THE GUNN EFFECT

Kiros Hagos Abay

University of Mysore,
M.G.M.
14 May 2011
 Contents
• Introduction
• Hot Electrons and the Expression for the Electron
Temperature
• The Gunn Effect (NDC)
• Expression for the drift velocity
• Formation and Drift of Space Charge Domains
• Superlattice phenomenon
• Reference
 Introduction
 We have different effects in a semiconductor.

 When a high electric field is applied to a semiconductor, the carriers

(electrons and holes) absorb appreciable energy from the field, and
their temperature rises above that of the lattice temp. ; i.e., they
become “hot”.

 The effect of this is a decrease in their mobility.

 In certain semiconductors of appropriate band structure, such as

GaAs, the heating of carries result in a transfer of electrons to high-
energy valleys of very low mobility.
In such case;

The application of the electric field may produce a region of

Negative Differential Conductance (NDC).
• Because of such a situation is inherently unstable, the sample
“break up” into coherent electrical oscillations, which is the
Gunn effect discovered by J.B. Gunn in 1963.
• The Gunn-effect diodes are basically made from an n-type
GaAs, as this effect is found in n-type materials, so it
associate with electrons but holes.
 Hot Electrons and the Expression for the
Electron Temperature
• If the velocities of a group of electrons , e.g., in a plasma,
follow a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution , then the electron
temperature is well-defined as the temperature of that
distribution.
• Semiconductor exhibits linear Ohmic behavior that is , J in the
region of low electric fields.
• In the high field present in some devices, however, considerable
deviation from Ohm’s law is observed, see Fig.1. for n-type
germanium
• The deviation becomes significant at some field ɛ1, and for even
ɛ1< ɛ the current lies below its expected Ohmic value.
• Above a certain higher field ɛ2, the current actually saturated at
a constant value until, at an extremely high field, usually in the
100kV/cm range, the sample undergoes an electrical
breakdown.
 Drift velocity, cm/s

107

106

102 103 104

,V/cm

Fig.1. drift velocity vs electric field in n-type Ge.

• Consider the average electron energy =3kBT/2 (Maxwell-
Boltzmann distribution with three degree of freedom).
• At high fields, the electron receives considerable energy from
the field because of the acceleration of the electron between
collision, and also loses energy to the lattice.
• In the steady state the rates of gain and loss of energy must
be equal.
• That is:
(1)
=0

•Where
is the electron drift velocity,
is the energy relaxation time and Te is the electron temperature .
• We have allowed for the possibility that Te may higher than
the lattice temperature T=TL, leading to the concept of hot
electrons.

• By substituting (Te)=3kBT/2, (TL)=3kBT/2 and

in equation (1), we have;

- - 3kB(Te-T)/2 =0
Te=T+ (2)

 This is the expression for the electron temperature.

 The heating would be much greater at higher fields
or mobility.
,

We know that

• = e /me* = ele/me* , where is the random

velocity of the electron, and le is the mean free-path.
• Since , it follows that
• We may thus write

(3)
• Where is the familiar low-field mobility. Equation (2)
and (3) are the two equations in Te and and can be
employed in employed in solving for these unknown.

= (4)
• In the range in which field is not too high, one field, which
explain the initial decrement in mobility, just above the field
in figure, 1.
• One can explain the current saturation at high field by
assuming that the electrons dissipate their energy by emitting
optical phonons in the lattice.
• Since these phonons have much greater energy than their
acoustic counterparts, they represent the most efficient
means for the electron to rid them of the energy gained from
the field, thus achieving steady-state conditions.
 The Gunn Effect
• J.B. Gunn (May 13, 1928 – December
2, 2008), was an Egyptian born, British
physicist, who spent most of his career
in the United States.
• The Gunn effect is named after J.B.
Gunn, who made the discovery in
1963, while measuring the current of
the hot electrons in GaAs and other III-
V compounds.
• When he was measuring the current J
versus the field  in n-type GaAs, he
observed an unexpected
phenomenon.
 ,

• Gunn effect is a phenomenon observed in some

semiconductors in which a steady electric field of magnitude
greater than a threshold value generates electrical
oscillations with microwave frequencies.
• The Gunn-effect diodes are basically made from an n-type
GaAs, with the concentrations of free electrons ranging from
1014 to 1017 per cubic centimetre at room temperature. Its
typical dimensions are 150 x 150 μm in cross section and 30
μm long.
 →v

Cathod-

+ Anode

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram for n-type GaAs diode

• As is increased from zero, the current increases gradually
and essentially linear (fig.3a.) until a field is reached. As the
field is increased beyond , the current suddenly becomes
oscillatory ( vs t, not vs ).
• These oscillations are essentially coherent (waves having a
constant phase relation), provided the sample is sufficiently
thin.
• The field is necessary for the onset of the Gunn oscillation is
called the threshold field.
 J
J
NDC rigion

Time

0 0
(a)
(b)
Fig.3. (a) a graphic summary of the Gunn effect.
(b) the current J vs in GaAs showing the NDC region ( dashed curve)
 An interesting fact:

• There is a certain field range in which J decreases as

increases (the curve corresponding to this range is shown by
the dashed line in the fig.3b).

• This behavior (contrary to the usual one, in which an increase

in causes an increase in J) is described by saying that the
sample has a Negative Differential Conductance (NDC).
 The Gunn Effect (Negative Differential
Conductivity)

• To understand the Gunn Effect, consider E-k diagram of the

GaAs ( a direct-band semiconductor) as shown below.

E
C.B

S C= central valley
(100) C
S= satellite valley
Ex EL
C.B= conduction band
k V.B= valence band
(111)

V.B

Fig.4. E-k diagram for GaAs.

 ,

• For GaAs, the band gap Eg is ( =1.4eV). However, in GaAs, there

is another minimum S in the conduction band only 0.36eV above
the other minima as shown in the above fig 4.
• The effective mass me* of electrons is positive and inversely
proportional to the curvature of the band. As shown in the fig.4,
the curvature is much larger in the central valley than in the
satellite valley (From Two-Valley Model Theory).
• So for GaAs, (me*)c =0.07me
And (me*)s =1.2me
• Where, me is the free electron mass.
• Effective mass of electron is given by:
Rate of change of the valley curves slope’
(5)

• Since the lower valley slope is shaper then the one in upper
valley, thus electron effective mass in lower valley is lower
than that in upper valley
• So that, the mobility of electron in upper valley is less due to
the higher effective mass

(6)
 The conductivity of electrons in a band is given by;

(7)
 And Ohm’s law
(8)
 Let’s consider J vs E curve for a sample of GaAs. For low fields,
the free electrons nc present would occupy states near C in the
central valley and for them

(9)

 As the is increased, some of the free electrons may acquire

sufficient energy to be able to transfer themselves to the
satellite valley.
 If ns electrons were present in the satellite valley,
then conductivity due to these would be

(10)
⇒

 Consider the situation where, for a given there is a

population density nc in the central valley and ns in
the satellite valley. Then current density
(11)

 If the field now increase by , some additional

electrons will acquire sufficient energy to transfer
from central valley to the satellite valley then,
 .
⇒

 Where,

(12)
 The ratio of is known as the differential conductivity
and represents the slope of the characteristic of the sample.
In this equation;
 the terms T1 and T2 are always positive while T3 is always
negative ( is always negative).
 Hence for certain fields, could be negative depending on
the values of material parameters and the magnitude of .
 The fig.5, below shows for GaAs. Thus this shows the
Negative Differential Conductivity (NDC).
 When the field is low, conductivity is .
When the applied field exceeds Ec, the transfer of electrons to
the satellite valley is becomes significant and the conductivity
reduces from its low field values.

• As increases further, the term T3 predominant and a

negative resistance region observed ( part BC of the curve
ABCD).
• When the field is sufficiently large, virtually all electrons get
transferred to the satellite valley and the conductivity
becomes positive (determined solely by the mobility of
electrons in the satellite valley). Thus the curve goes
through a minimum.
 ,

B
D

Jpeak-
C

Jval
A
Em E

Fig. 5. J vs E curve of a Gunn diode

• The Gunn effect has also been observed in InP, GaAsxP1-x,
CdTe, ZnSe InAs and other semiconducting compounds.
• All have conduction-band structures similar to that of GaAs,
and the inter-valley transfer is responsible for Gunn
oscillations in every case.
Expression for the drift velocity:
• The drift velocity is the average velocity that a particle, such
as an electron, attains due to an electric field.
• In general, an electron will 'rattle around' in a conductor at
the Fermi velocity randomly. An applied electric field will give
this random motion a small net velocity in one direction.
• If (n1,v1) and ( n2,v2) are the electron densities and drift
velocities respectively in the central and secondary valleys of
fig.4, the average drift velocity of electrons may be expresses
as
 Vd = (n1v1+n2v2)/n1+n2 (13)

• Expressing v1= and v2= , we get

Vd = (14)

• Here , and are the mobilities of the electrons in the

central and secondary (satellite) valleys.
• The expression for electron density in an intrinsic material is
given by
 .

• .

and

⇒ (15)

From the above two equations, we can get the expression

for drift velocity as
 (16)
.

• Where Te denotes the electron temperature

• This equation explain the variation of the drift velocity with
respect to , where both are the
functions of the applied electric field.
 Formation and Drift of Space Charge Domains

• Space charge:
• Space charge is a concept in which excess electric charge is
treated as a continuum of charge distributed over a region of
space (either a volume or an area) rather than distinct point-
like charges.
• when charge carriers have been emitted from some region of
a solid—the cloud of emitted carriers can form a space charge
region if they are sufficiently spread out, - the solid can form a
space charge region.
• Space charge usually only occurs in dielectric media (including
vacuum) because in a conductive medium the charge tends to
be rapidly screened .
• The sign of the space charge can be either negative or
positive.
• This situation is perhaps most familiar in the area near a metal
object when it is heated to incandescence in a vacuum.
• Thermionic emission.
Space charge domain:

• If a sample of GaAs is biased such that the field falls in the

negative conductivity region, space charge instabilities result, and
the device cannot be maintained in a d-c stable condition.
• To understand the formation of these instabilities, consider first
the dissipation of space charge in the usual semiconductor.
(17)
Because of this process,
• Random fluctuations in carrier concentration are quickly
neutralized and space charge neutrality is a good
approximation for most semiconductors in the usual range of
conductivities.
• The above Equation gives a rather remarkable result for cases
in which the conductivity is negative. For these cases, is
negative also and space charge fluctuations build up
exponentially in time rather than dying out.
• Let us see how this occurs in a GaAs sample biased in the
negative conductivity regime. The velocity-field diagram for n-
type GaAs is illustrated in Fig. 6a .
• .

Fig. 6. Buildup and drift of a space charge domain in GaAs:

(a) Velocity-field characteristic for n-type GaAs;

(b) Formation of a dipole;
(c) Growth and drift of a dipole for conductions of negative
conductivity.

•Under normal conditions, this dipole would die out quickly.

• However, under conditions of negative conductivity, the
charge within the dipole, and therefore the local electric field,
builds up as shown in Fig.6 .
• this buildup takes place in a stream of electrons drifting from
the cathode to the anode, and the dipole (now called a
domain) drifts along with the stream as it grows.
• Eventually, the drifting domain will reach the anode, where it
gives up its energy as a pulse of current in the external circuit.
 Superlattice phenomenon

• Superlattice is a periodic structure of layers of two (or more)

materials. Typically, the thickness of one layer is several
nanometers.
• The lattice spacing 0f normal semiconductor sample is of the
order of 5.
• This may be realized if by some means the size of the Brillouin
zone is reduced so that the electron velocity at the zone edge
falls below the hot electron limit as mentioned above.
 .
• We know that the electron effective mass me* is positive near
the bottom 0 of the conduction band i.e., at k=0 in figure 7,
while it is negative near its top.
• Hence, if it were possible to accelerate electron from 0 to A by
applying an appropriate d.c. field over the superlattice
sample, the electron effective mass me*, the mobility and
the sample conductivity would all be negative.

B
A

Fig. 7. First Brillouin zone

.
. ,
• As the electric field over the superlattice sample is slowly
raised, the electron energy E and its wave function k would
first trace the path 0A of figure 7, if there is no electron-
phonon interaction hampering their motion.
• At A the carriers suffer a Bragg reflection and switch back to B
(since the wave vector changes to

• The electrons then begin to trace the path BO of the curve

under the influence of the applied electric field .
 ,
• the sample conductance once again changes from negative to
positive as the wave vector crosses the point 0 of the E-k
curve. Thus in a superlattice a high frequency oscillation can
be realized by applying d.c. field of appropriate magnitude.

k
Fig .8, Gunn oscillation
• Owning to increased lattice spacing the electron-phonon
interaction impending the carrier motion would be smaller.
 ,

• The original Brillouin zone, as a result, will be subdivided into

a number of minizones or minibands separated by mingaps as
shown in the figure. 9 , where the super lattice period d is
fixed as thrice the lattice period. The oscillation frequency of
electrons may be computed as detailed below.
• The equation of motion of electrons on the basis of Newton’s
2nd law when electron-phonon collisions are absent is given
by
(18)

from
Fig. 9. Energy band diagram of a superlattice
 ,
• Where is the applied electric field intensity,
is the external force,
ħ is the Planck’s constant ;
• on integrating the above equation over a minizone,
we get

(19)

Or
(20)
 Where denotes the Bloch frequency of oscillation.

• For such a superlattice if a suitable magnetic field H is applied

perpendicular to the plane of figure.9, the electrons would
stat cycling about the magnetic field with a frequency
(qH/2me*) in the plane of the diagram.
• Such a circular motion is known to be resolved into two
mutually perpendicular simple harmonic motions (SHMs) in
the plane of the circle, one along the k-axis and the other
perpendicular to it.
• When SHMs produced by the electric field is absorbed.
 Such a phenomenon is known as Stark resonance.
 At each well, a series of energies are available, much like that
of a harmonic resonator.
 These states form what is known as a Wannier-Stark energy
ladder
• Given , we may easily derive the magnitude of the electron
effective mass in a superlattice.
• Bloch oscillation is a phenomenon from solid state physics. It
describes the oscillation of a particle (e.g. an electron) if a
constant force is acting on it.
• Bloch oscillations can control Josephson Junctions
 ,

• Act much like bipolar transistors

• Bloch oscillations are just another strange quantum
phenomenon
• They can be used for frequencies in the terahertz range
• Bloch oscillator transistors are an interesting way of
amplifying signals.
References:
 Ben. Streetman ,1995, Solid State Electronics Devices, 4th
edition, Englewood cliffs, New Jersey 07632.
 S.M. Sze and Kwok K.Ng, 2006, Physics of Semiconductor
Devices , 2nd edition, California , Interscience
 A.J Saxana, 2010, An Introduction to Solid Electronics Devices.
, 2nd edition
 M.A. Omar, 2007, Elementary Solid State Physics, (revised),
Delhi, India.
,