrink,
crack and warp on drying and burning.
Lime
When present in small quantities in finely divided state, it reduces
shrinkage of bricks and acts as a flux causing silica to melt. It results
in binding the particles of brick together resulting in greater strength
of brick. Excess of lime causes the brick to melt and lose its shape.
Oxide of Iron
Small quantity of oxide of iron to the extent of about 5 to 6 % is
considered desirable in good brick earth. In the presence of silica and
alumina, it helps the fusion of brick particles. Also it influences the
colour of bricks. It produces a tint varying from light yellow to red
depending upon the percentage of iron present in clay. Excess of it
makes the colour dark blue. It should not be present in the form of
iron pyrites.
Magnesia
A small proportion of it decreases the shrinkage and gives yellow tint
to the bricks. But larger amounts of magnesia cause bricks to decay.
Harmful Ingredients of Brick Earth
Some of the ingredients, if present in the brick earth, render the resulting
bricks unsuitable for any safe construction. These ingredients are :

Lime
If present in excess, it melts the brick particles as a result of which the
23
brick loses shape. Lime should also be not present in brick-earth in
Engineering Materials the form of limestone or kankar modules. On the burning of bricks,
these get converted to quicklime which expands on absorption of
moisture and causes the cracking and disintegration of bricks.
Iron Pyrites
Presence of iron pyrites in the brick earth causes crystallization and
disintegration during burning of the bricks. It is a common impurity
found in most of the clays. It causes discolouration of bricks in form
of black slag.
Pebbles of Stone and Grave
Their presence makes it difficult to mix the brick-earth thoroughly as
a result of which the bricks are not homogeneous. It gives weak and
porous bricks. Also such bricks cannot be readily cut or worked.
Alkalies
Their excessive presence in earth renders it unsuitable for bricks.
These act as flux causing the bricks to melt, twist and warp. Presence
of common salt in earth taken from seashores or from near salt
formations has similar effects to those narrated above and also make
the bricks hygroscopic, thereby causing efflorescence.
Presence of Reh or Kallar
These consists of sodium chloride, sodium carbonate and sodium
sulphate. The bricks cannot be properly burnt in the presence of
sodium sulphate. These elements re-crystallize after burning of the
bricks and deposit on the surface of masonry in form of whitish spots.
This causes pealing off the plaster and bricks and ultimately leads to
the failure of the structure. Presence of reh or kallar in the earth can
be detected inspecting freshly dug pits or by noticing the signs of
efflorescence.
Organic Matter
Presence of organic matter and vegetation in the brick earth render the
bricks porous. The porosity in bricks is the result of burning
carbonaceous matter present in the earth. In order to avoid the adverse
effect of the organic matter, the bricks should be well burnt.
1.3.5 Manufacturing of Bricks
The complete process of manufacturing the bricks can be broadly divided into
following heads :
(i) Preparation of brick earth or clay
(ii) Pugging or tempering of the clay
(iii) Moulding of bricks
(iv) Drying of bricks
(v) Burning of bricks
Each of these operations will now be discussed in detail.
Preparation of Brick Earth or Clay
Following are the various operations involved in preparing brick-earth.
24
 Digging Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
The top layer of soil about 20 cm thick which contains lot of
impurities is first of all removed as it is unsuitable for brick making.
After removing the top unsuitable soil, the clay is dug out either with
manual labour or with the help of power excavators. The excavated
lumps of soil are broken. The dug out soil is spread on the levelled
ground. Height of the heap of clay may vary from 60 cm to 120 cm. It
is ensured that the soil is free from gravel, coarse sand, lime and
kanker particles, vegetable matter etc.
Weathering
Excavated soil, after the clods have been broken, is mixed with a little
water and is left in heaps to weather for a period varying from a few
weeks to as long as it can be left. This improves its plasticity and
strength. Water may be sprayed on the heap from time to time to keep
the soil wet and heap turned over.
Blending
After weathering, the earth is chemically analysed and if there is any
deficiency of any ingredient it is spread on the heap of the weathered
earth and mixed with it with the help of phorah. The whole mass is
thoroughly mixed up and reasonable amount of water is added if
needed.
Pugging or Tempering of the Clay
Tempering or pugging the clay means, breaking up of prepared clay,
watering, and kneading till the earth becomes a homogeneous mass. Water
is added to clay in required quantity and the whole mass is kneaded under
the feet of men or cattle. But this method of tempering is outdated and not
used much these days.
Where good bricks are required to be manufactured on a large scale,
tempering of clay is usually done by pugmill.
Moulding of Bricks
It is done to give the required shape to the prepared brick earth. After
tempering of the clay, bricks should be moulded as soon as possible, as
otherwise pugged clay may become stiff and moulding of bricks may
become difficult. The bricks can be moulded by following two methods :
(i) Hand moulding, and
(ii) Machine moulding.
Hand Moulding
Hand moulding of bricks is extensively used in India. This could be
done on ground or on table known, respectively, as ground moulding
and as table moulding.
A team of a moulder and a helper can mould about 1000 bricks in a
day.
Machine Moulding of Bricks
Machine moulding of the bricks may be adopted when very large
number of bricks are required to be manufactured at one place. This 25
Engineering Materials method proves economical only when bricks in huge quantity are to
be moulded.
The machine moulded bricks are hard and strong than table or ground
moulded bricks. They are heavier in weight and have external
surfaces smooth. Machine moulding of the bricks can be done by
following two methods :
• Plastic clay method
• Dry pressed clay method
Drying of Bricks
Wet bricks have to be dried before they are fed for burning in the kilns.
Following are the objects of drying the bricks :
(i) To remove as much of moisture from the bricks as possible, so as to
save time and fuel during the burning.
(ii) To avoid the chances of cracking and distortion of bricks during the
burning.
(iii) To increase the mechanical strength of the bricks without any damage
to the bricks.
Bricks have to staked after two or three days of drying. Although after two
or three days of drying, bricks do not become dry and fit for burning, but
they become sufficiently strong to get stacked. The bricks are stacked in
such a way, that even in staked position free circulation of air maintained
around them. Bricks are stacked in two brick (length wise) wide and 8 to
10 courses high stacks with sufficient space between individual brick. A
specimen stack is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 : Stacking of Bricks

Burning of Bricks
Burning of the bricks imparts strength and hardness to the bricks and makes
them dense and durable. The burning or heating of bricks is continued to
higher temperature of about 1100oC. At about 1100oC, the two main
constituents of brick, silica and alumina, combine with each other and
bricks become dense and strong. At this temperature, fusible glass which is
a flowing matter at high temperature is formed in very small amount which
keeps clay particles binded together. Temperature of the bricks should not
be allowed to exceed 1100oC as otherwise fusible glass will be formed in
large amount. This will cause bricks to flow and make them destorted and
vitrified. Bricks should neither be over burnt nor under burnt, as in both the
cases quality of bricks suffers.

26
 Bricks are burnt either in clamps or in kilns. Clamps are temporary Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
structures and are adopted when bricks are to be burnt on very small scale.
Kilns are permanent structures and they are adopted when manufacture of
bricks is to be carried out on a large scale.
1.3.6 Qualities of Good Bricks
The general qualities that a good brick should possess are given below :
(i) Colour
The colour of good brick should be uniform. It may be deep red, cherry or
copper coloured. Uniformity of colour indicates uniformity of chemical
composition.
(ii) Water Absorption
No brick should absorb water more than 20% of its dry weight when kept
immersed in water for 24 hours.
(iii) Crushing Strength
It should not be less than 105 kg/cm2.
(iv) Shape
Bricks should be uniform in shape with all its edges sharp, straight and at
right angles to each other. All the faces should be true in shape.
(v) Size
Size of the bricks should be standard as prescribed by Indian standards.
(vi) Texture and Compactness
The bricks should have fine, dense, compact and uniform texture. Fractured
surface of the brick should not show lumps of lime, loose grit, fissures and
cavities.
(vii) Soundness
Two bricks should give clear ringing sound when struck against each other.
(viii) Hardness
The bricks should be so hard that finger nail should not be able to make any
impression on its surface when scratched.
(ix) The earth used for moulding the bricks should be free from gravel, pebbles,
kankar, salt petre and other harmful ingredients.
(x) Bricks should be sound proof and also of low thermal conductivity.
(xi) Bricks should not break when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of
about 1m.
1.3.7 Tests for Burnt Clay Bricks
Certain tests are necessary to be conducted for judging the quality of a brick lot.
These tests are :
(i) Water absorption test
(ii) Crushing strength test
(iii) Hardness test
(iv) Shape and size test 27
Engineering Materials (v) Soundness test
(vi) Test for presence of soluble salts.
Water Absorption Test
There are two test to determine the water absorption
(i) 24-hour immersion cold water test
(ii) 5-hour boiling water test
24-hour Immersion Cold Water Test
Dry specimen is put in an oven maintained at a temperature of 105 to
115o C, till it attains substantially constant mass. Weight of specimen (W1)
is recorded after cooling it to room temperature. The dry specimen is then
immersed completely in water at a temperature of 27 ± 2o C for 24 hours.
Take the specimen out of water and wipe out all traces of water with damp
cloth. Complete weighing of the specimen, 3 minutes after the specimen has
been removed from water. Let this weight be W2.
Water absorption percent by mass, after 24 hours immersion in cold water
is given by
W2 − W1
× 100
W1

5-hour Boiling Water Test

The specimen is dried in an oven at 105 to 115o C till it attains constant
mass. Cool the specimen at room temperature and record its weight (W1).
The brick is immersed in boiling water for 5 hours. The water is allowed to
cool at 27 ± 2o C with brick immersed. The brick is taken out and wiped
with damp cloth. Complete the weighing of the specimen in three minutes.
Let it be W3.
Water absorption, percent by mass, is given by
W3 − W1
× 100
W1

Test for Presence of Soluble Salts

Soluble salts, if present in the brick, cause efflorescence. Presence of such
salts can be determined as follows.
Place one end of the bricks in 25 mm depth of water in a dish of minimum
diameter 150 mm and depth 30 mm. The dish is made of glass, porcelain or
of glazed stone work. The experiment is performed in a well ventilated
room between 20 to 30o C till all the water in the dish is either absorbed by
the specimen or is evaporated. After the specimen have dried, add similar
quantity of water to the dish and let it too be absorbed by the specimen for
efflorescence after the second evaporation. Presence of efflorescence shall
be classified as nil, slight, moderate, heavy or serious as defined below :
Nil
When the deposit of efflorescence is imperceptible.
Slight

28
 When the deposit of efflorescence does not cover more than 10% of Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
the exposed area of the brick.
Moderate
When the deposit of efflorescence is heavier than slight and does not
cover more than 50 percent of the exposed area of the brick surface.
The deposit should not, however, powder or flake of the surface.
Heavy
When the deposit of efflorescence salts is heavy and covers 50
percent or more of the exposed area of brick surface. The deposit,
however, does not powder or flake of the surface.
Serious
When the deposit of efflorescence salts is heavy and is accompanied
by powdering and/or flaking of the exposed surfaces.
Crushing Strength Test
In this test, well burnt brick’s areas are elected. Grind the two bed faces to
provide smooth, even and parallel faces. Immerse the specimen in water at
room temperature. Fill up flush the frog and all voids with cement mortar
(1 part cement and 1 part clean coarse sand of grade 3 mm and down), store
under damp jute bags for 24 hours and then immerse in clean water for
3 days. Remove and wipe out any traces of moisture.
Place the specimen between two plywood sheets, each 3 mm thick, with flat
faces horizontal and mortar filled face facing upwards. The specimen
sandwiched between the ply sheets are carefully centred between plates of
compression testing machine. Apply axial load at a uniform rate of
140 kg/cm2 per minute till failure. The maximum load at failure divided by
the average area of the bed faces gives the compressive strength.
Hardness Test
Hardness of the bricks can be estimated with the help of the scratch of the
finger nail. If no nail scratch is left on the brick, it is considered to be
having sufficient hardness.
Shape and Size Test
All the faces of the brick should be truly rectangular and size truely
standard as specified by Indian Standards. All the edges should be sharp
and right angled.
Soundness Test
Soundness of the bricks is estimated by striking two bricks against each
other. They should emit ringing sound. Soundness of the brick is also tested
by the fall of the brick. A good sound brick should not break, when made to
fall flat on hard ground, from a height of about 1 m.
SAQ 2
(a) Compare stone work with brick work.
(b) On what considerations the size of the brick is fixed? What relation
should the breadth of a brick bear with length and why?
29
Engineering Materials (c) What are the various operations involved in the manufacture of
bricks?
(d) What is the importance of chemical analysis of the brick earth?
(e) Describe the characteristics and essential features of good quality
bricks.
(f) What is efflorescence in bricks? What are its causes and remedies?

1.4 TILES
Tiles are also a clay product, used mainly for roof covering and pavings. They are
manufactured from superior type of clay. Tiles, being thinner than bricks, should
be carefully handled to avoid any damage to tiles.
1.4.1 Classification of Tiles
Tiles are classified as
(i) common tiles, and
(ii) encaustic tiles.
Common Tiles
These tiles are of different shapes and sizes and are mainly used for
flooring, paving and roofing.
Encaustic Tiles
These tiles are used for decorative purposes in floors, walls, roofs ceilings.
1.4.2 Manufacture of Tiles
The following operations are involved in the manufacture of tiles :
(i) Preparation of clay.
(ii) Moulding of tiles.
(iii) Drying of tiles.
(iv) Burning of tiles.
Preparation of Clay
The clay to be used in the manufacture of tiles is taken and all the pebbles,
grit, and other impurities, picked out from it. The clay is then pulverized in
grinding machine. Water is added to the ground clay, and put in the pugmill
to temper. For manufacturing tiles of superior quality, the ground clay is
30 mixed with plenty of water in a large pucca tank. The mixture is allowed to
 stand quietly, during which coarse heavy particles settle at the bottom of the Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products
tank. Fine particles are held in suspension and mixture of fine particles and
water is transferred to another tank. This mixture is allowed to dry in open
during which water is evaporated and fine clay is left at the bottom of the
tank, which is used for the manufacture of the tiles. In order to make tiles
impervious and hard, a finely ground mixture of glass and pottery ware may
be added to the clay.
Moulding of Tiles
Moulding of tiles is done in the similar manner as has been already
explained in the moulding of bricks. Tiles can be moulded by following
three methods :
(i) Moulding by wooden moulds.
(ii) Machine moulding.
(iii) Potter’s wheel moulding.
Moulding by Wooden Moulds
In this method of moulding, wooden moulds are prepared in shape
and size of which tiles are required to be moulded. Mould is placed in
position and pressed clay is pressed in the mould. Care should be
taken to preserve the shape of the tiles during the removal from
mould. This method of moulding tiles is very common. Only plain
tiles are generally moulded by this method. In this method, tiles are
first moulded plain and when they become a bit hard and dry, they
can be given any shape with the help of wooden patterns.
Machine Moulding
In machine moulding of tiles, the clay is forced to come out of
machine, under pressure and tiles are cut in specific size from the clay
spout with the help of wire frame.
Potters Wheel Moulding
In this method, round tiles are first shaped on the potters when, and
after taking out of wheel, when moulded cylinder is quite hard, it is
cut longitudinally to develop two half round tiles. These tiles are not
exactly cylindrical, but have varying diameter as tiles moulded on
potter’s wheel are not of same diameter throughout.
Drying of Tiles
The tiles are stacked as they come out of mould one above the other and
heaps of tiles, about 15 tiles high, are formed. After about 2 days time when
tiles slightly get hard, the irregularities developed due to working are
corrected with the help of flat wooden mallets. The tiles by now become
hand hard and they can be lifted. Each tile is lifted up and its edges and
under surfaces cleared. They are stacked on edge under a shade, to dry for
about two-three days. The tiles are dried under the shade as this will prevent
cracking and warping of tiles, due to rain and direct sun.
Burning of Tiles
The tiles are subjected to burning in kilns after drying. A typical kiln is
capable of burning 30,000 to 40,000 tiles.
31
Engineering Materials The kiln is circular in plan and is protected by a shed. Long narrow flues
are formed at the bottom of the kiln and they are covered by a layer of
bricks. The bricks are arranged in such a way that open spaces are left
between them. Dried tiles are now placed on edge, layer after layer, on the
layer of bricks. After loading the kiln to its full capacity, all the doors in the
kiln are closed by brick work in mud. Top of the kiln is covered with a layer
of old tiles, placed in loose conditions. Heating or burning of the tiles is
affected by firing wood in the flues.
In the beginning, fire in the kiln should be gentle so that moisture is
completely driven out of the tiles. The temperature is then raised to about
800oC. This temperature is known as red hot. The fire is kept slackened for
about 5 hours and then it is raised to about 1300oC. This temperature is
maintained for 3 hours. The process of slackening the fire for 6 hours and
then raising to about 1300oC temperature is also called white heat
temperature. Finally, the temperature of 1300oC is maintained for 3 hours
and firing is stopped. The kiln is now allowed to cool gradually. In order to
achieve gradual cooling of tiles in the kiln, the flues are filled with fire and
their mouths closed with bricks in mud and fire is allowed to burn
gradually. The complete process of burning the tiles may take about 3 days
time.
Now kiln is started unloading. Good well burnt tiles are stacked separately
and dispatched for use. Under burnt tiles are stacked separately, and they
are used on the top of the kiln in next load of burning of tiles.
1.4.3 Properties of Good Tiles
Good tiles should possess the following properties :
(i) It should be of a regular shape and size.
(ii) It should be well burnt.
(iii) It should have a uniform colour.
(iv) It should be free from twists, cracks or flaws.
(v) It should give a clear ringing sound when one tile is struck against
another.
(vi) It should be strong, hard, sound and durable.
(vii) Its fractured surfaces should show the compact and even structure.
(viii) Thickness (minimum) of machine made tiles should be 10 mm and
hand mould tiles between 12 to 15 mm.
1.4.4 Types of Tiles
Tiles are mainly of three types which are described (depicted) in Figure 1.4.

32
 Stones, Bricks and
Clay Products

Figure 1.4: Types of Tiles

SAQ 3
(a) What are the characteristics of good tiles?
(b) Describe the complete process of manufacturing the good tiles.

1.5 SUMMARY
You have seen that in construction engineering, the execution of different types
of works always involves use of some inert materials. These inert materials have
significant impact on strength, rigidity, durability and face appearance. Stones are
extensively used for construction of buildings, lintels, arches, walls, columns,
abutments etc. Stones are placed in such a way that their position offers
maximum strength.
Bricks are now-a-days used popularly for different types of construction. Its use
is increasing day by day due to its local manufacturing and low cost. Bricks can
be prepared in different sizes and shapes. Suitability of bricks is judged by
performing various tests on it. Tiles are mainly used for flooring, paving, roofing
and for decorative purposes in floors, walls, roofs ceilings.

1.6 ANSWERS TO SAQs

Refer the relevant preceding text in the unit or other useful books on the topic
listed in Section “Further Reading” to get the answers of the SAQs.

33