Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
(Pages 440–441)
The rays are reflected so that if normals are drawn in, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection for each ray.
2. Rays of light travelling from air into glass at an oblique angle will slow down and bend toward the normal.
3.
4. (a) θi = 60°
θR = 21°
n=?
sin θ i
=n
sin θ R
sin 60°
=n
sin 21°
n = 2.42
The index of refraction of the diamond is 2.42.
(b) v1 = 3.00 ¯ 108 m/s
v2 = ?
v
n= 1
v2
v1
v2 =
n
3.00 × 108 m/s
=
2.42
v2 = 1.24 × 108 m/s
The speed of light in diamond is 1.24 ¯ 108 m/s.
6.
7. In longitudinal waves, the particles in the medium vibrate in the same direction as the motion of the waves. In transverse
waves, the particles in the medium vibrate at right angles to the direction of motion of the waves.
8. (a) A crest; B wavelength; C amplitude; D trough
(b), (c)
Points
• Transmitted pulses are never inverted.
• When travelling from a fast medium to a slow medium, the reflected pulse is inverted.
• When travelling in a slower medium, the wavelength is smaller.
• The reflected pulse has the same wavelength as the incident pulse.
• The amplitude of the transmitted and reflected pulses is smaller than the amplitude of the incident pulse.
Math Skills
1 λ
15. xn = n − L
2 d
xn d
λ=
1
n− L
2
16. n = 3
λ = 632 nm = 6.32 ¯ 10–6 m
d = 153 µm = 153 ¯ 10–6 m = 1.53 ¯ 10–4 m
θn = ?
1 λ
sin θ n = n −
2 d
1 6.32 × 10 −6 m
sin θ 3 = 3 −
2 1.53 × 10−4 m
= 1.630 × 10 −1
θ 3 = 5.93°
To the correct number of significant digits, the value of θ is 5.93°.
Understanding Concepts
1. Using the subscript 1 for shallow water and the subscript 2 for deep water,
λ2 = 2.0 cm
v1 = 10.0 cm/s
v2 = 18.0 cm/s
λ1 = ?
v1 λ1
=
v2 λ2
v1λ2
λ2 =
v2
(10.0 cm/s)(2.0 cm)
=
18.0 cm/s
λ2 = 1.1 cm
The wavelength of the wave in shallow water is 1.1 cm.
2. Using the subscript 1 for shallow water and the subscript 2 for deep water,
v1 = 0.75v2
λ1 = 2.7 cm
λ2 = ?
For region B:
v2 = f 2 λ2
= (6.0 Hz )(1.36 cm )
v2 = 8.2 cm/s
The speed in region A is 12 cm/s. The speed in region B is 8.2 cm/s.
8. Using the subscript 1 for crown glass and the subscript 2 for air,
sin θ2 = 60°
n1 = 1.52
n2 = 1.00
θ1 = ?
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
1.52 sin θ1 = 1.00 sin 60°
θ1 = 34.7°
The angle of incidence in crown glass is 34.7°.
9. Using the subscript 1 for air and the subscript 2 for diamond,
n1 = 1.33
n2 = 2.42
θ1 = 60°
θ2 = ?
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
n sin θ1
sin θ 2 = 1
n2
1.33 sin 60° = 2.42 sin θ 2
θ 2 = 28.0°
The angle of refraction in diamond will be 28.0°.
In order to determine the speed of each wave, we must first calculate the frequency.
number of cycles
f =
t
10 waves
=
5.0 s
f = 2.0 Hz
Understanding Concepts
1. The conditions required to maximize the diffraction of waves through a slit are:
1. long waves relative to the slit width, and/or
2. a small slit relative to the wavelength.
2. λ = 2.0 m
w = 4.0 m
λ
The condition for significant diffraction is ≥ 1.
w
λ 2.0 m
The ratio = = 0.5, therefore, diffraction will not be noticeable.
w 4.0 m
3. λ = 6.3 ¯ 10–4 m
w=?
λ
The condition for significant diffraction is ≥ 1.
w
6.3 × 10−4 m
≥1
w
6.3 × 10−4 m ≥ w
w ≤ 6.3 × 10 −4 m
The maximum slit width that will produce noticeable diffraction is 6.3 ¯ 10–4 m.
4. If there are larger slit widths (w > 6.3 ¯ 10–4 m), there will only be slight diffraction at the edges of the slit, and the
majority of the wave will pass straight through without being diffracted.
Understanding Concepts
1. λ = 1.98 m
1
PnS1 − PnS2 = n − λ
2
1
= 1 − λ
2
1
PnS1 − PnS2 = λ
2
1
The smallest possible path difference is λ.
2
Understanding Concepts
1. For a two-point interference pattern to remain stable the two sources must:
- be in-phase,
- have the same frequency (wavelength),
- have a fixed separation.
1
2. For two waves from identical sources to interfere destructively their path lengths must differ by λ.
2
1 λ
3. Given sin θn = n −
2 d
The maximum value of sin θn is 1. Therefore,
1 λ
n − ≤ 1
2 d
λ 1
≤
d 1
n−
2
Since n = 1,
λ 1
≤
d 1
1 −
2
λ
≤2
d
λ
A ratio of less than 2 for would produce no nodal line.
d
4. (a) If the distance between the sources is large, the distance between the nodal lines is also large, to the point where no
nodal lines are observed.
(b) If the phase of the sources is constantly changing, the interference pattern is also constantly changing and probably
cannot be observed.
5. xn = 10.0 cm
L = 50.0 cm
d = 5.0 cm
n=1
f = 6.0 Hz
7. 3λ = 3.00 m
λ = 1.00 m
d = 2.00 m
L = 5.00 m
n=1
x d
λ = n
L n − 1
2
Lλ 1
x1 = n−
d 2
(5.00 m)( 1.00 m) 1
= 1 −
2.00 m 2
x1 = 1.25 m
A person would stand 1.25 m from the perpendicular bisector of the line between the openings.
8. n=3
x3 = 35 cm
L = 77 cm
d = 6.0 cm
θ3 = 25°
5 crests = 4.2 cm
λ=?
Method 1:
5 crests = 4λ
4.2 cm
λ=
4
λ = 1.05 cm, or 1.0 cm
(b) As the depth of the water decreases, the speed of the water and of the wavelength also decrease. The volume of the
displaced water in the wave is equal to the area under the wave. If the wavelength decreases, the amplitude increases to
maintain the same volume of water (illustrated below). Also, water particles do not move straight up and down as in an
ideal wave but move in small circles. As the water becomes shallow over the beach, there is bottom friction. The
combination of these two effects causes the waves to “break” near the shore.
(c) Water waves are a good approximation of transverse waves because they can be observed more readily than sound,
light or electromagnetic waves. As long as the depth remains constant, water waves have a uniform speed and can be
used to discover the properties of transverse waves. For a visual demonstration, see
http://www.infoline.ru/g23/5495/Physics/English/waves.htm.
Making Connections
11. d = 4.00 ¯ 102 m
f = 1.00 ¯ 106 Hz
v = 3.00 ¯ 108 m/s
(a) First we must calculate the wavelength of the radio signal:
v
λ=
f
3.00 × 108 m/s
=
1.00 × 106 Hz
λ = 3.00 m
2. If the speed of light changed when light was reflected, the wavelength would also change since the frequency is fixed by
the source. As a result, the colour of the reflected light might be different from the incident light, which would be difficult
to observe. A better test would be to cause the reflected light to interfere with the incident light. If the wavelengths were
different, interference would be impossible provided the light originated from the same source. Since we know that
interference is possible, we conclude that the speed of light does not change when it is reflected.
3. Huygen’s principle is a method used to construct a succeeding wave based on the previous wave front. The procedure can
be used in the same way for all waves, including sound and water waves.
4. The experimental evidence that indicates light could be a wave is:
- both light and waves obey the laws of reflection
- both light and waves obey Snell’s law
- the speed of a wave slows down in a more dense medium, as does light
- both waves and light can exhibit partial reflection-partial refraction and total internal reflection
- waves exhibit dispersion, as does light
5. n = 1.50
va = 3.00 ¯ 108 m/s
vg = ?
(
= (1.50 ) 3.00 ×108 m/s )
8
vg = 4.50 ×10 m/s
According to the particle theory of light, the speed of light in glass is 4.50 ¯ 108 m/s. Note that this speed is greater than
the speed of light in air, which is an impossible situation and will be discussed in Chapter 11.
Understanding Concepts
1. 6∆x = 6.0 cm
6.0 cm
∆x = = 1.0 cm = 1.0 ¯ 10–2 m
6
L = 3.0 m
d = 220 µm = 220 x 10–6 m = 2.2 ¯ 10–4 m
λ=?
d
λ = ∆x
L
2.2 × 10 −4 m
( )
= 1.0 ×10 −2 m
3.0 m
λ = 7.3 × 10−7 m
The wavelength of the light is 7.3 ¯ 10–7 m.
2. d = 0.042 mm = 4.2 ¯ 10–5 m
n=5
θ5 = 3.8°
1 λ
sin θ n = n −
2 d
d sin θ n
λ=
1
n−
2
(4.2 × 10−5 m) (sin 3.8° )
=
1
5 −
2
−7
λ = 6.2 ×10 m
The wavelength of the light is 6.2 ¯ 10–7 m, or 6.2 ¯ 102 nm.
3. λ = 6.3 ¯ 10–7 m
d = 43 µm = 4.3 ¯ 10–5 m
L = 2.5 m
∆x = ?
d
λ = ∆x
L
λ
∆x = L
d
6.328 × 107 m
= 2.5 m −5
4.3 × 10 m
∆x = 3.7 × 10 −2 m
The separation of adjacent nodal lines is 3.7 ¯ 10–2 m, or 3.7 cm.
Understanding Concepts
1. Grimaldi’s work had shown that a beam of light passing through two successive narrow slits resulted in a beam of light
slightly larger than the width of the slits. He hypothesized that the beam bent slightly outward from the edges of the
second slit, and named this diffraction. Diffraction was the important property Young used to demonstrate the interference
of light. The sunlight fell on a card with two closely spaced pinholes, which allowed light to pass through onto a second
card. These acted as point sources in phase. Young could not have made his discovery without the knowledge of
diffraction provided by Grimaldi.
2. The observation of the double-slit interference pattern was more convincing evidence for the wave theory of light than the
observation of diffraction. It was more convincing because destructive interference—a null result—is predicted and
observed.
3. Since λred > λblue , there would be more nodal lines if other factors were kept constant.
λ ∝ ∆x, therefore,
∆x1 λ1
=
∆x2 λ2
λ1
∆x1 = ∆x2
λ2
(6.0 × 10−7 m)
= (5.6 × 10 −3 m)
(4.2 × 10−7 m)
∆x1 = 8.0 ×10−3 m
The spacing of the dark bands would be 8.0 ¯ 10–3 m, or 0.80 cm apart.
7. d = 0.80 mm = 8.0 ¯ 10–4 m
L = 49 cm = 4.9 ¯ 10–1 m
∆x = 0.33 mm = 3.3 ¯ 10–4 m
(a) λ = ?
d
λ = ∆x
L
8.0 × 10−4 m
= 3.3 × 10 −4 m −1
4.9 × 10 m
λ = 5.4 ×10−7 m
The wavelength of the light is 5.4 ¯ 10–7 m.
To find ∆x, we must first find xv and xr. For maxima (bright) for the violet light:
x d
λ = n
L n
λ
xv = Ln
d
4.0 × 10−7 m
= (2.0 m)(1) −4
2.0 × 10 m
xv = 4.0 ×10 −3 m
Understanding Concepts
1. The index of refraction for violet light in glass is slightly larger than that for red light. As a result, the violet light will be
refracted slightly more than the red light, and the focal lengths will be different in each type of lens.
2. White light passing through a flat piece of window glass is not broken down into colours as it is by a prism. This is
because window glass has parallel sides and is thin relative to a prism. As a result, there is not sufficient refraction for
dispersion to be visible.
3. Using the subscript 1 for air and the subscript 2 for alcohol,
λ1 = 7.50 ¯ 10–7 m
n1 = 1.00
n2 = 1.40
λ2 = ?
n2 λ1
=
n1 λ2
λ1n1
λ2 =
n2
(1.00)(7.5 × 10−7 m)
=
1.40
−7
λ2 = 5.4 × 10 m
The wavelength of the red light in alcohol is 5.4 ¯ 10–7 m.
4. λr = 4.00 ¯ 102 nm = 4.00 ¯ 10–7 m
λv = 7.50 ¯ 102 nm = 7.50 ¯ 10–7 m
fr = ?
fv = ?
To determine the range of frequencies, we first calculate the frequency of red light:
c
fr =
λr
3.00 × 108 m/s
=
4.00 × 10−7 m
f r = 7.50 × 1014 Hz
Making Connections
8. To produce a rainbow, all of the colours in white light must be present for reflection, refraction, and dispersion to occur
inside suspended raindrops in the atmosphere. Violet and red rays intersect inside the raindrop, and when the rays leave
the raindrop, we see violet at the top, red at the bottom, and the other colours of the spectrum in between. This is known
as a primary rainbow. Just after sunrise and just before sunset, the sunlight must pass through more of the Earth's
atmosphere and the green-blue end of the spectrum is removed, primarily by scattering. Since all the colours are not
present, a rainbow cannot be formed.
Observations
Part 1: Transmission
2–3. When the surface of the water was lightly touched, the wave moved out in an expanding circle as illustrated. The arrows
indicate the direction of the motion of the wave front.
Part 2: Reflection
7. Reflection straight on
8. Reflection at an angle
14. Straight waves moving from deep to shallow water with an angle of incidence > 0˚.
15. Trial 1:
sin θ1
n=
sin θ 2
sin 45°
=
sin 30°
n = 1.41
16. Trial 1:
sin θ1
n=
sin θ 2
sin 40°
=
sin 28°
n = 1.38
Analysis
(a) From a point source the wave front is circular, indicating that each part of the wave front has travelled the same distance
in the same time interval. Therefore, we can conclude that the speed of the wave is the same in all directions.
Using this value, we can calculate the speed of the wave in deep water:
vdeep = f λ
= ( 2.0 Hz )(6.0 cm )
vdeep = 12 cm/s
Evaluation
(g)
• In the investigation we used the shadow wave, not the actual wave. Through appropriate scaling, the actual
wavelengths could be used in the measurements and calculations.
• More care could be taken when measuring the frequency of the generator by measuring the number of cycles over a
longer time period or by using the strobe to 'stop' the waves and measuring the strobe frequency instead. In either case,
a more accurate value for the frequency and the calculated speed could result.
• The speeds of a wave front in deep and shallow water could be measured directly on the screen by recording the time
interval for a wave front to travel a fixed distance (e.g., 30 cm). A more accurate value for the speeds would give a
vdeep
more accurate value for the ratio of the speeds, .
vshallow
(h) Both the waves are “stopped” by the stroboscope because the frequency of the wave is the same in both deep and shallow
water.
Observations
Diffraction around an Obstacle
2. Waves were observed moving behind the edges of the obstacle as illustrated. Longer wavelength waves were diffracted
more than shorter wavelength waves.
8. For a fixed wavelength, if the size of the opening was reduced, the amount of diffraction increased. It appears that to
maximize diffraction, the size of the opening must be smaller than the wavelength.
Analysis
(b) There is more diffraction behind the obstacle or opening if the wavelength is longer.
(c) Diffraction around an edge increases when the wavelength increases.
(d) To keep diffraction minimal, the aperture width should be larger than the wavelength.
(e) For maximum diffraction the wavelength should be large and the aperture should be smaller than the wavelength.
λ
(f) When λ is approximately the same as the width w, diffraction is noticeable. In other words, =1.
w
If λ > w, noticeable diffraction will be observed.
(g) The accuracy of the prediction will depend on the prediction made.
Evaluation
(h) The evaluation of the design will depend on the design used in the Procedure.
5. The frequency was determined for a fixed number of cycles of the two-point generator as follows:
number of cycles
f =
t
20 cycles
=
5.0 s
f = 4.0 Hz
The frequency was 4.0 Hz.
6. As the separation of the sources increased, the number of nodal lines increased and the spacing between the lines was
smaller.
7. As the phase of the sources was changed, the nodal pattern shifted. At 180˚, when the two sources were out of phase, a
nodal line ran down the right bisector to the line joining the two sources. No matter how the phase changed, the number of
nodal lines remained constant, as long as the frequency of the sources was kept constant.
10. Points P1, P2, and P3 are on the first nodal line (n = 1) to the left side of the right bisector.
Method 1:
x 1λ
= n −
L 2d
x d
λ =
L n − 1
2
Method 1 Method 2
L (cm) x (cm) θ λ (cm) λ (cm)
18.0 4.0 13˚ 7.5 7.6
38.0 8.0 12˚ 7.1 6.0
45.0 23.5 14˚ 7.8 8.1
11. Points P1, P2, and P3 are on the second nodal line (n = 2) to the right side of the right bisector.
n = 2, d = 16.8 cm
Method 1 Method 2
L (cm) x (cm) θ λ (cm) λ (cm)
21.0 13.5 40˚ 6.8 7.2
35.0 23.5 42˚ 7.7 7.5
45.0 29.0 40˚ 7.2 7.2
λavg =
∑λ
6
(7.5 + 7.1 + 7.8 + 7.6 + 6.0 + 8.1) cm
=
6
44.1 cm
=
6
λavg = 7.4 cm
The average predicted wavelength is 7.4 cm.
λavg =
∑λ
6
(6.8 + 7.7 + 7.2 + 7.2 + 7.5 + 7.2 ) cm
=
6
43.6 cm
=
6
λavg = 7.3 cm
The average predicted wavelength is 7.3 cm.
13. These values were obtained by measuring the wavelength directly on the screen.
4λ = 45.5 cm
30.5 cm
=
4
λ = 7.6 cm
The wavelength was measured to be 7.6 cm. Both predictions were acceptable, within experimental error.
15.
Analysis
(c) When the frequency of the source increases, the wavelength of the waves decreases and more nodal line are created in the
interference pattern.
(d) When the sources are separated, the number of nodal lines on each side of the right bisector increases.
(e) When the phase changes, the number of nodal lines remains constant and the pattern shifts position.
Evaluation
(f) The accuracy of the prediction will depend on the prediction made.
(g) The values for the mathematical predictions for the wavelength are close to those measured directly.
Synthesis
(h) The measurements on the screen are measurements made on the shadows of the waves on the ripple tank surface. Since all
measurements are scaled up by the same factor, we are justified in using these values to test the mathematical
relationships.
(i) If the relative phase of the identical sources is constantly changing phase, the interference pattern will be constantly
shifting. Therefore, the pattern will be unstable, difficult to observe, and difficult to use to make measurements.
(j) The pattern created by diffraction of the waves from a single source through two slits is more stable than the pattern
produced by two sources. This occurs because the waves from the two slits are always in phase since they originate from
a single source. With two separate sources, there will always be some variations in the phase, which will shift the pattern
every time the phase changes. We observed this in the experiment.
λavg =
∑λ
3
(6.40 + 6.67 + 6.33) × 10 −7 m
=
3
−7
λavg = 6.46 × 10 m
Therefore, the average wavelength is 6.46 ¯ 10–7 m.
Analysis
(a) The average value of the wavelength that was calculated is correct to two significant digits. Since the accepted value is
6.33 ¯ 10–7 m, we will use 6.46 ¯ 10–7 m for the calculation of experimental error.
accepted value − experimental value
percent difference = × 100%
accepted value
6.33 × 10−7 m − 6.46 × 10 −7 m
= × 100%
6.33 × 107 m
percent difference = 2.05%
This is an acceptable value for experimental error.
Evaluation
(b) Factors that contribute to errors in measuring the wavelength of the light would include the given value of d and the
measurements of L and ∆x.
(c) To obtain a more accurate value for the wavelength of the laser light we would have concentrated on the measured values
of ∆x, since d and L are fixed. More accurate values could be achieved by measuring the distance between a larger
number of bright lines. Also, a magnifier may assist in achieving more accurate measurements.
Synthesis
(d) As the value for d decreased, the interference pattern of bright and dark lines became more spread out as indicated by the
1
values for ∆x. In other words as d decreased, ∆x increased, as indicated by the proportionality statement ∆x ∝ .
d
1
(e) This relationship ∆x ∝ was exactly the same observation for water wave interference in the ripple tank.
d
(f) This investigation strongly supports the wave theory of light. The predicted wavelength of light, based on the two-point
interference pattern, compares well with the predicted wavelength of light for water wave interference. Also, the
mathematical relationships hold for both interferences, and can be used when making a prediction for the wavelength of
light.
Prediction
(a) Red light has a longer wavelength than green light.
Evaluation
difference in measurements
(g) percent difference = × 100%
average measurement
1.33 − 1.19
=
1.26
percent difference = 11.1%
The percent difference is 11.1%.
(h) The values from group to group will vary because of precision in measuring the number of nodal lines. Values will also
vary because the red and green filters will produce a range of wavelengths for that sector of the visible spectrum.
Synthesis
(i) LEDs and lasers emit monochromatic (one wavelength) light, not a range of wavelengths. Since there would not be as
much variation from group to group, the observations and calculations should be more accurate.
CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY
(Page 487)
Making a Summary
True/False
1. F The wave equation, v = fλ, can be applied to all waves.
2. T
3. F Waves with long wavelengths experience more diffraction than waves with shorter wavelengths.
Multiple Choice
v2
11. (b) n =
v1
3.00 × 108 m/s
=
2.13 × 108 m/s
n = 1.41
12. (d) Option (ii) is not valid because decreasing the depth of the water decreases the wavelength, which therefore decreases
the amount of diffraction.
13. (a) (a) increasing the frequency of the source, decreases the wavelength and decreases the diffraction
(b) increasing the amplitude of the waves has no affect on diffraction
(c) decreasing the width of the slit increases the diffraction
(d) decreasing the distance between the wave generator and the slit produces a wider area of diffraction
(e) using a longer wavelength increases the amount of diffraction
14. (d) λ = 0.024 m = 2.4 cm
n=2
1
path difference = n − λ
2
1
= 2 − 2.4 cm
2
path difference = 3.6 cm
15. (b) d = 4.5 cm
n=5
1λ
sin θ n = n −
2d
Understanding Concepts
1. Since v = fλ, v ∝ λ, provided the frequency remains constant. Thus, if v decreases, λ also decreases.
2. Similarities between refraction and diffraction
• both bend or change the direction of a ray of light
Differences between refraction and diffraction
• there is a change in speed with refraction; there is no change in speed with diffraction
• there is a wavelength change with refraction; there is no wavelength change with diffraction
• diffraction requires a slit or obstacle; refraction does not require a slit or obstacle
3. ng = n1 = 1.52
nw = n2 = 1.33
λ1 n2
=
λ2 n1
1.33
=
1.52
λ1
= 0.88
λ2
To accommodate the same number of wavelengths, the water would have to be thicker than the glass since the
wavelengths in water are longer. Thus, the thickness ratio (glass to water) is 0.88.
4. The measurements of the speeds of light in various media were not available to Newton. These measurements would have
shown him that light slows down when it bends toward the normal, and does not speed up as he predicted.
5. Experimentally, reflection, refraction, partial-reflection, total internal reflection/refraction, interference, and dispersion
can all be demonstrated with waves.
6. The light from the two headlights of a car does not produce an interference pattern because the headlights are too far
apart, their light is not in-phase, and the sources are not point sources.
7. Young’s experiment is a pivotal event in the history of science because the experiment produced a null result (total
destructive interference) providing the most important validation of the wave theory of light. Once established, the wave
concept could be applied to a host of applications and concepts including electromagnetic waves.
8. λ1 = 6.33 ¯ 10–7 m
λ2 = 3.30 ¯ 10–7 m
nz = 1.92
nd = 2.42
v λ
n= 1 = 1
v2 λ2
λ
n= 1
λ2
6.33 x 10 −7 m
=
3.30 x 10−7 m
n = 1.92
Therefore, the material is zircon.
9. θ1 = 10.0°
3
n = 1.00
4
4 (1.00 )
n= = 0.75
3
The wavelength is 6.32 ¯ 10–7 m, or 632 nm. By referring to Table 1 in Section 9.6, we see that this radiation is found in
the red part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
19. λ = 4.60 ¯ 102 nm = 4.60 ¯ 10–7 m
n=2
λmin = ?
λ
sin θ n = n (maxima)
d
4.66 × 10 −7 m
sin θ 2 = 2
d
1 λ
sin θ n = n − (minima)
2 d
1 λ
sin θ 2 = 2 2 −
2 d
=
(4.00 × 10 −7
)
m (1.00 )
1.33
−7
λ2 = 3.00 × 10 m
Using this value, we can calculate the distance between the fringes:
λ L
∆x2 = 2
d
(3.00 × 10−7 m)(0.40 m)
=
5.00 × 10−5 m)
∆x2 = 2.4 × 10−3 m
The fringes are 2.4 ¯ 10–3 m, or 2.4 mm apart.
Making Connections
24. In their research the students will find that:
• The storms with the large waves occur off the east coasts of Canada and the United States
• They usually occur in the fall.
• The largest waves and rogue waves are the result, not of one storm but two or more storms, often coming from
different directions.
• Large rogue waves can occur in relative calm water, sometimes a large distance for any storm.
• Constructive interference is the probably cause.
• Research is centering on past storm information which is being put into a computer model to simulate and predict
storms in the future.
25. d1 = 7.00 km = 7.00 ¯ 103 m
d2 = 8.12 km = 8.12 ¯ 103 m
f = 536 kHz = 5.36 ¯ 105 Hz
To calculate wavelength:
c
λ=
f
3.00 × 108 m/s
=
5.36 × 105 Hz
λ = 5.6 × 102 m
First, we must calculate the wavelength of the bass tone from the speakers:
v
λ=
f
346 m/s
=
842 Hz
λ = 4.07 m
x d
Using the relationship λ = n (maxima) :
L n
λ
xn = nL
d
3.0 × 102 m
= (1)(1.9 × 103 m)
585 m
xn = 9.7 × 10 2 m
The receiver should be moved 9.7 ¯ 102 m, or 9.7 km north.
29. λ = 488 nm = 4.88 ¯ 10–7 m
θ2 – θ1 = 1.0°
nλ
sin θ n =
d
nλ 2(4.88 × 10 −7 m)
θ n = sin −1 and θ 2 = sin −1
d d
1(4.88 × 10−7 m)
θ1 = sin −1
d
Given θ2 – θ1 = 1.0°
2(4.88 × 10 −7 m) −1 1(4.88 × 10
−7
m)
sin −1 − sin = 1.0°
d d
2(4.88 × 10 −7 m) 1(4.88 × 10 −7 m)
− = sin1.0°
d d
4.88 × 10 −7 m
d=
sin1.0°
d = 2.8 × 10−5 m
The slit separation is 2.8 ¯ 10–5 m.
30. λ1 = 4.80 ¯ 102 nm = 4.80 ¯ 10–7 m
λ2 = 632 nm = 6.32 ¯ 10–7 m
d = 0.52 mm = 5.2 ¯ 10–4 m
L = 1.6 m
n=2
∆xn = ?
1 λ
Using the equation xn = n − L , we can calculate the value for x480:
2 d
1 4.80 × 10 −7 m
x480 = 2 − (1.6 m) −4
2 5.2 × 10 m
x480 = 2.2 × 10−3 m
Using these values, we can calculate the distance between the second-order fringes:
∆x = x632 − x480
= 2.9 × 10−3 m − 2.2 × 10−3 m
∆x = 7.0 × 10 −2 m
The second-order fringes are 7.0 ¯ 10–2 m, or 7 cm apart.
31. d = 2.0 m
f = 3.0 ¯ 109 Hz
L = 1.0 ¯ 102 m
t = 0.20 s
v=?
First we must calculate the value of the wavelength of the radio waves:
c
λ=
f
3.00 × 108 m/s
=
3.0 × 109 Hz
λ = 1.0 ×10−1 m
We can now calculate the distance between the point sources:
d
λ = ∆x
L
λ
∆x = L
d
1.0 × 10−1 m
= (1.0 × 10 2 m)
2.0 m
∆x = 5.0 m
Finally, we calculate the speed of the car:
d
v=
t
5.0 m
=
0.20 s
v = 25 m/s
The car is moving at a speed of 25 m/s.
32. The radio will respond to the direct signal and to the reflected signal. If they are in-phase, constructive interference will
occur, and if out-of-phase, destructive interference will occur. When the girl moves a distance of 9.0 m, the intensity goes
1
from a maximum to a minimum. Since the 9.0 m move produces a path difference of 18 m, λ = 18 m and λ = 36 m.
2
v
f =
λ
3.00 × 108 m/s
=
36 m
f = 8.3 × 106 Hz
The frequency of the radio transmitters is 8.3 MHz.
1. Reflected light is polarized in the horizontal plane on some flat surfaces. Polaroid glasses polarize light in the vertical
plane. Since little light polarized in the vertical plane is received from the surface, the reflected light (glare) is
significantly reduced.
2. The pits and bumps on the surface of the CD act as lines and the clear spaces between the adjacent lines reflected light.
Together they act as a reflective diffraction grating producing the spectral colours since different wavelengths are
diffracted constructively different amounts.
3. A transparent thin coating is placed on the lens to reduce unwanted internal reflection in the lens system. These losses by
reflection reduce the transmitted light. Light directed at the thin surface coating constructively reflects light of a specific
wavelength, in this case in the blue violet region of the spectrum.
4. As in the colours produced by soap films, some of the surface feathers have thin films that selectively produce reflective
constructive interference. The thickness of the film determines how interference occurs constructively in the blue and
green segments of the electromagnetic spectrum. Light soap bubbles, the thickness of the films is not uniform causing
changes in the colours, depending on the angle of the incident light.
Observations
1. No change should be observed when the Polaroid is rotated through 180°.
2. As the Polaroid is rotated, the intensity of light should diminish almost to zero, and then increase again as the rotation
continues.
3. As the Polaroid is rotated, the glare from the disk diminishes.
4. When rotating the Polaroid film and looking at various locations in the sky, some darkening should be observed
depending on the direction. This may bring clouds into more prominence.
• You should see less reflection from the points where the light is reflected from a flat surface. Some types of autoglass may
show patterns of dark lines. In this case, the safety glass is under tension, causing polarization.
Making Connections
6. Students may list some of the following points:
• liquid crystals are affected by electric current
• nematic liquid crystal, called twisted nematics, (TN), is naturally twisted; applying an electric current to these liquid
crystals untwists them to varying degrees, depending on the current's voltage
• LCDs use these liquid crystals because they react predictably to electric current
• a special polymer is added to two pieces of polarized glass that creates microscopic grooves in the surface; grooves are
on the side of the glass that does not have the polarizing film on it; a coating of nematic liquid crystals is added in to
the grooves
• a second piece of glass with the polarizing film and a grooved coating is lined up at a right angle to the first piece
• light that strikes the first filter is polarized and guided to the next layer; the liquid crystal layers change the light's plane
of vibration to match their own angle
• light reaches the far side of the liquid crystal substance and vibrates at the same angle as the final layer of molecules; if
the final layer is matched up with the second polarized glass filter, the light will pass through
• when liquid crystal molecules straighten out, they change the angle of the light passing through them so that it no
longer matches the angle of the top polarizing filter
• no light passes through that area of the LCD, making that area darker than the surrounding areas; controlling the
current in various parts of the film, black and clear areas are created that can be combined to create images (i.e., the
numbers on a calculator)
• small and inexpensive LCDs usually reflect light from external light sources; an LCD watch displays numbers where
small electrodes charge the liquid crystals and make the layers untwist so that light is not transmitting through the
polarized film.
• computer displays have built-in fluorescent tubes above, beside, and sometimes behind the LCD; a white diffusion
panel behind the LCD redirects and scatters the light evenly to ensure a uniform display
• colour displays can be passive or active
7. (a) Until 1980, sugar beet farmers were paid by weight. The quality of the product (sugar level) was not a factor. The
polarimeter was called a saccharimeter. This was an important innovation for farmers because higher prices could be
obtained for smaller bushels of higher quality sugar beets.
(b) Industries that widely use polarimetry to determine the active purity of raw materials such as vitamins, steroids, and
antibiotics. The most common application is for sugar content in such products as chocolate, wine, jellies, flour, and
lactose in milk.
Understanding Concepts
1. λ = 7.50 × 102 nm = 7.50 × 10–7 m
n=2
w = 2.0 µm = 2.0 × 10–8 m
θ=?
nλ
sin θ n = (minima)
w
( 2 ) (7.50 ×10−7 m )
sin θ 2 =
2.0 × 10−8 m
θ 2 = 49°
The light produces a second minimum at an angle of 49°.
2. θ = 15°
λ = 580 nm = 2.80 × 10–7 m
w=?
nλ
sin θ1 = (minima)
w
nλ
w=
sin θ1
5.80 × 10 −7 m
=
sin 15°
w = 2.2 ×10 −6 m
The width of the slit is 2.2 × 10–6 m, or 2.2 µm.
3. λr > λb
w∆y
From the equation λ = , we know that ∆y ∝ λ.
L
Therefore, spacing for red light will be larger than spacing for blue light.
4. λ = 6.328 ¯ 10–7 m
w = 43 µm = 4.3 ¯ 10–5 m
L = 3.0 m
∆y = ?
Lλ
∆y =
w
(3.0 m ) ( 6.328 × 10−7 m )
= −5
4.3 × 10 m
∆y = 4.4 × 10−2 m
Other than the central maxima, the separation of adjacent minima is 4.4 ¯ 10–2 m, or 4.4 cm.
5. w = 3.00 × 10–6 m
θ = 25.0°
λ=?
=
(3.00 ×10 −6
)
m sin12.5°
1
λ = 6.49 ×10−7 m
The wavelength is 6.49 × 10–7 m.
6. w = 1.5 × 10–5 m
λ = 694.3 nm = 6.943 × 10–7 m
m=2
θ=?
1
m + λ
2
sin θ m = (maxima)
w
1
2 + (6.943 × 10 m )
−7
2
=
1.5 × 10 −5 m
sin θ m = 6.6°
The angular position of the second maximum is 6.6°.
7. θa = 56°
n=1
θb = 34°
wa
=?
wb
nλ nλ nλ
Since sin θ n = (minima), wa = and wb = .
w sin θ a sin θ b
λ
w sin θ a
Therefore, a = . Cancelling out the λ, we get:
wb λ
sin θ b
wa sin θ b
=
wb sin θ a
sin 34°
=
sin 56°
wa
= 0.67
wb
wa
The ratio of the two slits is 0.67.
wb
• As the size of the hole increased, it was easier to see the two filaments separately. When viewing through the smallest hole,
the two filaments appeared as one.
• The larger the opening, the better the resolution.
Understanding Concepts
w∆y 1
1. From the equation λ = , we know that ∆y ∝ . If wavelength is doubled, the spacing of the pattern is doubled.
L λ
We also know that ∆y ∝ w and ∆y ∝ λ. Therefore, if both wavelength and slit width doubled at the same time, the spacing
of the pattern would increase by a factor of 4.
2. w = 2.60 × 10–6 m
θ1 = 12°
λ=?
nλ
sin θ n = (minima)
w
sin θ n w
λ=
n
(sin12° ) ( 2.60 ×10−6 m )
=
1
λ = 5.41×10 −7 m
The wavelength is 5.41 ¯ 10–7 m, or 541 nm.
3. n=9
θ9 = 6.4°
λ = 6.94 × 10–7 m
w=?
nλ
sin θ n =
w
nλ
w=
sin θ n
(9 ) (6.94 ×10−7 m )
=
sin 6.4°
w = 5.57 ×10 −5 m
The width of the slit is 5.57 × 10–5 m.
4. n=2
w = 2.25 × 10–6 m
θ2 = 25°
λ=?
1
n + λ
2
sin θ n =
w
sin θ n w
λ=
1
n+
2
(sin 25° ) ( 2.25 ×10−6 m )
=
1
1+
2
−7
λ = 6.34 × 10 m
The wavelength of the light is 6.34¯ 10–7 m, or 634 nm.
sin θ1 =
(
1 4.82 × 10−7 m )
−6
6.00 × 10 m
θ1 = 4.6°
Therefore, the angular width is (2)(4.6°) = 9.2°.
(b) w = ?
x
sin θ1 =
L
x = L sin θ1
= 2.00 (sin 4.6° )
x = 9.2 × 10 −2 m
Therefore, the width is (2)(9.2 cm) = 18.4 cm.
6. nw = 1.33
na = 1.00
λw = 4.82 × 10–7 m
λa n
= a
λw nw
nw
λw = λa
na
1.33
=
1.00
(4.82 ×10−7 m )
λw = 6.41× 10−7 m
sin θ1 =
(
1 6.41× 10−7 m )
−6
6.00 × 10 m
θ1 = 6.1°
The angular width in water is (2)(6.1°) = 12.2°.
7. λ = 632.7 nm = 6.327 × 10–7 m
w = 1.00 × 10–5 m
L = 10.0 m
∆y = ?
Lλ
∆y =
w
10.0 m (6.327 ×10 −7 m )
=
1.00 × 10 −5 m
∆y = 6.33 × 10–1 m
Other than the central maximum, the separation of adjacent maxima is 6.33 × 10–1 m, or 63.3 cm.
Since we know the central maximum (y1), we can calculate the value of the angular width:
y
sin θ1 = 1
L
2.0 ×10 −2 m
sin θ1 =
1.50 m
We can plug this expression into the equation for minima:
nλ
sin θ n = (minima)
w
2.0 × 10−2 m 4.619 × 10 −7 m
=
1.50 m w
(1.50 m ) ( 4.619 × 10−7 m )
w=
2.0 ×10 −2 m
w = 3.46 × 10−5 m, or 3.5 × 10−5 m
The width of the slit is 3.5 × 10–5 m.
9. λ = 589 nm = 5.89 × 10–7 m
w = 7.50 × 10–6 m
(a) θ2 = ?
nλ
sin θ n =
w
sin θ 2 =
(
2 5.89 ×10−7 m )
−6
7.50 ×10 m
θ 2 = 9.0°
The second minimum is at an angle of 9.0°.
(b) Since sin θ1 ≤ 1, the maximum value of sin θn = 1.
nλ
sin θ n =
w
nλ
1=
w
w
n=
λ
7.50 × 10−6 m
=
5.89 × 10−7 m
n = 12.73
Therefore, the highest-order minimum produced is 12.
10. Two factors are important when trying to distinguish between two objects that are far away—the size of the aperture and
the degree of magnification. When looking through a telescope or binoculars, the aperture has vastly increased relative to
the unaided eye. This increases the resolution. The magnification of the telescope separates the images making it easier to
separate the two stars.
• On the wall should be seen a diffraction interference pattern with equally spaced bright lines of constructive interference.
• The equally spaced lines etched on the metal ruler create a ruled grating. The lines themselves do not reflect the laser light;
the shinier spaces between the lines reflect the laser light and create an interference pattern on the screen.
PRACTICE
(Page 509)
Understanding Concepts
1. grating = 4000 line/cm
1
d= cm = 2.5 × 10–6 m
4000
n=2
θ = 23.0°
λ=?
mλ
sin θ m = (maxima)
d
d sin θ m
λ=
m
=
(2.5 ×10 −6
)
m sin 23.0°
2
λ = 4.88 × 10−7 m
The wavelength is 4.88 × 10–7 m.
2. d = 1.00 × 10–5 m
λ = 6.00 × 102 nm = 6.00 × 10–7 m
θ3 = ?
mλ
sin θ m = (maxima)
d
sin θ 3 =
(
3 6.00 × 10 −7 m )
−5
1.00 × 10 m
θ 3 = 10.4°
The angle of the third-order maximum is 10.4°.
3. m=4
θ = 22°
λ = 694.3 nm = 6.943 × 10–7 m
d=?
mλ
sin θ m = (maxima)
d
mλ
d=
sin θ m
=
(
4 6.943 ×10−7 m )
sin 22°
d = 7.4 ×10−6 m
The spacing of the lines is 7.4 × 10–6 m, or 7.4 × 10–4 cm.
• The pattern is similar in that it a symmetrical pattern with points of constructive interference arranged in planes around a
central bright point. Usually the light will have streaks of light radiating out from the source of light.
• When the fabric is pulled at the corners the pattern is no longer symmetrical, but distorted.
• Using different fibres produces different patterns. Fabrics where the fibres are closer together (e.g., nylon) produce a larger
interference pattern than those where the fibres are further apart. This occurs because there is more diffraction through
smaller openings than through larger, provided the wavelength of the light in the same.
• When looking at a bright star through umbrella fabric on a dark night you should see the starlight diffracted by the fabric in
the umbrella. The crossed fibres in the umbrella create a crossed grating and the diffracted light produces an interference
pattern similar to that seen on page 509. Usually you will see streaks of light emanating out from the star.
Understanding Concepts
1. On the surface of CDs are grooves, or very closely spaced lines, creating a reflection diffraction grating.
2. d = 1.15 × 10–3 cm = 1.15 × 10–5 m
λ = 6.50 × 102 nm = 6.50 × 10–7 m
θ2 = ?
sin θ 2 =
(
2 6.50 × 10 −7 m )
−5
1.15 × 10 m
θ 2 = 6.5°
A second-order maximum will be produced at an angle of 6.5°.
1 cm 1 cm –6
3. d= 2 = 1.00 × 10 m
10 000 line 10 m
θ1 = 31.2°
θ2 = 36.4°
θ3 = 47.5°
λ 1, λ 2, λ 3 = ?
mλ
Using the expression sin θ m = (maxima) :
d
d sin θ m
λ=
m
λ1 =
(1.00 ×10 −6
)
m (sin 31.2° )
1
λ1 = 5.18 × 10−7 m
Similarly,
λ2 =
(1.00 ×10 −6
)
m (sin 36.4° )
λ3 =
(1.00 ×10 −6
)
m (sin 47.5° )
1 1
−7 −7
λ2 = 5.93 ×10 m λ3 = 7.37 × 10 m
The colours of the spectral lines are green (518 nm), yellow-orange (593 nm), and red (737 nm).
4. λα = 656 nm = 6.56 × 10–7 m
λδ = 4.10 × 102 nm = 4.10 × 10–7 m
1 cm 1 cm –6
d= 2 = 1.52 × 10 m
6600 line 10 m
θα = ?
θδ = ?
Making Connections
7. λ = 5.00 × 102 nm = 5.00 × 10–7 m
θ1 = 20°
θ2 = 18°
n=?
sin θ1
n=
sin θ 2
sin 20°
=
sin18°
n = 1.10
The index of refraction of the planet’s atmosphere is 1.10.
3. t = 177.4 nm
na = 1.00
nc = 1.55
ng = 1.48
λa = ?
λ
Constructive interference occurs at 0, , λ, etc. First we must calculate the wavelength in oil:
2
λa
n=
λo
λa
λo =
n
6.00 ×10 −7 m
=
2
λo = 4.65 ×10 −7 m
We can now calculate the thickness:
λ
t=
2
4.65 × 10 −7 m
=
2
t = 2.33 × 10−7 m
The thickness of the oil slick is 2.33 ¯ 10–7 m, or 233 nm.
Understanding Concepts
5. L = 9.8 cm
t = 1.92 ¯ 10–3 cm
7∆x = 1.23 cm
1.23 cm
∆x = = 1.76 × 10 −1 cm
7
λ=?
λ
∆x = L
2t
2t ∆x
λ=
L
=
( )(
2 1.92 × 10−3 cm 1.76 × 10 −1 cm )
9.8 cm
λ = 6.9 ×10 −5 cm
The wavelength of the light is 6.9 × 10–5 cm.
6. λ = 6.40 ¯ 102 nm
L = 7.7 cm
∆x = 0.19 cm
t=?
λ
∆x = L
2t
Lλ
t=
2 ∆x
(7.7 cm ) (6.40 × 10−5 cm )
=
2 ( 0.19 cm )
t = 1.29 × 10−3 cm, or 1.30 × 10−3 cm
The thickness of the paper is 1.3 × 10–3 cm.
7. L = 4.0 cm
λ = 639 nm = 6.39 ¯ 10–5 cm
56∆x = 4.0 cm
4.0 cm
∆x = = 7.14 × 10 −2 cm
56
λ
∆x = L
2t
Lλ
t=
2 ∆x
( 4.0 cm ) (6.39 × 10−5 cm )
=
(
2 7.14 ×10 −2
cm )
t = 1.78 × 10 cm, or 1.8 × 10−3 cm
−3
Understanding Concepts
1. A: light reflected at the air/soap interface changes phase
(less to more)
B and C: transmitted light – no phase change
D: reflected light – no phase change (more to less)
E: reflected light – phase change (less to more)
F: transmitted light – no phase change
2. In a thin film, the light from the front and back surfaces is still physically close together and of equivalent intensity
making interference possible. In a thick film both of these factors break down and interference is not apparent. (There are
other factors such as the coherence length of a wave train, which we cannot discuss here.)
3.
=
( )(
2 1.5 × 10 −6 m 2.0 × 10−3 m )
−2
1.00 × 10 m
−7
λ = 6.0 ×10 m
The wavelength of the light is 6.0 × 10–7 m.
6. L = 12.0 cm
λ = 6.30 ¯ 10–5 cm
8∆x = 1.0 cm
1.0 cm
∆x = = 1.25 × 10 −1 cm
8
Making Connections
7. λa = 5.50 × 10–7 m
nSiO = 1.45
nSi = 3.50
t=?
In order to determine the thickness, we must first calculate the wavelength of the coating of SiO:
λ
n= a
λSiO
λa
λSiO =
n
5.50 × 10−7 m
=
1.45
λSiO = 3.79 × 10−7 m
λ λ
Since rays 1 and 2 are in phase at t = 0, the next minimum is where the path difference is , or t = .
2 4
λ
t=
4
3.79 × 10−7 m
=
4
t = 9.475 ×10 −8 m, or 9.48 × 10 −8 m
The minimum thickness of the film is 9.48 ¯ 10–8 m, or 94.8 nm.
8. Students should find some of the following points:
• standard window glass allows the sun’s energy to pass through it
• at night it emits infrared heat energy back through the glass to the exterior—radiation heat loss
• low-E coating is a thin film layer applied directly to glazing surfaces; normally to the exterior face of the interior
glazing
• low-E coatings are transparent to short-wave solar energy, and opaque to long-wave infrared energy; it allows most of
the sun’s solar spectrum (including visible light) to pass through the window to the interior
• the coating reflects most heat energy (from room temperature objects) back to its source
Understanding Concepts
1. For t → 0, rays 1 and 2 are out of phase and the path difference approaches zero. Thus, there is destructive interference
and a dark area at the centre where the glass nearly touches glass.
2. The air layer between the two surfaces is not uniform. The wider the separation of the dark fringes, the closer together the
surfaces are. This can be seen in the oval shape of the interference pattern to the left, indicating that the two surfaces are
closer together in this region.
3. λ = 521 nm = 5.21 × 10–7 m
number of rings = 15
t=?
nλ
Each dark fringe represents destructive interference and the fringes will have a path difference of . The air wedge will
2
λ
have a dark fringe at the centre, where t = 0. The first dark fringe will occur at , and the 15th dark circle will occur at
2
15λ
.
2
At this thickness, rays 1 and 3 that emerge in the glass will cancel out one another. This is the purpose of the coating,
which is to reduce unwanted internal reflections and therefore reduce the amount of light that passes through the lens.
Making Connections
λ
11. A think layer on the surface of the glass with a thickness of will reduce reflections from the glass, making the picture
4
or photo easy to see.
12. Students may find some of the following points:
• CD-recordable disks (CD-Rs) don't have any bumps or flat areas; they have a smooth reflective metal layer, which rests
on top of a layer of photosensitive dye
• for blank discs, the dye is translucent; light can shine through and reflect off the metal surface
• when the dye layer is heated with concentrated light of a particular frequency and intensity, the dye turns opaque; it
darkens to the point that light can't pass through
• points along the CD track are selectively darkened, and other areas are left translucent; this creates a digital pattern that
a standard CD player can read
• light from the laser beam will only bounce back to the sensor when the dye is left translucent, in the same way that it
will only bounce back from the flat areas of a conventional CD
• the CD burner has a “read laser,” same as a conventional CD player, as well as a “write laser”
• the write laser is more powerful than the read laser, so it interacts with the disc differently; it alters the surface instead
of just bouncing light off it
• read lasers are not intense enough to darken the dye material; playing a CD-R in a CD drive will not destroy any
encoded information
• write lasers move outward while the disc spins; the bottom plastic layer has grooves pre-pressed into it, to guide the
laser along the correct path
• to record data, the burner turns the laser writer on and off in synch with the pattern of 1s and 0s; the laser darkens the
material to encode a 0 and leaves it translucent to encode a 1
• in a CD-RW (read-write) disc, the reflecting lands and non-reflecting bumps of a conventional CD are represented by
phase shifts in a special compound; when the compound is in a crystalline state, it is translucent and therefore
reflective; when the compound is melted into an amorphous state, it becomes opaque, making the area non-reflective;
encoding is erased when the laser melts the crystal back into its original state
13. One reason is design – the golden look enhances the bank’s image. Secondly, the film reduces transmitted light, reducing
the intensity of the sunlight passing through the glass and keeping the building cooler on a bright sunny day.
14. When applying thin films the thickness can be determined by directing a beam of monochromatic light at the surface.
Depending on the thickness, the reflected light will go from dark to bright. By observing the transitions, the thickness of
the film can be determined and the depositing of the coating terminated.
15. The acetate sheet can create air wedges between it and the glass surface of the scanner, resulting in patterns of destructive
interference.
Understanding Concepts
1. To produce a good holograph, a distinct image, crated by interference, requires monochromatic light, which is provided
by the laser.
2. A normal film negative records the image of the light from the object. A hologram records the light coming from the
illuminated object.
3. The hologram is a record of the object recorded as an interference pattern. Thus, the smudges are points of destructive
interference.
Making Connections
5. Student reports should include some or all of the following points:
• holographic wills are solely prepared by and signed by the person involved with the will
• holographic wills are often not witnessed at all, or not witnessed properly
• wills are usually prepared without the assistance of a lawyer
• states in the U.S. and provinces in Canada have different laws regarding the validity of holographic wills
• some places allow holographic wills if the person is overseas, serving in the military, or are in other circumstances
preventing the aid of a lawyer to write the will
• holographic documents are hand-written documents or objects
• historians are concerned with the authenticity of the document
• handwriting must match the person thought to have written the document
• ink, paper, and appropriate water marks are analyzed to determine if they match the time period the document was
thought to be written in
6. Students may find some of the following points:
• CDs, DVDs and magnetic storage all store bits of information on the surface of a recording medium. In order to
increase storage capabilities, scientists are now working on a new optical storage method, called holographic memory
that will go beneath the surface and use the volume of the recording medium for storage, instead of only the surface
area.
• Instead of photographic film, the holographic image is stored in the specific area of a crystal.
• An advantage of a holographic memory system is that an entire page of data can be retrieved quickly and at one time.
Each page of data is stored in a different area of the crystal, based on the angle at which the reference beam strikes it.
During reconstruction, the beam will be diffracted by the crystal to allow the re-creation of the original page that was
stored. This reconstructed page is then projected onto the charge-coupled device (CCD) camera, which interprets and
forwards the digital information to a computer
• Early holographic data storage devices will have capacities of 125 GB and transfer rates of about 40 MB per second. It
is expected that these devices could have storage capacities of 1 TB and data rates of more than 1 GB per second -- fast
enough to transfer an entire DVD movie in 30 seconds.
• There are still some technical problems that need to be worked out. For example, if too many pages are stored in one
crystal, the strength of each hologram is diminished. If there are too many holograms stored on a crystal, and the
reference laser used to retrieve a hologram is not shined at the precise angle, a hologram will pick up a lot of
background from the other holograms stored around it. It is also a challenge to align all of these components in a low-
cost system.
Understanding Concepts
λ 500 nm
1. The mirrors must move to create a path difference of λ. Thus, the mirror must have moved = 2.50 × 102 nm.
2 2
λ
2. For each shift, the mirror has moved .
2
λ
path difference = 1000
2
638 nm
= 1000
2
path difference = 0.319 mm
For 1000 shifts the mirror moves 0.319 mm.
λ
3. 598 fringes = 598 = 299λ
2
path difference = 0.203 mm = 2.03 × 10–4 m
299λ = 2.03 × 10−4 m
λ =6.79 × 10−7 m
The wavelength of the light is 6.79 ¯ 10–7 m, or 679 nm.
Understanding Concepts
1. The counting of fringes is exact. The measurements are accurate to the nearest half wavelength of the source of light
utilized.
2. λ = 638 nm
number of fringes = 262
t=?
λ
t = 262
2
262 (638 nm )
t=
2
t = 8.36 × 10 −5 m
The thickness of the foil is 8.36 × 10–5 m.
3. d = 2.32 × 10–5 m
number of fringes = 89
λ=?
λ d
=
2 number of fringes
2d
λ=
number of fringes
=
(
2 2.32 × 10−5 m )
89
λ = 5.21×10 −7 m
The wavelength of the incident beam is 5.21 × 10–7 m.
=
(
2 2.14 × 10−4 m )
595
λ = 7.19 ×10−7 m
The wavelength of the light is 7.19 ¯ 10–7 m, or 719 nm.
Making Connections
7. Students may find some of the following points:
• In 1960, the standard metre length in wavelengths of light was measured since the standard bar of metal, used
previously, could undergo minute changes in length over a period of time. The metre was defined as the length of
650 763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red spectral line emitted by krypton-86. The advantages of this system were that
it was portable, and not dependent on a length of metal in Paris, and an interferometer, using krypton-86 light, could be
used to accurately measure the length of objects in metres.
• In 1983, the metre was again redefined as the distance light travels in 1/299 792 458 s. This was based on the speed of
light, where c = 299 792 458 m/s. This method was chosen not to change the length of the metre as previously defined,
but to express it with more precision. It possible to measure frequencies with more accuracy than wavelengths because
of the precise definition of the second. This definition is 10 000 times more precise than the previous krypton-86
definition of the standard unit of length.
8. By placing the moveable mirror at one point on Earth’s surface and the rest of the apparatus on another, minute
movements in Earth, say along a fault line, could be measured by counting fringes. Currently, a laser and mirrors can
accomplish the same measurement to the accuracy of the wavelength of the laser and the speed of light.
Understanding Concepts
1. (a) λ = 1.80 cm = 1.80 × 10–2 m
v = c = 3.00 × 108 m/s
f=?
Making Connections
6. All electromagnetic radiation travels at the speed of light (3.00 × 108 m/s). The signal from the correspondent must travel
to a satellite and then back to a ground station and through the ground transmission system to the station. The distances
are significant, creating a time delay for the correspondent to hear the question, before he or she replies.
7. (a) f = 75 MHz = 75 × 106 Hz
v = c = 3.00 × 108 m/s
d = 134 m
Understanding Concepts
1. Larger waves diffract more than shorter waves. AM waves are longer than TV and FM waves.
Making Connections
5. The higher the number, the larger the amount of protection from UV radiation, preventing sunburn and the resulting cell
damage.
6. There are three types of ultraviolet rays: UV-A, UV-B, and UV-C. UV-A is the weakest form. It causes skin-aging,
wrinkles and can also damage outdoor plastics and paint. UV-B, which is stronger than UV-A, is the most harmful to
human and other species. UV-B causes skin cancer and cataracts – a permanent clouding of the eye, which reduces vision.
Both UV-B and UV-A cause suntans and sunburns. UV-B also reduces the growth of plants, and may affect the health of
wildlife and other animals. UV-C, which is even stronger than UV-B, never reaches Earth’s atmosphere because it is
filtered out by the atmosphere.
7. Example of research:
How Ear Thermometers Work
• The eardrum is an extremely accurate point to measure body temperature because it is recessed inside the head (just
like your tongue). The problem with the eardrum is that it is so fragile. You don't want to be touching the eardrum with
a thermometer.
• The remote sensing of an object's temperature can be done using its infrared radiation. This technique is a very good
way to detect the temperature of a person's eardrum.
• One common sensor is the thermopile, which can be accurate to the tenth of a degree. The thermopile sees the eardrum
and measures its infrared emissions. The emission is converted into a temperature and displayed on an LCD.
5. As the slit width increased the central maximum contracted and as did the whole interference pattern. When the slit width
decreased the reverse occurred with the central maximum becoming larger and the interference pattern spreading out
horizontally.
6. As the distance between the slit and the source decreased the pattern remained the same, becoming slightly brighter.
When the slit and the observer increased the pattern was more spread out, with a larger central maximum.
7. The pattern was less spread out for green light than it was for red light, and distance y to the centre line was smaller for
green light than it was for red light.
Part 2: Using a Laser as a Source of Monochromatic Light
8. When the razor blade entered the laser beam a shadow was cast on the screen by the razor blade edge. Using s diverging
lens to spread out the shadow, it was noted that the shadow was not distinct with some light on the screen in the “shadow”
region. A pattern of faint bright and dark areas was noted.
9. As the slit width w decreased, the central maximum became larger on the screen, as did the total interference pattern.
10. Using a prepared small slit, there was large central area with equally spaced nodal lines on both sides followed by a series
of bright and dark areas, with successively decreasing intensity.
(Step 15)
λL
w=
y1
(6.33 × 10−7 m)(2.00 m)
=
2.55 × 10 −2 m
w = 4.96 × 10 −5 m, or 5.0 × 10−5 m
(Step 14)
λ = 6.33 × 10−7 m
L = 2.00 m
y1 = 1.6 cm, y1 = 1.8 cm
1.6 cm + 1.8 cm
average y1 =
2
average y1 = 1.7 cm
The average for y1 is 1.7 cm, or 1.7 ¯ 10–2 m.
(Step 15)
λL
w=
y1
(6.33 × 10−7 m)(2.00 m)
=
1.7 × 10 −2 m
w = 7.5 × 10 −5 m
The width of the slit is 7.5 ¯ 10–5 m.
Analysis
(b) The width of the slit must be larger than the wavelength of light but small enough to create significant diffraction. Since
λ
very narrow slits are required the wavelength on light must be very small. The follows from the relationship sin θ = .
w
λ
The maximum value for sin θ is 1. Thus, ≤ 1 , and w ≥ λ.
w
(c) Since the central maximum was larger, as was the separation of the nodal lines for red light, than for green light, red light
wy
must have a longer wavelength. This follows from the relationship λ = 1 , where λ ∝ y1 .
L
(d) The diffraction pattern for a single slit shows the bright areas for specific colours located at separate location, just as was
the case for double slit interference. This indicates the white light is made up of a range of wavelengths.
1
(e) (i) The wider the width of the slit w, the smaller the value for y1 or y1 ∝ , if λ and L are constant.
w
(ii) The larger the value for L, the larger the larger the larger the value of y1 or y1 ∝ λ , if L and w are constant.
(iii) The longer the wavelength λ, the larger the value of y1 or y1 ∝ λ , if L and w are constant.
wy1
(iv) Combining the proportionality statements we produce the equation λ = .
L
(f) This will depend on the prediction made and results produced experimentally.
Evaluation
(g) The graph should be analogous to Poisson’s Bright Spot except the interference pattern will be vertical, not round.
(h) The experimental value was 6.36 × 10–7 m which was close to the accepted value of 6.328 × 10–7 m. The experimental
error would be
measured value − accepted value
percent error = × 100 %
accepted value
6.36 × 10−7 m − 6.328 × 10−7 m
= × 100%
6.328 ×10 −7 m
= +0.51%
(i) Calculated value of w was 4.5 ¯ 10–5 m. The given value was 5.2 ¯ 10–5 m.
measured value − accepted value
percent error = × 100 %
accepted value
5.0 × 10−7 m − 5.2 × 10−7 m
= × 100%
5.2 ×10 −7 m
= −3.8%
Calculated value of w was 7.5 ¯ 10–5 m. The given value was 7.9 ¯ 10–5 m.
Procedure (sample)
1. Construct an air wedge, using two microscope slides attached together with elastic bands, as illustrated. Separate the ends
of the glass plates at one end and insert a single human hair between them.
2. Place the diverging lens in front of the laser beam so that a diverging laser light illuminates the air wedge.
3. Using the microscope, measure the distance covered by 50 or more bright fringes. (Consider one bright fringe to be from
the middle of one dark fringe to the middle of the next dark fringe.) Find the average separation between adjacent dark
fringes (∆x).
λ
4. Measure the total length of the air wedge L. Using the relationship ∆x = L , determine the thickness of the human
2t
hair.
5. With a micrometer, measure the thickness of a human hair. Compare the micrometer thickness with that measured using
the air wedge.
6. Repeat the procedure for two other hairs, from the same head.
First hair:
100∆x = 2.40 cm
2.40 cm
∆x =
100
∆x = 2.40 × 10−4 m
Lλ
∆x =
2t
Lλ
t=
2 ∆x
(7.50 × 10−2 m)(6.328 × 10−7 m)
=
2(2.40 × 10−4 m)
t = 9.89 × 10−5 m
Micrometer measurement = 0.091 mm
Lλ
∆x =
2t
Lλ
t=
2 ∆x
(7.5 × 10−2 m)(6.328 × 10−7 m)
=
2(2.62 × 10−4 m)
t = 9.06 × 10−5 m
Micrometer measurement = 0.084 mm
Third hair:
122∆x = 2.6 cm
2.6 cm
∆x =
122
∆x = 2.13 × 10−4 m
Lλ
∆x =
2t
Lλ
t=
2 ∆x
(7.50 × 10−2 m)(6.328 × 10−7 m)
=
2(2.13 × 10−4 m)
t = 1.11 ×10−4 m
Measurement of the thickness with micrometer = 0. 076 mm
Average value for the thickness of a human hair using the air wedge is:
0.0989 mm + 0.0906 mm + 0.111
= 1.00 mm
3
Average value for the thickness of a human hair using the micrometer is:
0.091 mm + 0.084 mm + 0.076 mm
= 0.0837 mm
3
Evaluation
(a) The values for thickness of a human hair vary because of the type of method used and for different hairs. The air wedge is
a more accurate method since the number of significant figures that can be carried throughout the calculation is more than
is the case with the micrometer. Also, the micrometer pressure on the hair could have caused the lower readings than
those for the air wedge, because the hairs could have been slightly compressed.
The accuracy of the counting of the number bright lines in the air wedge interference pattern is compromised by the
sophistication of the equipment used.
(b) Modifications the may improve the accuracy of the air wedge method could include:
• Use a longer air wedge increasing the value of L and creating more nodal line to be counted.
• Set up the air wedge with mm scale attached to the slide so the measurements could be made more accurately.
• Design a set-up so the air wedge is illuminated under a microscope improving the counting of the bright lines and the
calculation of ∆x.
(a) Both sound and electromagnetic waves obey the same relationships and behaviour for reflection, refraction, total internal
reflection, simple interference and two-point interference (see table). But, sound originates from a vibrating object,
whereas electromagnetic waves originate from an oscillating electric or magnetic field. The speed of sound is 332 m/s and
it varies with temperature and the medium. Electromagnetic waves have a speed of c in a vacuum, but it too can be lower
in a different medium. Sound requires a material medium for its transmission, whereas electromagnetic waves do not.
(b) Some answers should include any five of the following points:
• Double and single-slit interference patterns to find the λ of light or the size of a small opening
• Spectroscopy using a diffraction grating
• Making objects to small tolerances – Newton rings
• Measuring very small distances – interferometer
• Measuring the size of small objects – air wedge
• CD and DVD – thin films
• Coated eyeglasses, cameras and high-efficiency windows – thin films
• Holograms and holographs
• Transmission and receiving of radio and television broadcasts- modulation and de-modulation
True/False
1. F Polarization provided the proof that light is a transverse wave.
2. (a) F The smaller the slit width, the larger the distance between adjacent maxima and minima.
(b) T
(c) T
3. F The larger the aperture of an optical instrument, the better its resolution.
4. T
5. T
Multiple Choice
10. (d) Not to be confused with the two-point interference pattern, this is the interference pattern formed by a single slit. In the
single slit the path difference is determined by comparing the rays from points in the slit in pairs, beginning with the
wave ray from the edge of slit and the wave ray at the center of the slit. For the second intensity minimum the path
λ
difference for these rays and the point P is , making the path difference for the wave rays at both edges 2λ.
2
3λ
11. (c) Using the same argument as in 10, the path difference to the first maximum would be .
d
12. (c) The effect is created by the interference between the rays reflected from the top and bottom surfaces.
13. (d) In I and II, the ray reflected from the top surface is inverted while that reflected at the bottom interface is not inverted.
λ 3λ 5λ
Thus, constructive interference is observed when the thickness t is , , , etc., making option I correct. For
2 4 4
λ 3λ
transmission, there is no inversion of either ray and the thickness t for constructive interference is , λ, , etc.,
2 2
making III a correct option.
14. (d) The ray reflected from the surface of the coating will be inverted, as will the ray reflected from the coating-glass
λ λ
interface. For destructive interference (minimum reflection), the path difference must be or t = . But, the
2 2
wavelength is measured in the coating, making it smaller by a factor of the refractive index 1.2. Therefore the correct
λ
answer is .
4 (1.2 )
15. (e) All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed (3.00 × 108 m/s).
16. (e) Only (e) has the correct order from lower to higher frequency.
CHAPTER 10 REVIEW
(Pages 546–547)
Understanding Concepts
1. Fix one Polaroid sheet to the window. Make the other Polaroid sheet adjustable so it can be rotated. By varying the
rotation, the intensity could be changed to zero, if necessary.
2. w = 4.30 × 10–5 m
L = 1.32 m
2y1 = 3.8 cm
3.8 cm
y1 = = 1.9 cm
2
y
λ = w
L
=
( 4.30 ×10 −5
)(
m 1.9 × 10−2 m )
1.32 m
−7
λ = 6.2 ×10 m
The wavelength of the light is 6.2 × 10–7 m.
3. λ = 5.50 × 102 nm = 5.50 × 10–7 m
n=2
θ = 25°
w=?
=
(1.00 ×10 −6
)
m (sin 36.9° )
1
−7
λ = 6.00 ×10 m
The wavelength of the light is 6.00 × 10–7 m.
5. λ = 694.3 nm = 6.943 × 10–7 m
y = 42 mm = 42 × 10–3 m
n=1
L = 2.50 m
w=?
y nλ
=
L w
nLλ
w=
y
(1)( 2.50 m ) (6.943 × 10−7 m )
= −3
21× 10 m
−5
w = 8.3 × 10 m
The width of the slit is 8.3 × 10–5 m.
6. (a) θ = 28.0°
λ = 6.00 × 10–7 m
n=1
w=?
nλ
w=
sin θ n
(1) (6.00 × 10−7 m )
=
sin 28.0°
w = 1.28 × 10 −6 m
The width of the slit is 1.28 × 10–6 m.
(b) θ = 67.0°
n=2
w = 1.28 × 10–6 m
λ=?
w sin θ n
λ=
n
=
(1.28 ×10 −6
)
m (sin 67.0° )
2
−7
λ = 5.89 × 10 m
The wavelength of the light is 5.89 ¯ 10–7 m, or 589 nm.
(1.5) λ
w1 =
sin18°
(3.5 ) λ
w2 =
sin θ 3
But, w1 = w2
(1.5) λ (3.5) λ
=
sin18° sin θ 3
(3.5)(sin18° )
sin θ 3 =
1.5
θ 3 = 46.1°
The angle for the third-order maximum is 46.1°.
8. w = 3.00 × 10–6 m
λ = 694.3 nm = 6.943 × 10–7 m
L = 2.0 m
y1 = ?
1
m + λ y
2
sin θ m = = 1
w L
1
m + λL
2
y1 =
w
(1.5 ) (6.943 × 10−7 )
m ( 2.00 m )
= −6
3.00 ×10 m
y1 = 0.694 m
Each spot is 0.694 m, or 69.4 cm away from the central axis.
9. λ = 7.80 × 102 nm = 7.80 × 10–7 m
2y = 1.2 mm
1.2 mm
y= = 6.0 mm = 6.0 × 10–4 m
2
L = 3.0 mm = 3.0 × 10–3 m
d=?
y λ
=
L d
λL
d=
y
=
(7.80 ×10 −7
)(
m 3.0 × 10−3 m )
−4
6.0 ×10 m
−6
d = 3.9 ×10 m
The spacing between the slits of the grating is 3.9 × 10–6 m.
=
(8.94 ×10 −2
)(
m 4.17 × 10−6 m )
(1)(0.625 m )
−7
λ = 5.96 × 10 m
The wavelength of the light is 5.96 ¯ 10–7 m, or 596 nm.
11. λ = 638 nm = 6.38 × 10–7 m
n=3
θ = 19°
number of lines = ?
=
(
3 6.38 ×10 −7 m )
sin19.0°
= 5.88 ×10−6 m
d = 5.88 ×10−4 cm
Ray 1 is reflected with a phase change (less to more). Ray 2 is reflected without a phase change (more to less). As t → 0,
destructive interference occurs and a dark area is observed.
λ
14. The minimum thickness for constructive interference is since there is no phase change for ray 2. Assume the
4
wavelengths are in air:
λr = 6.40 × 10–7 m
λv = 4.50 × 10–7 m
3λ
t=
4
3 ( 439 nm )
=
4
t = 329 nm
Two possible values for the thickness of the film are 110 nm and 329 nm.
17. t = 122 nm
n = 1.40
λo = ?
λ
λo = a
n
122 nm
=
1.40
λo = 871 nm
Rays 1 and 2 are in phase. Ray 3 is out of phase. For ray 3 to be in phase with rays 1 and 2 it requires a path difference of
λ λ
or a thickness of in the liquid.
2 4
• A stealth aircraft, on the other hand, is made up of completely flat surfaces and very sharp edges. When a radar signal
hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away an angle, like this:
Extension
29. (a) θ1 = 13.8°
n=2
θ2 = ?
Using this relationship, we can find the angle of the second-order minimum:
nλ
sin θ n =
w
2λ
sin θ 2 =
w
= 2 (sin13.8° )
θ 2 = 28.5°
The angle for the second-order maximum is at 28.5°.
(b) θ3 = ?
Using the relationship found in part (a), we can find the angle for the third-order minimum:
nλ
sin θ n =
w
3λ
sin θ 3 =
w
= 3 (sin13.8° )
θ 3 = 45.7°
The angle for the third-order maximum is 45.7°.
30. λ1 = 6.00 × 10–7 m
θ1 = 18.5°
θ2 = 14.9°
λ2 = ?
First we must find the relationship between sin θ1 and sin θ2:
nλ
sin θ n =
d
nλ1
sin θ1 =
d
nλ
sin θ 2 = 2
d
λ1
sin θ1
= d
sin θ 2 λ2
d
sin θ1 λ1
=
sin θ 2 λ2
=
(6.00 ×10 −7
)
m (sin14.9° )
sin18.5°
λ2 = 4.86 × 10−7 m
=
( )
2 8.0 ×10−2 m (1.000 29 − 1)
6.38 × 10 −7 m
number of fringes = 73
The number of fringe-pairs that shift in the process is 73.
The Unit 4 Performance Task is research-based and open-ended. It provides students with an opportunity to examine optical
phenomena and their applications. The student may choose to photograph physical optical phenomena that exhibit effects
discussed in Unit 4, including wave properties in ripple tanks, refraction and dispersion effects, applications of polarization,
diffraction effects in slits and diffraction gratings, thin film phenomena, etc. The second option is to create a three-dimensional
holographic image. The student is required to conduct and evaluate the work, and present the findings in a suitable form
(chosen by the student).
Assessment
The report will be assessed and/or evaluated on the basis of the following criteria:
• adequacy and accuracy of information
• level to which the applicable physics principles seem to have been understood
• referencing
• photographic quality
• quality of the written communication
Option 2: Holography
In this option, students will create a simple hologram of a small object found in their home or classroom. They will require a
“holography kit” containing the necessary equipment, and a suitable light-tight room for conducting the activity. Students will
begin the activity by conducting library and/or Internet research on the semiconductor laser. Their final report should contain
an explanation of its operation, including well-labelled diagrams. The report should also contain an explanation of the silver
halide process for creating a photographic image, a copy of the hologram, a description of the procedure used to create the
hologram, and an evaluation of the process including suggested improvements.
Students must be warned about the dangers of allowing direct or reflected laser beams entering the eye well in advance of
conducting the activity.
Teachers who have little experience in holography are encouraged to purchase a commercially available “holography kit”
for this activity. These kits significantly simplify the process, and ensure relatively good quality results. Kits are available
from most science supply companies.
Internet Web sites provide much useful information on holography. Relevant Web sites include:
http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181h/projects/96/memory/holoprimer.html
http://www.holo.com/holo/book/book1.html
http://members.aol.com/gakall/holopg.html#setup
(Pages 550–551)
True/False
1. T
2. T
3. F All wave properties can be explained using the wave model except transmission through a vacuum.
4. T
5. T
6. F The fringe pattern would become smaller if the red light source is replaced by a blue light source since blue light has a
shorter wavelength than red light.
7. T
8. F All waves do not have the same properties as electromagnetic waves. Examples include water waves, sound waves, and
earthquake (seismic) waves.
Multiple Choice
9. (e) In the deep water the speed is determined using the universal wave equation.
v= fλ
= (12 Hz)(2.0 cm)
v = 24 cm/s
10. (c) When the ray passes from medium1 to medium 2 the ray refracts toward the normal. Thus, v2 > v1. When the ray passes
from medium 2 to medium 3 it bends away from the normal. Thus, v2 > v3. But the emerging ray is not parallel to the
incident ray and is refracted more. Thus, v3 > v1, and therefore, v3 > v1 > v2.
11. (e) When a wave passes form a heavy string to a lighter string, it is moving form a slower medium to a faster medium.
Thus, there is no inversion (phase change) for the reflected wave or the transmitted wave.
1
12. (d) path difference = n − λ for minima
2
The path difference is 37.0 cm – 28.0 cm = 9.0 cm.
Since it is the second nodal line, n = 2
1
9.0 cm = 2 − λ
2
λ = 6.0 cm
13. (d) If the separation between slits A and B is increased, the number of nodal line would increase.
The width of the slits B and C is decreased, there will more diffraction through each slit and the pattern will spread out.
If the distance from the metal sheet to the screen is changed, the pattern will be less spread out if closer, more spread
out if further away.
If the wavelength of the incident light is decreased, the nodal pattern will be closer together.
If the distance between the cardboard and the metal sheet is increased, there will be no affect on the pattern.
14. (b)
λ 3λ 5λ
15. (b) In soap films (air-water-air) there is destructive interference for transmission where the thickness is , , , etc.
4 4 4
3λ
Therefore, the second area of destructive interference will have a thickness of .
4
16. (e) When dealing with transmission rays 1 and 2 can be ignored and we are only concerned with rays 3 and 4, eliminating
(a) and (c).
- The degree of transparency has no effect, only the speed in each of the coating and the lens.
- To reduce reflected light the velocity of the light in the coating must be greater than in the lens.
- The total light energy reflected is a minimum.
Matching
28. Scientist Discovery or Innovation
Gabor holography
Grimaldi diffraction of light at two successive slits
Hertz creation and detection of radio waves
Huygens wavelet model for propagation of wave fronts
Land commercially viable polarizing filters
Maxwell mathematical theory of electromagnetic waves
Marconi transmission of radio signals
Michelson interferometer
Newton particle theory of light
Poisson diffraction of light around a small disk
Young two-slit interference
(Pages 552–555)
Understanding Concepts
1. (a) reflection, rectilinear propagation, refraction, dispersion
(b) diffraction, partial reflection/partial refraction, interference, polarization
(c) transmission through a vacuum
2. ng = 1.60
λa = 415 nm
λg = ?
λ
n= a
λg
λa
λg =
n
415 nm
=
1.60
λg = 259 nm
The wavelength of the violet light in glass is 259 nm.
3. The wavelengths of sound are very much longer than light waves. There is little diffraction, if the wavelength is smaller
than the opening. For sound waves, the wavelengths are typically larger than opening and are easily attracted through an
opening or around a corner.
4. T = 0.10 s
distance between the first and sixth crests is 5 wavelengths.
(a) λ = ?
5λ = 12.0 cm
12.0 cm
λ=
5
λ = 2.4 cm
The wavelength is 2.4 cm.
(b) v = ?
λ
v=
T
2.4 cm
=
0.10 s
v = 24 cm/s
The speed of the wave is 24 cm/s.
5. n = 2
v = 7.5 cm/s
path difference = 29.5 cm – 25.0 cm = 4.5 cm
(a) λ = ?
1
n − λ = path difference
2
1
2 − λ = 4.5 cm
2
1.5λ = 4.5 cm
λ = 3.0 cm
The wavelength is 3.0 cm.
=
(1.8 10−5 m ) (sin 8.2°)
×
1
5−
2
λ = 5.70 × 10−7 m
The wavelength is 5.70 × 10–7 m.
10. λ = 638 nm = 6.38 × 10–7 m
n=3
θ = 8.0°
d=?
1
n − λ
2
d=
sin θ
1
3 − (6.38 ×10 m )
−7
2
=
sin 8.0°
d = 1.15 × 10−5 m
The distance between the slits is 1.15 × 10-5 m.
11. λ = 633 nm = 6.33 ¯ 10–7 m
d = 0.100 mm = 1.00 ¯ 10–4 m
L = 2.10 m
x1 = ?
1 λ
x1 = n − L
2 d
1 6.33 × 10 −7 m
= 1 − ( 2.10 m ) −4
2 1.00 × 10 m
x1 = 6.65 × 10 −3 m
The distance of the first dark fringe is 6.65 ¯ 10–3 m, or 6.65 mm.
12. d = 0.42 mm = 4.2 ¯ 10–5 m
L = 4.00 m
∆x = 5.5 cm = 5.5 ¯ 10–2 m
λ=?
f=?
To calculate wavelength:
d
λ = ∆x (minima)
L
=
(5.5 ×10 −2
m )( 4.2 × 10−5 m )
4.00 m
λ = 5.78 × 10 −7 m, or 5.8 ×10−7 m
To calculate frequency:
c
f =
λ
3.00 × 108 m/s
=
5.78 ×10 −7 m
f = 5.2 × 1014 Hz
The wavelength is 5.8 ¯ 10–7 m. The frequency is 5.2 ¯ 1014 Hz.
x1 = 1 −
2 4.8 × 10−5 m
x1 = 1.86 × 10 −2 m, or 1.9 × 10−2 m
The first dark fringe is 1.9 ¯ 10–2 m, or 1.9 cm away from the centre of the pattern.
14. λ = 656 nm = 6.56 ¯ 10–7 m
L = 1.50 m
n=4
x = 48.0 mm = 4.80 ¯ 10–3 m
d=?
nλ
sin θ = (maxima)
d
x nλ
=
L d
4 ( 6.56 × 10−7 m ) (1.50 m )
d=
4.80 × 10−3 m
d = 8.20 × 10−4 m
The separation of the two slits is 8.20 ¯ 10–4 m.
15. λ1 = 4.80 ¯ 102 nm = 4.80 ¯ 10–7 m
λ2 = 6.20 ¯ 102 nm = 6.20 ¯ 10–7 m
d = 0.68 mm = 6.8 ¯ 10–4 m
L = 1.6 m
n=2
∆x = ?
nL nL
x1 = λ1 and x2 = λ2
d d
nL
( x2 − x1 ) = (λ2 − λ1 )
d
2 (1.60 m )
=
6.8 × 10 −4 m
(6.20 ×10 −7
m − 4.80 × 10−7 m )
( x2 − x1 ) = 6.6 ×10−4 m
The second order maxima are 6.6 ¯ 10–4 m, or 0.66 mm apart.
16. Let the subscript a represent air, and w represent water.
λa = 4.00 ¯ 102 nm = 4.00 ¯ 10–7 m
d = 5.00 ¯ 10–4 m
nw = 1.33
L = 50.0 cm = 5.00 ¯ 10–1 m
∆x = ?
=
( 5.00 × 10 −1 m )(3.00 × 10−7 m )
5.00 × 10 −4 m
∆x = 3.00 × 10 −4 m
The fringes are 3.00 ¯ 10–4 m apart on the screen.
17. Dispersion requires double refraction to be visible. Since the sides of window glass are parallel, little refraction occurs.
18. Polarization was important because it showed the waves of light were transverse.
19. Light travels in all directions until it is reflected off a horizontal surface (such as the hood of a car, or a puddle on the
road). This reflected light become horizontally polarized—the light is only vibrating in one plane. Polaroid sunglasses
have polarizing filters that are arranged in the vertical plane to absorb these horizontally polarized light waves. As a
result, Polaroid sunglasses reduce the effect of glare.
=
(3.5 ×10 −3
m )(5.60 × 10−4 m )
(1)(3.00 m )
λ1 = 6.53 × 10−7 m, or 6.5 × 10−7 m
The wavelength of the light is 6.5 ¯ 10–7 m.
21. λ = 675 nm = 6.75 ¯ 10–7 m
θ=?
(a) w = 1.80 ¯ 10–4 m
nλ
sin θ n =
w
(1) (6.75 ×10−7 m )
sin θ1 =
1.80 × 10−4 m
θ1 = 0.21°
The angle that locates the first dark fringe is 0.21°.
(b) w = 1.80 ¯ 10–6 m
nλ
sin θ n =
w
(1) (6.75 ×10−7 m )
sin θ1 =
1.80 × 10−6 m
θ1 = 22°
The angle that locates the first dark fringe is 22°.
central maxima = 2 y1
= 2 ( 2.10 × 10 −3 m )
central maxima = 4.20 × 10−3 m
The width of the central fringe is 4.20 ¯ 10–3 m.
23. (a) λ = 589 nm = 5.89 ¯ 10–7 m
w = 1.08 ¯ 10–6 m
n=1
θ=?
nλ
sin θ n = (minima)
w
(1) (5.89 ×10−7 m )
=
1.08 × 10 −6 m
θ = 33°
The first minimum is at an angle of 33°.
2λ
(b) Since sin θ 2 = = 1.09 , sin θ > 1, and θ is undefined. Therefore, there is no second minimum.
w
24. λ = 1.15 ¯ 10–7 m
θ = 8.4°
w=?
nλ
sin θ n = (minima)
w
nλ
w=
sin θ n
(8 ) (1.15 × 10 −7 m )
=
sin 8.4°
w = 6.29 × 10−6 m, or 6.3 × 10 −6 m
The width of the slit is 6.3 ¯ 10–6 m.
25. λ = 451 nm = 4.51 ¯ 10–7 m
w = 0.10 mm = 1.0 ¯ 10–4 m
L = 3.50 m
y1 = ?
Lλ
y1 =
w
=
( 4.5 ×10−7 m ) (3.50 m )
1.0 ×10 −4 m
y1 = 1.575 ×10 −2 m
Since 2 y1 = L , therefore:
y1 λ
=
L w
y1 λ
=
2 y1 w
λ 1
=
w 2
λ 1
The ratio is , or 0.5.
w 2
28. Spacing between fringes is much greater. Bright fringes are much brighter and sharper.
29. Immersed in water, the wavelength of the light will decrease.
mλ
sin θ m =
d
sin θ m ∝ λ
Since θ will decrease, the smaller the wavelength, the smaller the distances between the bright lines.
30. d = 2.2 ¯ 10–6 m
λ1 = 412 nm = 4.12 ¯ 10–7 m
λ2 = 661 nm = 6.61 ¯ 10–7 m
L = 3.10 m
∆y = ?
mλ y
Since sin θ m = and sin θ m = :
d L
mLλ1 mLλ2
y1 = and y2 =
d d
mL
y2 − y1 = (λ2 − λ1 )
d
(1)(3.10 m ) ( 6.61× 10−7 m − 4.12 × 10−7 m )
=
2.2 ×10 −6 m
y2 − y1 = 3.5 × 10−1 m
The first order spectrum is 3.5 ¯ 10–1 m, or 35 cm wide.
=
( 2.00 ×10−6 m ) (sin 35.0°)
2
−7
λ = 5.74 × 10 m
The wavelength of the light is 5.74 ¯ 10–7 m, or 574 nm.
1 cm
32. (a) d = = 3.33 ×10−5 cm = 3.33 × 10−7 m
30 000 line
The largest wavelength of visible light would be red at approximately 710 nm, and the shortest would be violet at
approximately 410 nm.
mλ
sin θ m =
d
However, the largest value would be for n = 1, therefore:
(1) λ
sin θ m =
3.33 × 10−7 m
Whether you substitute for red or violet light, the value for sin θm > 1, therefore no wavelength of visible light can be
diffracted.
mλ
(b) Since sin θ ≤ 1, ≤ 1 . For the first nodal to show:
d
mλ
=1
d
λ = d = 3.33 × 10−7 m
Therefore, the longest wavelength that will show is 3.33 ¯ 10–7 m.
1 cm
33. d = = 1.18 × 10−4 cm = 1.18 × 10−6 m
8500 line
θ1 = 26.6°, 26.8°
θ2 = 41.1°, 41.3°
λ1 = ?
λ2 = ?
26.6° + 26.8°
average θ1 = = 26.7°
2
41.1° + 41.3°
average θ 2 = = 41.2°
2
To calculate wavelength:
d sin θ1 d sin θ 2
λ1 = λ2 =
m m
=
(1.18 ×10−6 m ) sin 26.7° =
(1.18 ×10−6 m ) sin 41.2°
1 1
−7 −7
λ1 = 5.30 × 10 m λ2 = 7.77 × 10 m
The wavelengths are 5.30 ¯ 10–7 m, or 530 nm, and 7.77 ¯ 10–7 m, or 777 nm.
(b) The pattern will change as the soap moves under gravity creating a larger wedge of soap. The top will be a larger,
darker area and the distance between the areas of dark (or bright) will come closer together as the bottom thickens.
Eventually, the bubble breaks since the surface tension is not sufficient to hold it in place.
λ 3 5 λ 3
(c) The path differences for bright reflection are , λ , λ , etc. The thickness will be , λ , etc. Therefore, the
2 2 2 4 4
λ
difference in thickness between adjacent bands would be .
2
(d) λa = 588 nm
ts= ?
First we must calculate the wavelength of the light in the soap film:
λ
n= a
λs
λa
λs =
n
588 nm
=
1.33
λs = 442 nm
The lowest dark band is the second fringe, so the path difference would be 2λ, and the thickness would be λ. Therefore,
the thickness is 442 nm.
40. λ = 639 nm = 6.39 ¯ 10–7 m
m = 38
t=?
Thirty-eight dark fringes with one at each end is equal to 37 spaces. Each dark fringe represents a change in thickness of
λ
, therefore:
2
λ
t = m
2
6.39 × 10−7 m
= 37
2
t = 1.18 × 10 −5 m
The thickness of the foil is 1.18 ¯ 10–5 m.
=
(1.58 ×10−1 )(5.48 ×10−7 m )
2 (1.3 ×10 −3 m )
t = 3.3 × 10 −5 m
The thickness of the paper strip is 3.3 ¯ 10–5 m.
43. λ = 589 nm = 5.89 ¯ 10–7 m
number of fringes = 2000
λ
For each fringe the path difference is λ and the distance the mirror moves is .
2
The distance moved is:
λ
2000 = 1000 (589 nm )
2
= 5.89 × 10−4 m
The distance the mirror must be moved is 5.89 ¯ 10–4 m
44. (a) “Coherent” means same wavelength and same phase. The distance between each slit and the screen is nearly equal, but
the mirror changes the phase 180°. Therefore, the image on the screen will not be coherent with the source.
(b) It is a combination of two single slit diffractions overlapping. All we see is a double slit interference, which is the
central maximum of the single slit diffraction patterns.
(c) It will be dark, since the sources are essentially 180° out-of-phase.
45.
Type Nature of Source Typical Means of Nonionizing or
Detection Ionizing
radio oscillating charge m radio receiver no
infrared electron transitions in temperature no
atoms and molecules measurement
ultraviolet higher energy electron fluorescence no
transitions in atoms
X ray rapid deceleration of photo sensitive device yes
charges
=
( ×10−1 m ) (sin 36°)
2.0
1
−1
λ = 1.17 × 10 m
The wavelength of the microwaves is 1.17 ¯ 10–1 m, or 11.7 cm.
Making Connections
49. No, in fact it could be worse depending on the path difference between the two signals. Only when the path difference is
zero will you get constructive interference. At any other path difference there will be some destructive interference with a
λ
maximum with a path difference . (Assuming no reflected radiations.)
2
The path of the reflected wave is twice the hypotenuse of the triangle, therefore:
(2.50 ×10 m ) + (60.0 m )
2 2 2
2 = 514 m
Therefore, the path difference is 514 m – 500 m = 14 m. Since this is a phase inversion at Earth, a wavelength of 14 m
will interfere destructively. Therefore, the largest possible wavelength to interfere constructively will be 13 m.
51. f1 = 3.0 ¯ 104 Hz
f2 = 4.5 ¯ 104 Hz
(a) λ1 = ?
λ2 = ?
c= fλ
c c
λ1 = λ2 =
f f2
1
Extension
52. f = 14.0 kHz = 1.40 ¯ 104 Hz
v = 1.40 ¯ 102 m/s
w=?
2
sin 30.0° =
w
w = 3.00 × 10 −2 m
The width of the slit is 3.00 ¯ 10–2 m, or 3.00 cm.
53. The white light range is 400 nm to 750 nm (red).
λR = 7.50 ¯ 10–7 m
number of lines = ?
sin θm ≤ 1
mλ
sin θ m =
d
d = mλ
= 2 ( 7.50 × 10−7 m )
d = 1.50 × 10−8 m
A dark fringe occurs at the edges where t = 0. The next dark fringe occurs when the path difference is λ, and the thickness
λ
is , therefore:
2
λ
t = number of fringes
2
(31) (5.89 × 10−5 m )
=
2
−4
t = 9.1× 10 m
The centre is 9.1 ¯ 10–4 m thicker than the edges.