6 Embedded Flash Memory 195

The program/erase operations typically utilize channel hot electron (CHE) injec-
tion from the drain of the cell transistor and Fowler-Nordheim (FN) electron tun-
neling mechanism through the bottom tunneling oxide to the drain or channel (sub-
strate), as shown in Fig. 6.21a. In the program operation, the source-to-drain current
generates the channel hot electron, part of which is injected into the floating gate
through the bottom oxide and negatively charges the floating gate, heightening the
threshold voltage of the memory transistor. On the other hand, the erase operation
is done at once in a sector, typically in K bits, for saving the erase time, in a “flash
erasure” manner. All the memory cells in a selected block are erased, regardless of
the previous stored data. The FN electron tunneling from the floating gate to drain
or channel/substrate decreases the threshold voltage of the memory cell transistor
toward the depression state. This 1Tr cell is applied very widely to embedded uses,
because it has a small cell size of less than 10F2 (F: minimum feature size) and
enjoys a mature state of technology by accumulated learning in discrete memory
and MCU industries.
Typical features of 1Tr-NOR flash device listed in Fig. 6.21b shows limitations
in this technology. By a cell read current in the range of 1–10 ␮A, up to 25 MHz
random-access read operation is widely achieved, while it ranges up to 80 MHz
based on the speed-enhanced cell and architecture optimization. The program/erase
endurance is typically limited to 10 K cycles. The limiting factors for the data
retention and P/E endurance in floating-gate cell are stress-induced leakage current
(SILC) caused by damages introduced by hole conduction and charge trap gener-

Program Erase
G 9.0V G –9.0V
eee
Open
e
3.5V D S D eee S
Open
Sub 0.0V Sub

–1.5V C 9.0V C

Source Drain Word Sub

Read Operation
(S) (D) (G) (C)

Program 0V 3.5V 9.0V –1.5V

G 4.5V
0.7V Erase Open Open –9.0V 9.0V

D Read 0V 0.7V 4.5V 0.0V

S 0.0V
Sub

0.0V C

Fig. 6.21a 1Tr-NOR cell operation