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Syllabus Topic Pages
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PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Physics is a fascinating science. It deals with times that range from less than 10-20 s,
the half-life of helium 5 years to 1.4 x1010 years, the probable ‟age‟ of our Universe.
Physicists study temperatures from within a millionth of a degree above absolute zero
to almost 200 million degrees, the temperature in the plasma in a fusion reactor. An
investigation of the mass of a quantum of FM radio radiation (2.3x10-42 kg) and the
„size‟ of a proton (1.3x10-15 m) all fall within the World of Physics!
It is vital to realise that all the quantities mentioned above contain a number and then
a unit of measurement.
Without one or other the measurement would be meaningless. Imagine saying that
the world record for the long jump was 8.95 (missing out the metres) or that the mass
of an apple was kilograms (missing out the 0.30)!
All units used in Physics are based on the International System (SI) of units which is
based on the following seven base units.
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It is most important to realise that these units are for separate measurements – you
can‟t add together quantities with different units. For example five kilograms plus
twenty-five metres has no meaning. It is rather similar to having a field in which
there are 30 sheep, twelve cows and 25 pigs and asking how many there are? How
many of what? It's simply a collection of different animals - you cannot add them
together!
Units.swf
1 Complete the table to show the missing physical quantity for each unit.
m s-1 Velocity
m s-2
kg m-3
Nm
N m s-1
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3 What are the units of the following quantities?
4 For each of the four concepts listed in the left hand column, place a tick by
the correct example of that concept in the appropriate box.
Concept
A base quantity mole length kilogram
A base unit coulomb ampere volt
A scalar quantity force velocity kinetic energy
A vector quantity mass weight density
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Standard form
Standard form is a way of writing down very large or very small numbers easily and
without using lots of zeros. We sometimes call it scientific notation.
We write 1000 as 103, 10 000 as 104 and so on.
Small numbers can also be written in standard form. However, instead of the index of
the power being positive it will be negative.
So 0.001 is written as 10-3.
5000 would be 5 x 103
0.005 would be 5 x 10-3
5200 would be written as 5.2 x 103
0.0052 would be written as 5.2 x 10-3
Powers of 10.SWF
We live in a world of about 10-2 m (1 cm) to 10 m (101 m) or „-2 to 1‟.
How big is the world of the following?
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pico (p) 10-12
nano (n) 10-9
micro () 10-6
centi (c) 10-2
deci (d) 10-1
kilo (k) 103
mega (M) 106
giga (G) 109
tera (T) 1012
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DENSITY
The mass of individual atoms and how closely they are packed together can be "felt" on
an every day level - it is called the density of the material.
Mass
Density
Volume
and the units are kg m-3.
Density is important in every day life, for example if this page was made of solid gold it
would have a mass of about 100g! The same applies to power cables, they are made of
aluminium as it is lighter than steel and so the pylons are strong enough to hold them up.
The table below shows the density of some common materials.
In an extreme case we could work out the density of a proton! It has a mass of roughly
1.66 x 10-27 kg and a "radius" of about 10-15 m. This gives it a "volume" of about
4 x 10-45 m-3 and a density of just under 4 x 1017 kgm-3.
States of matter.SWF
http://www.media.pearson.com.au/schools/cw/au_sch_whalley_sf1_1/int/matter.html
1 Use the data in the table to calculate the mass of a steel ball bearing of radius
0.3mm.
2 3 mg of gas are injected into the vacuum chamber of a fusion reactor. The
volume of the chamber containing the gas is 3.75 m3. What is the density of the
gas under these conditions?
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3 Complete the following table:
4 The average radius of the Earth is 6.4x106 m. Its mass is 6.0x1024 kg. What is
its average density?
5 Calculate the mass of air in a room whose dimensions are 4 m x 5 m x 2.5 m.
6 A neutron star is a dead star consisting entirely of neutrons. Its mass may be
about the same as that of the Sun (2 x 1030 kg). A typical diameter is 18 km.
(a) Calculate the density of the material.
(b) Neutron stars are formed from stars which have masses that are less
than three times the mass of the Sun. Dying stars with more than this
mass collapse to form black holes. Assuming that these have the same
density as neutron stars, what is the diameter of a black hole that has
20 times the mass of the Sun?
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Speed and Velocity
Racing balls.SWF
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement with time and if the object
travels a small distance s in a time t then its velocity v is given by the equation:
change in displacement s
velocity
time taken t
and if this is constant the body is said to move with uniform velocity.
Notice that we use the word displacement instead of distance, since displacement is
the distance measured in a particular direction.
The difference between displacement and distance is B
shown by Figure 1. An object moves from A to B along Y
the line AXYB. The distance travelled from A to B is
shown by the line AXYB while the displacement is shown
by the vector AB.
X
Notice that since velocity is a vector, uniform velocity
requires there to be no change in either the magnitude A Figure 1
(size) or direction of the velocity.
v
For a body moving with uniform velocity a graph of
velocity against time will look like this. It should be
clear that the distance travelled is equal to the area
under the line on the velocity-time graph. Area = displacement
t
Velocity measurement
The measurement of velocity normally requires the measurement of two quantities
(displacement and time) but it can be found directly as follows:-
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This method has now been superseded by using light gate(s) and computer.
Average speed for a journey
Light gates
Light gate.SWF AB
average speed from A to B
t
Motion Sensor
Motion sensor.SWF
The Motion Sensor is a device that emits a pulse of ultrasound which travels through
the air at 330 ms-1 before rebounding off a target. The distance of the reflecting object
from the sensor can be found by measuring the time interval between the emitted and
reflected pulses.
How long will a pulse of ultrasound take to travel from the emitter to the trolley if the
trolley is 1.65 m away from the motion sensor?
(Speed of sound 330 m s-1).
1.65 m
t 0.005 s
330 ms 1
What is the approximate delay between emitted and reflected pulses when the
trolley is 1.65 m away from the emitter?
t 2 0.005 0.010 s
1 (a) During a 1500 m race an athlete completes the first 800 m in 2 minutes and
10 seconds. Calculate her average speed for 800 m.
(b) She completes the race in 4 minutes. How long does it take her to run the
remainder of the race?
(c) Calculate her average speed for the remainder of the race.
(d) Decide whether her average speed for the final 700 m is greater or less than
her average speed for the first 800 m.
(e) Calculate her average speed for the entire race.
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2 A student making notes about velocity writes down the following statements.
Decide whether they are true or false.
(a) Velocity is a vector quantity.
(b) To state a velocity value properly you must indicate the direction.
(c) Velocity is the rate of change of distance.
(d) Velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
(a) How long does it take the ball to travel from the pitcher to the batter?
(b) It takes the batter 0.22 s to react to the pitcher's throw. How long does
the batter have to swing the bat to hit the ball?
(c) The swinging bat travels 1.4 m before hitting the ball. Calculate the
speed with which the bat hits the ball.
6 A robot in the production line at a car factory moves north (000) for 1.2 m. It
turns right and travels a further 1.6 m. Finally, it turns right again and travels
another 1.2 m.
(a) How far has the robot travelled during this operation?
(b) What is the robot's final displacement from its starting position?
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Equations of Motion
Constant velocity
The gradient shows how quickly the distance travelled is changing with time. In this
example the distance is changing at a rate of about 12 m every 2 seconds.
Changing velocity
Instantaneous velocity.SWF
Velocity-time graphs
A car is travelling at 28 ms-1 and the driver takes 2 s to react to an incident on the road
in front before applying the brakes. The deceleration of the car is -5.6 ms-2.
velocity
time
How far does the car travel whilst
the driver is reacting?
the brakes are applied?
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The set of graphs in Figure 1 show how the velocity varies with time for several
different situations.
v v v constant retardation
constant velocity
constant acceleration
t t t
v v v irregular motion
one bounce
object thrown
upwards
t t t
Figure 1
The area below the line in each graph still represents the distance travelled in a
certain time, whether the acceleration is uniform or not.
dv
The slope of the line at any point gives the instantaneous acceleration.
dt
Interpret graph.SWF
How far north does the object move in the first 2 seconds?
Calculate the average speed of the moving object during the first 3 seconds.
Three seconds after the beginning of the motion of the object is travelling due
…………..
How far is the object away from its starting position six seconds after the start of its
motion?
Matching Graphs
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Equations of motion for uniform acceleration
Motion graphs.SWF
If the acceleration of a particle is uniform the following equations apply to its motion:
vu
average velocity
2
vu
accelerati on a
t
distance x ut 12 at 2
v 2 u 2 2ax
7 A ball is dropped from a high window onto a concrete floor. The velocity-time
graph for part of its motion is shown.
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8 An athlete runs a 100 m race. The idealised graph below shows how the
athlete's velocity v changes with time t for a 100 m sprint.
(a) By considering the area under the graph, calculate the maximum velocity
v max of the athlete.
(b) Using the axes below, sketch a graph showing how the acceleration of this
athlete changes with time during this race. Mark any significant values on
the axes.
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9 The diagram below shows a trolley running down a slope.
(a) Complete the diagram to show an experimental arrangement you could use to
determine how the trolley's position varies with time.
The data is used to produce a velocity-time graph for the trolley. Below is the
graph for the motion from point A to point B. Time is taken to be zero as the trolley
passes A, and the trolley passes B 0.70 s later.
(b) The motion shown on the graph can be described by the equation
v u at .
Use information from the graph to determine values for u and a.
u=
a=
(d) On the axes below sketch a graph to show how the displacement x of the
trolley from point A varies with time t. Add a scale to each axis.
x/
m
t/s
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10 The diagram shows a spade being held above a flat area of soil.
(a) The spade is released and falls vertically. It takes 0.29 s for the blade to
reach the soil.
(c) A heavier spade of identical shape is now dropped from the same height
into the same patch of soil. Underline the correct phrase in the brackets to
describe what difference, if any, there would be in the speed at impact and
the acceleration in the soil compared to the lighter spade. Assume the
resistive forces on both spades are the same.
The heavier spade would have {a higher/a lower/the same} speed at impact
as the lighter spade.
The heavier spade would have { a higher / a lower / the same} acceleration in
the soil as the lighter spade.
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11 The graph shows the variation of velocity with time for a body moving in a
straight line.
Calculate
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Projectiles
BallTossOut.mov
Consider an object projected horizontally from a cliff with a velocity u. The problem
is to find out where this object will be after a time t and how fast it will be travelling.
The important thing to remember is that you can consider the motion in two parts:-
Motion in the horizontal direction - this is uniform velocity since no forces act
in this direction
Motion in the vertical direction - this is uniformly accelerated motion due to
the gravitational pull of the Earth, the vertical acceleration being the strength
of the Earth's field (g = 9.81 ms-2). Remember that this always acts vertically
downwards.
We will ignore air resistance for the time being.
u
Figure 1
y
vx = u
vy
x
The time taken for the object to reach the ground along the parabolic path is
the same as if it were dropped vertically.
Notice that if air resistance is ignored the vertical height of the object at given
times after the start is the same no matter what horizontal velocity it had at the
moment of release.
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25 50 100
0 m/s m/s m/s
5
Height 20
fallen
(m) 45
80
125
180
245
Range
(m)
Microsoft Office
Falling from a helicopter.SWF Excel 97-2003 Worksheet shoot.exe
Bouncing Ball.mdl
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Projection at an angle
Projectile motion.SWF
Complete the following statements to summarize how the vertical component of the
velocity changes during the flight.
The speed in the vertical direction _________ until the projectile reaches its
_______ _____ .
This is because, if we ignore air resistance, the only force acting on the projectile is
______ downwards.
At the top of its motion its vertical speed is 0 ms-1. As it starts to fall again, the
downwards speed _______ .
Because there is no force acting on the projectile in the horizontal direction the speed
in the horizontal direction is ______ .
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1 A crate is released from an aircraft that is flying horizontally at a steady speed
of 200 ms-1 at a height 1500 m above the ground:
(a) What is its horizontal velocity?
(i) 2 s after it was released
(ii) 5 s after it was released
(b) What is its vertical velocity:?
(i) 2 s after it was released
(ii) 5 s after it was released
(c) What is its velocity 5s after it was released?
(d) How long will it take to reach the ground?
(e) How far horizontally from the place where it was released will it hit the
ground?
2 If you had taken air resistance into account how would this have affected your
answers to (c) and (e)?
5 A coin is flicked off a table so that it initially leaves the table travelling in a
horizontal direction with a speed of 1.5 m s-1. The diagram shows the coin at
the instant it leaves the table. Air resistance can be assumed to have a
negligible effect throughout this question.
(a) Add to the diagram the path followed by the coin to the floor.
(b) (i) The table is 0.70 m high. Show that the coin takes approximately 0.4 s
to reach the floor.
(ii) Hence calculate the horizontal distance the coin travels in the time it
takes to fall to the floor.
(c) A coin of greater mass is flicked with the same horizontal speed of 1.5 m s-1.
Compare the path of this coin with that of the coin in the first part of the
question. Explain your answer. You may be awarded a mark for the clarity of
your answer.
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6 A cricketer bowls a ball from a height of 2.3 m. The ball leaves the hand
horizontally with a velocity u. After bouncing once, it passes just over the
stumps at the top of its bounce. The stumps are 0.71 m high and are situated
20 m from where the bowler releases the ball.
(a) Show that from the moment it is released, the ball takes about 0.7 s to
fall 2.3 m.
(b) How long does it take the ball to rise 0.71 m after bouncing?
(c) Use your answers to parts (a) and (b) to calculate the initial horizontal
velocity u of the ball. You may assume that the horizontal velocity has
remained constant.
(d) In reality the horizontal velocity would not be constant. State one
reason why.
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Vectors in equilibrium – general principles for forces
For an object to be in equilibrium it must not have a tendency to:
(a) translate – i.e. move from one place to another
(b) rotate – i.e. turn
The sum of the moments of the forces on the object about any point must be zero
The resultant of the forces on the object in any direction must be zero
ONE FORCE
If there is only one force acting on the body it cannot be in equilibrium. It
may not rotate (if the force passes through the object‟s centre of mass) but
it is bound to move.
TWO FORCES
If two forces act on the body it can only be in equilibrium if the
two forces are equal and opposite and lie in the same line. If they
are equal and opposite but not in the same line they form a couple
and the object will rotate. (See the space station in Figure 2)
Figure 2
If they are in the same line as well as being equal and opposite then the object will be
in equilibrium (See the tug of war or a glass on a table in Figures 3(a) and (b)).
THREE FORCES
If three forces act on a body it can be in
equilibrium if they are parallel or not and
in the same line or not.
The simplest case is where the sum of the
two forces acting in one direction is equal
to the third force acting in the opposite Figure 4
direction (Figure 4).
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A case where the three forces are in parallel but not acting through the same point is
shown by the see saw in Figure 5. The resultant moment must be zero. Notice that
the downward forces (the weights of the two people) are balanced by an upward force
(R) at the pivot.
Figure 5
W1 W2
If this were not true then taking moments about the point (P) where two of the forces
cross (i.e. their total moment is zero) would still leave a resultant moment due to the
third force.
(See Figure 6).
Figure 7
The vectors (in this case the forces) can be represented in magnitude and direction by
the three sides of a triangle – the vectors must be drawn so that their direction follows
round the figure. See the example set of forces for the ladder shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8
forces.exe
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Resolving vectors into COMPONENTS
F cos (90 - )
F
F cos
1 A gymnast of weight 720 N is holding himself in the cross position on the high
rings. He is quite still. A free-body force diagram for the gymnast shows the
two upward pulls of the rings on his hands, each of size 380 N.
Calculate the angle between the wires supporting the rings and the vertical.
2 A very heavy sack is hung from a rope and pushed sideways. When the
sideways push is 220 N the rope supporting the sack is inclined at 18° to the
vertical.
(a) Calculate the tension in the rope.
(b) Hence find the mass of the sack.
4 A gymnast of mass 65 kg hangs between two parallel bars so that their arms
each make an angle of 15o with the vertical. What is the tension in each arm?
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5 The diagram below shows a drop-down table attached to a wall. The table
is supported horizontally by two side arms attached to the mid-points of the
sides of the table.
(a) The table surface is 80 cm long, 50 cm deep and 1.8 cm thick. It is made from
wood of density 0.70 g cm-3. Show that its weight is about 50 N.
(b) The free-body force diagram below shows two of the three forces acting on the
table top.
(iii) Hence find the magnitude of the horizontal force that the hinge applies
to the table top and state its direction.
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6 The diagram shows two forces acting on a body.
On the grid below draw a scale diagram to determine the resultant force acting
on the body. Use a scale of 1 major division to 1 N.
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Newton's 1st Law and Inertia
We can state Newton‟s Laws of motion simply as:
The more massive the body is the more inertia it has. The astronauts in the Space
Shuttle had trouble with large pieces of equipment since although they were
"weightless" they still had inertia and were difficult to stop once they were moving.
The astronauts themselves also experienced a problem on the lunar surface. They had
a much smaller weight and therefore lower friction between themselves and the
surface but their mass and therefore inertia was the same as on Earth. Stopping was
difficult due to the lower frictional force.
The period of vibration of a body is also affected by its inertia. Large, heavy objects
will vibrate slowly. One simple way of testing this is to use a ruler loaded with a
lump of plasticene - the greater the load the longer the period of the motion.
Therefore the rate of vibration can be used to compare the masses of two objects since
the rate of vibration depends on inertia (mass) and not weight.
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Think about the law in two parts:
at rest
The word resultant really ought to go in because clearly someone sitting on a stool
may be at rest but they are acted on by two forces - their weight and the contact force
of the stool. It is because these two forces are balanced and there is no resultant force
they stay still - i.e. at rest.
uniform motion
This means no change of velocity - and since velocity is a vector this means at a
steady speed in a straight line. Think about a sky diver, as they fall out of the plane
their speed increases - their weight is bigger than the drag - there is a net force and
Newton's first law does not apply. However as the drag increases the two forces on
them become equal and the sky diver falls with a constant velocity - a state of uniform
motion!
Drag.mdl
2 An object falls through the air and its motion is affected by two forces. One of
these is constant (weight) and the other increases (viscous drag). The drag
force may be expressed as k v2, where v is the speed of the object and k is a
factor that depends on the viscous properties of the air and also on the shape of
the object.
(a) Draw a free body force diagram of the falling ball when it is moving at
speed v.
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3 Figure 1 shows a box resting on the floor of a stationary lift. Figure 2 is a free-
body force diagram showing the forces A and B that act on the box.
For each of the following situations, tick the appropriate boxes to show how the
magnitude of the forces A and B change, if at all, compared with when the lift is
stationary.
Force A Force B
Situation no no
increases decreases increases decreases
change change
Lift
accelerating
upwards
Lift moving
with
constant
speed
upwards
Lift
accelerating
downwards
Lift moving
with
constant
speed
downwards
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Newton's Second Law
This law is all about the situation when there is a resultant force and therefore there is
also a resulting acceleration.
You need a resultant force to change the motion of a body. The bigger the resultant
(net) force the greater the acceleration. (Remember that force is a vector and the
direction of the forces acting on a body need to be considered).
Aristotle thought that the force was in the same direction as the motion (i.e. the
velocity). This is not true - the force is in the same direction as the acceleration if you
don't follow this think of a basket ball being thrown into a net. The ball follows a
curving path in the air but the force - and therefore the acceleration is always in one
direction - vertically downwards.
You can investigate the law practically by using a friction-compensated track and
measuring the acceleration of the truck for a variety of accelerating forces and truck
masses.
It is also important to remember that the mass being accelerated is the total mass of
the truck plus the mass of the accelerating weight although this is not significant if the
truck is very heavy in comparison.
The results can be analysed by plotting two graphs
acceleration against the accelerating force (a v F)
acceleration against the inverse of the mass of the truck (a v 1/m)
1
This should show you that a F and a
m
Combining these two results gives
F ma
The units are
force N
mass kg
acceleration ms-2
This law also gives us a good definition of the Newton as a unit of force.
newton.exe
Although we may think of the second law as “Force equals Mass times Acceleration”
Newton actually stated his famous law as follows:-
Page 33 of 69
4 A student is provided with a trolley and a track as shown in the diagram
below. He is required to apply different forces to the trolley, measure the
corresponding accelerations and hence demonstrate the relationship between
the two. Any additional normal school laboratory equipment is available for
him to use.
(ii) measure the velocity of the trolley at a point on the track as the trolley
moves under the action of this applied force. List any additional
apparatus that would be required. You may add to the diagram above
to help your description.
(b) Assuming the velocity has been measured at one point, what additional
measurements are required to determine the acceleration?
(c) How could the student demonstrate the expected relationship between the
force and the acceleration?
(d) In such an experiment, the track is given a slight tilt to compensate for friction.
Why is this necessary if the relationship suggested by Newton's second law is
to be successfully demonstrated?
(iii) when the resultant force on it is in the opposite direction to its motion?
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6 A lorry is travelling at 25 m s-1 down a mountain road when the driver
discovers that the brakes have failed. She notices that an escape lane covered
with sand is ahead and stops her lorry by steering it on to the sand.
Initially the trolley is held at rest at position A. It is then released. When it has
moved some distance, but before the suspended mass hits the floor, a card attached to
the trolley passes through a light gate. A clock controlled by the gate records how
long the card blocks the light beam.
The card, which is 0.130 m long, takes 0.070 s to pass through the beam.
(a) Calculate the average velocity of the trolley as it passes through the light gate.
(b) The light gate is 0.600 m from the start. Show that the acceleration of the
trolley is approximately 3 m s-2.
(c) The mass of the trolley is 0.950 kg. Calculate the tension in the string pulling
it, stating any assumption which you make.
(d) The tension in the string must be less than the weight of the 0.400 kg mass
Suspended from it. Explain why.
Page 35 of 69
Acceleration due to Gravity/Free Fall
Free fall.mdl
s ut 12 at 2
12 at 2 if u 0
distance distance
time time2
Diagram of apparatus used to measure g due to freefall / s 12 at 2 method
Graph s
Gradient = ?
g=
velocity2
v 2 u 2 2as
2as if u 0
v squared.SWF distance
Page 36 of 69
What does the graph look like if the object is s
dropped from a great height and we also take
account of air resistance?
Free fall.mdl
?
Microsoft Office
PowerPoint 97-2003 Presentation
Page 37 of 69
2 A hot-air balloon is rising vertically at a speed of 10 m s–1. An object is
released from the balloon. The graph shows how the velocity of the object
varies with time from when it leaves the balloon to when it reaches the ground
four seconds later. It is assumed that the air resistance is negligible.
velocity 15
/m s –1
10
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 time/s
5
–10
–15
–20
–25
–30
–35
(a) Use the graph to
(i) show that the object continues to rise for a further 5 m after it
is released.
(ii) determine the total distance travelled by the object from when
it is released from the balloon to when it reaches the ground.
(b) Hence determine the object‟s final displacement from its point of
release from the balloon.
(c) Using the axes below, sketch a graph showing how the acceleration
of the object changes during the time from when it leaves the
balloon to when it hits the ground.
Mark any significant values on the axes.
acceleration
/m s –1
0
-
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 time/s
Page 38 of 69
3 An astronaut on the moon drops a hammer. The gravitational acceleration
is 1.6 m s–2.
(a) How long does the hammer take to fall 1.0 m from rest?
(b) Calculate the velocity of the hammer just before it hits the ground.
A B C D
velocity reached/ distance fallen total distance
time from
–1 during 0.20 s time from the start
start / s ms
1 interval / m /m
2
3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
4 0.20 1.96 0.20 0.20
5 0.40 3.92 0.59 0.78
6 0.60 5.89 0.98 1.77
7 0.80 7.85 1.37 3.14
8 1.00 9.81 1.77 4.91
9 1.20 11.77 2.16 7.06
10 1.40 13.73 2.55 9.61
11 1.60 15.70 2.94 12.56
12 1.80 17.66 3.34 15.89
13 2.00 19.62 3.73 19.62
Page 39 of 69
5 Some people think that all raindrops fall at the same speed; others think
that their speed depends on their size.
(a) Calculate the speed of a raindrop after it has fallen freely from
rest for 0.2 s.
(b) The raindrop falls for longer than 0.2 s. Explain why its
acceleration does not remain uniform for the whole of its fall.
Page 40 of 69
Forces
Forces always come in pairs called a force pair.
(This is Newton's 3rd law of motion)
F1 F2
+ +
A B
magnitude of F1 magnitude of F2
F1 and F2 are both electrostatic forces Similarities
F1 acts on object A, F2 acts on object B
F1 and F2 act in oppositedirections
Differences
Microsoft Office
Word 97 - 2003 Document
Supernova
Electrostatic forces act between objects which are charged.
They can be forces of attraction or repulsion, depending on the sign of the charges.
Electromagnetic forces act between
(a) a magnet and another magnet
(b) a magnet and a magnetic material,
(c) magnets and current-carrying conductors.
In (a) the forces may be attraction or repulsion. It depends on the polarity of the
magnets.
In (b) the forces are always of attraction.
In (c) the force is at right angles to both the current and the magnetic field.
Nuclear Forces act inside the nucleus of an atom which are neither gravitational or
electromagnetic.
Nuclear forces hold the nucleus together (electrostatic forces alone would cause the
positively charged protons to fly apart).
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Contact forces act between bodies when they are very close together.
They are, in fact, electrostatic forces acting over very short distances. They are caused
by forces between the outer layers of electrons of the two bodies in contact.
Frictional forces on solid bodies moving over each other or on bodies moving through
fluids (Viscous Drag) are all contact forces.
Viscous drag forces act on an object which is moving through a fluid.
Viscous drag forces always oppose the motion of the object.
Viscous drag increases with the speed of the object.
Parachute game.SWF
Tension forces exist when a body has a pair of equal and opposite forces acting on it.
The top of the spring is pulled up by the support.
The bottom of the spring is pulled down by the hanging object.
The spring is in a state of tension.
Tension forces.SWF
1
Q
sphere S P and Q are forces
S acting on the sphere
table
P
(a) On which body does the force which pairs with force P act?
Give its direction.
(b) On which body does the force which pairs with force Q act?
Give its direction.
2 A child sits at rest on a swing. The figure shows free-body force diagrams for
(i) the child, (ii) the swing seat.
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(a) For each of the forces P, W, T, w and P', identify the body that is producing
the force. [ P' is not produced by the Earth.]
Body that exerts the force Body that the force acts on
P swing seat child
W
T
w
P‟
(b) Write a phrase describing each force as
the push or pull exerted on the ………….. by the ……………
P is the upward push exerted by the swing seat on the child
W
T
w
P‟
(c) In this situation P = W; T = w + P' and P = P'.
Explain each equation in terms of Newton's laws.
3 A man checks the weight of a bag of potatoes with a newtonmeter. Two of the
forces acting are shown in the diagram.
The table below gives these forces. For each force there is a corresponding force, the
„Newton‟s third law pair force‟. In each case state
the body that the Newton‟s third law pair force acts upon
the type of force (one has been done for you)
the direction of the Newton‟s third law pair force.
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4 The diagram shows two magnets, M1 and M2, on a wooden stand. Their faces
are magnetised as shown so that the magnets repel each other.
(a) Draw a fully labelled free-body force diagram for the magnet M1.
(b) The table gives the three forces acting on the magnet M2. For each force on
M2 there is a corresponding force known as its „Newton‟s third law pair‟.
In each case state
(i) the body on which this corresponding force acts,
(ii) the direction of this corresponding force.
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Energy
There are about 20 million households in Britain alone and on average each one of
these uses some 21 000 kW h of energy annually! The study of energy is therefore of
vital importance in our lives.
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Conservation of energy
You should notice that we talk about the transformation or conversion of energy from
one form to another and not its use. This is because although we may use up energy
in one form it always reappears as another. This is a most important principle of
Physics: that of the conservation of energy. The principle states that:
Energy is never created or destroyed but only changed from one form to
another.
Bungee jump.mov
Work is done when a body exerts a force and moves a distance in the direction of the
force.
½ mv2
Car braking to a F 0
stop s
1
2
mv 2 F s
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Making use of kinetic energy
Launching a plane.SWF
http://lectureonline.cl.msu.edu/~mmp/kap5/work/work.htm
(Force and work animation)
Ballista
The oldest form of catapult used in siege warfare. The Ballista is
best described as a giant crossbow which fired spears instead of
arrows. There were many types of Ballista that were popular with
the Greeks and Romans, but the one thing they have in common is
that they were all powered by twisted sinew ropes.
The ballista was accurate and could fire spears a great distance but
they were difficult to build and they were limited to hitting only
what they could see.
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/qt/energy/coastwin.html
(Roller coaster)
Conservation of energy
In any system isolated from its surroundings the total amount of energy in that system
remains constant.
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1 (a) A car is travelling along a horizontal road. The driver applies the
brakes and the car comes to rest. Describe the principal energy
transformation which occurs as the car comes to rest.
(b) On another occasion, the same car is travelling with the same speed, but
down a hill. The driver applies the brakes, which produce the same average
braking force as before. With reference to the energy transformations which
occur, explain why the braking distance will be greater on the hill than on the
horizontal road.
2 The diagram shows a small vehicle which is free to move in a vertical plane along a
curved track.
The vehicle of mass m is released from rest from point A. It runs down to point B, a
distance h vertically below A. Its speed at point B is v.
Write down expressions for
(a) the gravitational potential energy lost by the vehicle as it runs from A to B,
(b) the kinetic energy of the vehicle at B.
(c) Hence derive an expression for the speed v.
(d) State one assumption you have made in your derivation.
(e) Would you expect the vehicle to pass point C? Explain your answer.
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4 (a) A car of mass m is travelling in a straight line along a horizontal road
at a speed u when the driver applies the brakes. They exert a constant force F
on the car to bring the car to rest after a distance d.
(i) Write down expressions for the initial kinetic energy of the car and
the work done by the brakes in bringing the car to rest.
Kinetic energy
Work done
(ii) Show that the base units for your expressions for kinetic energy and
work done are the same.
(b) A car is travelling at 13.4 m s-1. The driver applies the brakes to decelerate
the car at 6.5 m s-2. Show that the car travels about 14 m before coming to
rest.
(c) On another occasion, the same car is travelling at twice the speed. The driver
again applies the brakes and the car decelerates at 6.5 m s-2. The car travels
just over 55 m before coming to rest. Explain why the braking distance has
more than doubled
5 A dummy is used in a test crash to test the suitability of a seat belt. If the
dummy had a mass of 65 kg and it was brought to rest in a distance of 65 cm
from a velocity of 12 ms-1 calculate
(a) The mean deceleration during the crash
(b) The average force exerted on the dummy during the crash.
(c) The loss of k.e. of the dummy.
Power
Work done F s
Power
time taken t
e.g. A car travelling at a constant speed v has to overcome a resistance force F and the power
of the engine is
Power F v .
(i) Show that the work done in raising the bar was about 2400 J.
(ii) It took 3.0 s to raise the bar. Calculate the average power used.
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8 A certain power station generates electricity from falling water. The diagram
shows a simplified sketch of the system.
(a) (i) In what form is the energy of the water initially stored?
(ii) What energy form is this transformed into in order to drive the
turbine?
(c) The force of the water at the turbine is 3.5 x 108 N and the output power
generated is 1.7 x 109 W. Use this data to calculate the minimum speed at
which the water must enter the turbine.
(d) Explain why, in practice, the speed at which the water enters the turbine is
much greater than this.
(e) When working at this output power, 390 m3 of water flows through the
turbine each second. The top reservoir holds 7.0 x 106 m3 of water. For how
long will electricity be generated?
(f) This power station is used at peak periods, after which the water is pumped
back to the top reservoir. The water has to be raised by
500 m. How much work is done to return all the water to the top reservoir?
(The density of water is 1000 kg m-3.)
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Fluids
The rate at which fluid flows through a tube is likely to depend on
(a) the viscosity of the fluid
(Oil pipelines in Siberia have to be shut down in winter because the oil
viscosity increases and the oil will not flow)
This flow rate is of great importance in our lives since it governs things like the flow
of blood round our bodies and the transmission of gas, water or oil through long
distances in pipelines.
In laminar flow the particles in the fluid follow streamlines, and the motion of
particles in the fluid is predictable.
If the flow rate is very large, or if objects obstruct the flow, the fluid starts to
swirl in an erratic motion. No longer can one predict the exact path a particle
on the fluid will follow. This region of constantly changing flow lines is said
to consist of turbulent flow.
Turbulent flow.flv
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Upthrust
The buoyancy (upthrust) force that you experience in a swimming pool is a
consequence of the greater pressure below an immersed object than above it.
p1
h1
h2
Liquid of density
P2
The upthrust is due to the difference between the force due to water pressure at the
bottom of the cylinder, F2, and that at the top F1.
F1 p1 A h1 g A
F2 p1 A h2 g A
U F2 F1 h2 h1 g A V g m g
An object will float in a fluid if the upthrust the weight of the object.
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Data:
Density of brine = 1 150 kgm-3 Density of meths = 800 kgm-3
Density of water = 1000 kgm-3 Density of sea water = 1020 kgm-3
Density of mercury = 13600 kgm-3 Density of ice = 950 kgm-3
Density of platinum = 21000 kgm-3 Density of gold = 19000 kgm-3
Density of iron = 7800 kgm-3 Density of copper = 8930 kgm-3
Density of air = 1.2 kgm-3
2 A wooden rod, density 650 kgm-3 and one metre long floats upright in a liquid.
If the cross sectional area of the rod is 4 cm2 calculate the depth to which it sinks
in:
(a) water (b) meths (c) brine
3 A pure water ice cube with sides 2 cm long floats in a liquid in a glass beaker.
What volume will be below the liquid surface if the liquid is:
(a) pure water
(b) brine
(c) What happens to the level of the water in the beaker if the ice cube
melts and why?
4 A hot air balloon with a volume of 250 m3 hangs in the air. If the density of
the hot air is 0.8 kgm-3 and that of the cool air outside the balloon is 1.2 kgm-3
what is the biggest load it can support if the fabric of the balloon and the
basket have a total mass of 50 kg.
6 Calculate the difference if pressure between the top and bottom of a diving
bell 2.5 m long immersed in water.
7 If the atmosphere was uniform and with the same density as that at sea level
how high would it be? (Height of a mercury barometer = 0.76 m)
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Stokes’ law (Viscous Drag Force F 6rv )
Consider a sphere falling through a viscous fluid. As the sphere falls so its velocity
increases until it reaches a velocity known as the terminal velocity. At this velocity
the frictional drag due to viscous forces is just balanced by the gravitational force and
the velocity is constant (shown by Figure 2).
At this speed:
From the formula it can be seen that the frictional drag is smaller for large spheres
than for small ones, and therefore the terminal velocity of a large sphere is greater
than that for a small sphere of the same material.
2r 2 g
v
9
Stokes' law is important in Millikan's experiment for the measurement of the charge
on an electron, and it also explains why large raindrops hurt much more than small
ones when they fall on you - it's not just that they are heavier, they are actually falling
faster.
Velocity of
falling sphere
Terminal velocity
Figure 2
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8 Calculate the terminal velocities of the following raindrops falling through air:
(a) one with a diameter of 0.3 cm,
(b) one with a diameter of 0.01 mm.
(Take the density of water to be 1000 kg m-3 and the viscosity of air to be
1.8x10-5 Pas. The buoyancy effect of the air may be ignored.)
9 Calculate the viscous drag on a drop of oil of 0.1 mm radius falling through air
at its terminal velocity. (Viscosity of air = 1.8 x 10-5 Pas; density of oil = 850
kg m-3)
11 Compare the speed at which a steel ball (density 7800 kg m-3) of radius 2 mm
will fall through treacle, with that at which an air bubble (density 1.3 kg m-3)
of radius 1 mm will rise through the same liquid. (Take the density of treacle
to be 1600 kg m-3.)
12 Two spherical raindrops of equal size are falling through air at a velocity of
0.08 ms-1. If the drops join together forming a large spherical drop, what will
the new terminal velocity be?
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Solid Materials
Structure
In a liquid or a gas the atoms and/or molecules are relatively free and can move round
at will. In solids, however, they are almost completely lacking mobility; all they can
do is to vibrate about a mean position when energy is added to the solid. This lack of
mobility gives a solid it‟s most characteristic property - that of retaining whatever
shape it is given.
The way in which a solid behaves depends on its internal structure and there are three
main types of solid:
Crystalline solids
A crystalline solid is one where the internal structure is regular in nature, the atoms
within it being set in well-defined patterns. Some crystals are isotropic - that is, their
physical properties are the same in whichever direction they are measured, while
others are anisotropic - their properties are different in different directions.
Alloys are solid mixtures of two or more metals. An alloy will usually have properties
that are very different from those of the constituent metals. For example the melting
point of solder (50% lead and 50% tin) is 490 K while that of lead is 600 K and that of
tin is 505 K.
Figure 1 shows the structures of the four most common types of crystal (for the
moment we will assume that they are perfect and contain no impurities or
dislocations).
The four types are listed below together with one example of each:
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Body centred cubic Face centred cubic
Hexagonal close-packed
Tetrahedral
Figure 1
Note: The tetrahedral structure is shown in plan view and then as a solid. The individual
molecules have been shown different colours to make it easier to distinguish between
molecular plains.
The characteristics of each structure can be investigated using the techniques of X-ray
diffraction. In general, if the solid exhibits a regular structure as shown by the first three
crystalline states mentioned the X-ray diffraction pattern will show a series of dots. If it
is irregular, however, as in graphite in which the layers are free to slide one over the
other, a series of rings will result. (This can also be seen by the electron diffraction
through graphite).
The face-centred cube and the hexagonal close-packed crystals are the most closely
packed structures, and 60 per cent of all metals exist in one or other of these forms.
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Amorphous solids
An amorphous solid exhibits no regular internal structure; glass, plastic and soot are
examples. In a way such a solid is like an instantaneous snapshot of a liquid, although
one with an enormously great viscosity. An amorphous material has the density of a
solid but the internal structure of a liquid. They are considered to be super-cooled
liquids in which the molecules are arranged in a random manner similar to that of the
liquid state. Amorphous solids are also unlike crystalline solids in that they do not
have definite melting points.
Polymeric solids
In these solids the molecules form long chains which may contain anything between
1000 and 10 000 molecules. Many are natural organic materials such as plant
constituents but there are many synthetic polymers, one example being polythene. The
precise properties of the polymer depend on just how tightly these chains of molecules
are bound together. They may be tangled together in a haphazard way or lie side by
side.
Figure 2
Any cross-chain linking will enormously increase the strength of the material and the
vulcanising of rubber, for example, eventually produces the hard material ebonite: this
is the result of cross-chain linking by sulphur atoms. Below a critical temperature
polymers behave much like glass (but with a greater degree of ductility) but above it
they are more rubber-like. Cooling rubber in liquid nitrogen strikingly illustrates this
change of properties.
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This shows that the extension is directly proportional to the applied force – doubling
the force will double the extension. If a graph of force is plotted against extension a
straight line will be obtained (Figure 1).
This is the kind of graph that you would get if you loaded a helical spring or a copper
wire as long as you kept the loads fairly small. Where F k x a molecule displaced
from its original position (by squashing or stretching the material) will try and return
to its original position.
The constant k is known as the elastic constant for the material and is defined as F .
x
The units for k are N m-1.
1 Two tug-of-war teams each pull on a rope with a force of 5000 N. The rope is
horizontal. What is the tension in the rope at its mid-point?
Rubber
Rubber is a polymer and so consists of many long chain molecules. When the rubber
is in an unstretched (relaxed) state these molecules are tangled up as shown in Figure
1(a). As a steadily increasing force is applied these molecules begin to straighten out
(Figure 1(b)) – the bonds between adjacent chains are broken. These bonds are
relatively weak compared with the bonds along each chain molecule. During this
untangling and while the bonds are breaking the rubber warms.
Chain molecules
Eventually all the molecules have been straightened (Figure.1(c). Up to this point it is
quite easy to extend the rubber because all that was being done was to untangle the
chains and break the weak bonds between them. However when the molecules are
straightened it becomes much more difficult. This state can be noticed easily by using
a rubber band since when this point is reached the surface of the rubber becomes
whiter and rougher.
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As the rubber is allowed to relax by
slowly removing the force the chains
of molecules intertwine again but the Force B
cross links do not completely reform.
The heat energy produced during
stretching is not recovered. Plotting a
graph of force against extension the
amount of energy converted to heat
within the specimen can be found. A
(Figure 2).
Area:
OABDO energy given to band during C
D
stretching O
PCBD energy released from band P
extension
during contraction
OABCPO energy converted to heat Figure 2
within the band
OP permanent extension of band
Using a rubber band about 2mm wide and 20cm long and a maximum load of 15N the
energy converted to heat is of the order of 0.5 - 1 J.
12
Force / N
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Extension / mm
(a) Label the two lines to indicate which represents loading and which
represents unloading.
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(b) What is the name for the characteristic behaviour shown by the
shape of this graph?
(c) If the rubber band has a cross-sectional area of 6.0 × 10–6 m2
calculate the stress produced in the elastic band when it is fully
loaded.
(d) Estimate how much work is done on the rubber band as it is fully
loaded.
(e) Hence show that the energy dissipated during the loading and
unloading process is approximately 1 J.
(f) When the rubber band has a load placed on it a new reading is taken.
Over the next minute this reading increases by a few millimetres. If
a material deforms plastically in this way when stress is applied,
what is the name of this mechanism?
(g) Draw a labelled diagram of the apparatus that could be used to
produce a force-extension graph for a rubber band, for loads up to
12 N.
5 (a) The sap from a rubber tree may flow like thick treacle or thick
oil. State one word that describes this flow behaviour.
(b) The sap is treated to produce a lump of rubber. Choose two words
from the list below and explain the meaning of each as it applies to
rubber.
1.4
Force / N
1.2
0.6
Curve obtained
unloading
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Extension / m × 10 –2
Use the graph to estimate the work done in stretching the rubber band to a
tension of 1.0 N.
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(d) When the force is reduced gradually, the force-extension graph follows
the dotted line. What does the graph tell you about the work done by the
rubber band when it returns to its original length?
(e) Rubber tyres are constantly being compressed and released as a car travels
along a road. Explain why the tyres become quite hot.
Stress
Modulus of Elasticity
Strain
Young Modulus
This is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. This is the
modulus we need if we want to investigate the change of length of an object - more
accurately any linear dimension (width, length or height).
A Figure 1
F
L e
Force (F)
Longitudin al Stress
Cross- sec tional Are a (A)
Extension (Δ)
Longitudin al Strain
Original length ( )
Stress
Young Modulus
Strain
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The values for the Young modulus for some common materials are given in the
following table.
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10 Complete the following table:
11 A copper wire of length 1.2 m and cross-sectional area 0.10 mm2 is hung
vertically; for copper E = 130 GPa. A steadily increasing force is applied to
its lower end to stretch it. When the force has reached a value of 10 N
(a) What is the stress in the wire
(b) What is the strain in the wire
(c) What is the extension in the wire?
Elastic Energy
When a person jumps up and down on a trampoline it is clear that the bed of the
trampoline stores energy when it is in a state of tension. This energy is converted to
kinetic and potential energy of the jumper when the tension is removed.
Similarly, when a piece of elastic in a catapult is stretched energy is stored in it, and
when the catapult is fired this energy is convened into the kinetic energy of the
projectile.
What actually happens within some of the materials mentioned in the examples may
be quite complex, but we can calculate the energy stored in a stretched metal wire
where Hooke‟s law is obeyed as follows.
Force Force
F
F2
F1
l
e1 e2 extension
extension
Let the wire be of unstretched length and let a force F produce an extension x.
(Assume that the elastic limit of the wire has not been exceeded and that no energy is
lost as heat.)
Consider Figure 1(a). The work done by the force is Fs but in this case the force
varies from 0 at the start to F at the end when the wire is stretched by an x.
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Therefore:
1
Work done on the wire during stretching Fx
2
F
Remember E A F , hence F EAx
x Ax
1 1 EAx 2
Therefore Work done on the wire during stretching Fx
2 2
If the extension is increased from e1 to e2 then the extra energy stored is given by
(b) Use your graph to find the increase in energy stored in the spring
when its extension increases from
(i) 0 to 0.20 m (ii) 0.20 m to 0.40 m(iii) 0.80 to 1.00 m
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13 Show that the units on both sides of the equation W 12 kx2 are the same.
15 The table below gives the corresponding values of load and extension when
masses were hung on a wire of length 2.0 m and diameter 0.40 mm.
(a) Plot a graph of load (on the y-axis) against extension (on the x-axis).
(b) From the straight part of the graph, where Hooke‟s law is obeyed, calculate the
gradient of the graph (express the answer in units N m-1).
(c) Estimate the work done in stretching the wire up to the point where the load is
1.12 kg.
(d) Estimate how much of this energy has become internal energy, and how much
is stored as elastic potential energy (energy that is recoverable).
16 This question is about the design of a car seat belt. The seat belt has to
restrain a passenger when the car is involved in an accident.
(a) Use definitions of stress and strain to show that stress × strain
has the same units as energy stored per unit volume of seat belt.
The graph shows how stress varies with strain for the seat belt material.
10
Stress/GPa
0
0 10 20
–3
Strain/ 10
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(b) Use the graph to show that the energy stored per unit volume of seat
belt material when the strain is 20 × 10–3 is about 1 × l08 Jm–3.
(c) (i) Show that the kinetic energy of the passenger is 12 000 J.
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Ductile Brittle, Tough and Hard Materials
A ductile material is one such as copper which shows plastic deformation, e.g.
it may be drawn out into a wire.
A brittle material (e.g. glass) is one that will break or crack with little
deformation. The opposite of brittle is tough. Tough materials (e.g.
polythene) are able to withstand impact forces without breaking. A lot of
energy is required to break a tough material.
Hard materials resist plastic deformation usually by denting, scratching or
cutting.
If a ductile material such as copper is stretched until it breaks and its stress and strain
measured and plotted, a graph like that in Figure 1 may be obtained.
to this point).
Y is the yield point - between E and Y
the material becomes plastic, that is, if O
S Strain
the load is removed the material will
contract but all the extension is not recoverable. The material follows the
dotted line YS on the graph during contraction and the remaining extension is
known as a permanent set.
Z - after this point none of the extension is recoverable.
B - this is the breaking stress beyond which the material will break.
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17 Control of high volume manufacturing production, such as in the steel
industry, is achieved through regular sampling and testing of the product.
The results below were from a test on a sample of steel of 1.3 × 10–4 m2
cross-sectional area and 6.5 × 10–2 m length. The tension T applied to the
sample and its resulting extension x were measured until the sample
failed.
T/103 N 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
x/10–6 m 0 12 24 36 48 60 74 100
(a) Plot these values and draw the graph on the grid below.
(b) Indicate on the graph with the letter P the limit of proportionality.
(c) Calculate the stress applied to the specimen at this point.
(d) Calculate the strain in the sample at point P.
(e) Calculate the Young modulus for this steel.
(f) A second sample of exactly the same size is stiffer, weaker and brittle.
Sketch a line on your graph predicting the results for the sample.
Label this line X.
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