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2 Energy is required for
! which is the synthesis of complex
structures from simpler ones. E.g. the synthesis of proteins from amino acids.
2 Energy is required for the
of substances against the
concentration gradient! such as the activity of the sodium potassium pump.
2 Energy is required for
for
example the movement of the cilia and flagella! the amoeboid movement and the
movement of vesicles through the cytoplasm.
2 an some organisms energy is required for
and electrical discharge.
2 an mammals and birds! thermal energy produced from metabolic reactions is used
for the
For living organisms to do work! energy requiring reactions must be linked to those that
yield energy e.g. the complete oxidation of glucose in aerobic reactions! a large quantity
of energy is made available
2 ÷ in cells is generated by electrical potential energy.
2 his energy is produced by the transfer of hydrogen ions by protein carriers in the
mitochondria and chloroplast membranes.
2 Ghen there is a higher concentration of Hydrogen ions in the inter membrane
space compared to the matrix of the mitochondria a concentration gradient is
formed.
2 herefore the hydrogen ions are then allowed to diffuse down the concentration
gradient! through a protein channel which spans out the phospholipids bi-layer.
2 he transfer of 3 hydrogen ions generates sufficient amounts of electrical
potential energy in order for the production of one ÷ molecule given that one
÷ molecule and an inorganic phosphate group is present inside the organelle.
2 art of the protein channel acts as an enzyme which synthesizes ÷ and it is
known as ÷ synthase.
2 his whole process occurs in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of cells
2 he process is known as chemiosmosis.
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2 yruvate produced in glycolsis passes by active transport from the cytoplasm into
the mitochondrial matrix.
2 at is here where it is first decarboxylated (the removal of carbon dioxide!
dehydrogenated (removal of hydrogen and combined with co-enzyme ÷.
2 ÷cetyl coenzyme ÷ is formed
2 his whole process is known as the link reaction.
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2 his is the electron transport chain.
2 his takes place in the mitochondrial membranes.
2 Êeduced N÷ and F÷ are passed to the electron transport chain.
2 he hydrogen is removed from the two hydrogen carriers and each is split into its
constituent hydrogen ion (H+ and electron.
2 he electron is transferred to the electron carriers! whilst the hydrogen ions
remain in solution in the mitochondrial matrix.
2 he transfer of electrons along a series of electron carriers makes energy available
which is used to convert ÷ + i to ÷ .
2 his occurs because as an electron passes from a carrier at a higher energy level to
a lower one! energy is released.
2 hree molecules of ÷ can be produced by one molecule of reduced N÷ and two
molecules of ÷ can be produced by one molecule of reduced F÷.
2 ince the electron is transferred to the oxygen (also in the mitochondrial matrix! a
hydrogen ion will be drawn from the solution to reduce the oxygen to water.
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2 an ÷naerobic respiration there is no oxygen so hydrogen cannot be disposed of
from N÷H and F÷H by combining with oxygen.
2 his therefore causes the electron chain to stop working.
2 No further ÷ is formed by the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
2 at is essential to remove the hydrogen from the reduced N÷! in order for
glycolysis to continue.
2 here are two different anaerobic pathways which solve the problem of dumping
hydrogen.
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2 First! pyruvate (produced from glycolysis is decarboxylated to ethanal.
2 hen the ethanal is reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase. he
hydrogen comes for the reduced N÷ produced in glycolysis.
2 he conversion of glucose to ethanol is known as alcoholic fermentation.
2 an other microorganisms and in mammalian muscles when deprived of oxygen!
pyruvate produced in glycolysis acts as the hydrogen acceptor.
2 herefore the pyruvate is reduced to lactate by the enzyme lactate
dehydrogenase. he hydrogen comes from the reduced N÷ produced in glycolysis
2 Hence N÷ is released and allows glycolysis to continue in aerobic conditions.