African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies Volume 5 No 2 September 2008 Articles Ejournal

i
AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

AND DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES
(AJEDS)
AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR

MULTI-DISCIPLINARY STUDIES
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
PROF. B.S. OKEKE
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF
PORT HARCOURT
SEPTEMBER, 2008
http://www.ajeds.com © all right reserved
ii
AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

AND
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES (AJEDS)
VOL. 5, NO.2 SEPTEMBER, 2008
ISSN: 07945-760

iii
AFRICAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATION AND

DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (AJEDS)
EDITORIAL BOARD
• Professor B.S. Okeke - Editor-in-Chief

University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. Nath. M. Abraham - Editor

University of Port Harcourt
• Dr. (Mrs.) Maureen N. Koko - Associate Editor

Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Nkpolu, Port Harcourt
• Dr. Musa O. Anavberokhai

Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma - Associate Editor
• Dr. David Aboho

Benue State University, Makurdi - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Grace K. Etuk

University of Uyo - Associate Editor
• Dr. (Mrs.) Jessica Ezekiel-Hart

Rivers State College of Education,
Port Harcourt. - Associate Editor

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 5., No 2, September, 2008
iv
CONSULTING EDITORS
Professor S.P.T. Gbamanja - Njala University, New England,

Freetown, Sierra Leone.
Professor (Mrs.) C.C. Nwagwu - Institute of Education, University

of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria.
Ms. Boakye Cecilia - Institute of Education, University

of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana.
Professor Kayode Ajayi - Olabisi Onabanjo University,

Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria.
Dr. Martin Fabunmi - Department of Educational

Management, Faculty of Education,
University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
Professor Wey Amaewhule - Rivers State University of Science

And Technology, Nkpolu,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
William Mhuri Masocha - Applied Scholastic, Zimbabwe.
Professor Abimbola Olakanmi - University of Ilorin, Ilorin,

Nigeria.

EDITORIAL/NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies (AJEDS)
is making steady progress in its avowed responsibility of publishing and
disseminating scholarly research reports. This is Volume 5, Number 2 of
the journal, and it contains 14 articles.
Being a multi-disciplinary outlet, the journal invites scholarly
articles on current issues of educational concern and those from other
disciplines.
• The Article should not be more than 15 A-4 pages, references and
appendices inclusive.
• Each article must be typed with double line spacing on one side of
paper only, using font 14.
• Article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words.
• Three (3) copies of article should be submitted for peer review with
non-refundable assessment fee as shall be decided by the Board.
• Citations and references must conform to current American
Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Each submission should be accompanied with one (1) self addressed
and stamped Large (bag) envelope as well as an official self
addressed/stamped envelope of return of assessed paper(s), and
acceptance letter respectively.
• Cover page of each article should have name(s) of author(s), title of
article, institutional affiliation, e-mail address as well as telephone
numbers of contributors.
All correspondence should be directed to:

Dr. Nath. M. Abraham – Editor
African Journal of Education and Development studies (AJEDS),
C/o Department of Educational Management,
Faculty of Education,
University of Port Harcourt,
Port Harcourt, Nigeria
vi
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Jamabo, A. (Ph.D) - Rivers State Universal Basic

Education Board, Port Harcourt
Jamabo T. (Mrs.) - Rivers State College of Education

Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt
Asagwara, C.G. (Ph.D.) - Associate Professor, Faculty of

Education, University of Calabar,
Calabar.
Macaulay, E.D. - Federal College of Education

(Technical), Omoku, Rivers State.
China, Mercy A. (Mrs.) - Federal College of Education

(Technical), Omoku, Rivers State.
Owhondah, Samuel N. (Ph.D)- Rivers State College of Education,

Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt.
Deemua, G.A. - Department of Human Kinetics

and Health Education,
University of Port Harcourt.
Bassey, Steve U. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational

Management University of Uyo,
Nigeria.
vii
Mezieobi, Dan - Department of Social Science

Education, University of Nigeria,
Nsukka
Mezieobi, Sam (Ph.D.) - Department of Curriculum Studies

and Educational Technology,
Omoni, Grace E. - Institute of Education Delta State

University, Abraka
Ijeh, Scholastica U. - Department of Psychology,

College of Education Agbor
Oghuvbu, E.P. (Ph.D.) - Department of Educational

Administration and Policy Studies
Delta State University Abraka,
Nigeria.
Iro, P.C.E. (Ph.D.) - Department of Human Kinetics,

and Health Education,
Okoro, James (Ph.D.) - Faculty of Education, Delta State

University, Abraka, Delta State.
Prof. John Bisi Asonibare - Depart of Guidance &

Counselling University of Ilorin,
Ilorin.

viii
Oniye, Abdulrazaq O. (Ph.D.)- Depart of Guidance &

Counselling University of Ilorin,
Ilorin.
Prof. P.O.M Nnabuo - Department of Educational

Management, University of
Port Harcourt.
Afangideh, Sunday T. - Department of Educational

Management, University of
Port Harcourt.
Kpee, G.G. (Ph.D.) - Institute of Education, University

of Port Harcourt.
Prof. E.B. Awotua-Efebo - Department of Curriculum Studies

and Educational Technology,
Baribor Vikoo (Ph.D.) - Institute of Education,


ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Editorial i
Editorial Board ii
Consulting Editors iii
List of Contributors iv
Table of Contents v
Perceptual styles and scholastic status of students in rivers state

ATUBOBARALABI JAMABO & TAMUNOIMAMA
JAMABO & ASAGWARA, C.G. 1
Functional foods: an evolving food for healthy living

CHINA, MERCY & MACAULAY, EGBO D. 15
Sensitization and empowerment of female teachers: a trend towards
gender parity in Nigeria.
OWHONDAH, SAMUEL NARIOCHUKWU, 22
Towards enhancing Nigeria’s sports performance: issues and

prospects. DEEMUA, G.A. 34
Causal attributions of success on goal attainment of principals in Akwa

Ibom state of Nigeria STEVE U. BASSEY, 48
Conflict generation and management in the Nigerian socio-political

environment, DAN. I. MEZIEOBI & SAM A. MEZIEOBI, 61
Death, bereavement and caregiving: implications for counselling
GRACE EGO OMONI & SCHOLASTICA U. IJEH 70

x
Analysis of resources management in primary schools in Delta State,

Nigeria. ENAMIRORO PATRICK OGHUVBU 80
Knowledge and practice of lesbianism among Nigeria university

athletes: implications for mitigating the HIV/AIDS scourge
P.C.E. IRO, 94
Assessment of working conditions of business studies teachers

in secondary schools in delta state, OKORO, JAMES 114
Retirement and retirement counselling: issues and challenges

PROF. JOHN BISI ASONIBARE &
ABDULRAZAQ OLAYINKA ONIYE 126
Effects of bibliotherapy and story telling Counselling techniques on

primary school teachers’ perception of retirement,
GRACE EGO OMONI 140
University autonomy and quality education in Nigeria

PROF. NNABUO, P.O.M; AFANGIDEH, S.T. &
KPEE, G.G. 150
Education for sustainable development: a coherent philosophy

for environmental education? AWOTUA-EFEBO, E.B.
& BARIBOR VIKOO. 160

1
PERCEPTUAL STYLES AND SCHOLASTIC STATUS OF

STUDENTS IN RIVERS STATE
BY
DR. ATUBOBARALABI JAMABO;
DR. (MRS) TAMUNOIMAMA JAMABO

&
DR. C. G. ASAGWARA
Abstract
The study investigated if there was a relationship between perceptual
style and scholastic status of J.S.S. II students in Rivers State of
Nigeria. The ex post facto research design was used with a
hypothesis guiding the study. The stratified random sampling
technique was used in drawing a sample of 1205 subjects. The
instrument used for data collection was captioned “Perceptual
Organization Visual Battery Test” (POVBT). The major finding of
the study was that, there was a high significant relationship between
perceptual style and scholastic status. It was recommended that the
mode of the learners’ perceptual style should be taken into
consideration before effective teaching and learning would take
place.
Introduction
School failure and dropping out of school are serious educational
and societal problems (Ianni & Orr, 1996). These are equally costly
to the individual, family and nation. Because students who leave
school before receiving a certificate reduce their opportunities.
Besides, school failure and attrition impinge upon retention and
graduation rates of schools. Expectedly, high level of attrition affects
institutional planning for facilities long term planning for the
curriculum and an institution’s survival. Large number of dropouts
also increase the average cost per student. All these are critical for
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the nation because of the fair portion of Nigeria’s human and

financial resources that go into the education enterprise (Onyejiaku,
1982).
Many factors are assumed to contribute to school failure
namely, the home, the school, the educational policy, the teachers
and the students themselves. While some of these postulations may
be correct, it can be surmised that most underachievers have not
actually learned, possibly due to inappropriate application of their
perceptual modes of understanding and abstractions to the teaching
behaviour and life generally.
It has become obvious that individual differences in the
cognitive processes of perception, memory and problem solving do
not necessarily reflect differences in basic intelligence (Onyejiaku,
1980; Jamabo, 2004). Much meaningful and usable learning
activities depend on pupil’s meaningful understanding or
categorization and not necessarily on the quality or richness of their
native intelligence. Onyejiaku (1980) and Jamabo (2004) further
confirmed that potentialities or abilities per se do not influence
behaviour more than mode of perceptual style. An individual’s
reaction to a stimulus is to a large extent a function of how he
perceives, analyzes and categorizes the situation which is a function
of his perceptual style.
The knowledge of this makes teaching-learning process
meaningful and transfer of knowledge possible. That is the reason
why Onyejiaku (1982) affirmed that if a person’s manner of
understanding receives some boost and is allowed free expression,
he would maximize his potentialities, learn more effectively and be
more effective in his preferred career.
Conceptualization of perceptual styles

It must have to be emphasized at this point that the terms ‘perceptual
style’ and ‘cognitive style’ are used interchangeably. In the
dictionary of Behavioral Sciences (1975), it is defined as “the mode
in which a person organizes and classifies his perception of

Perceptual Styles and Scholastic Status of Students in Rivers State, JAMABO , JAMABO &
ASAGWARA
3
environment in order to impose order upon a confusing series of

events” (p.175). Kagan, Moss and Sigel (1963), define the term as
“stable individual preferences in mode of perceptual organization
and conceptual categorization of the external environment” (p.74).
Schroder, Driver, and Strufer (1967), refer to the term as the stable
idiosyncratic differences among people in the way they go about
taking in, processing and utilizing information obtained from their
environment. In the light of these definitions, the term ‘perceptual
style’ or ‘cognitive style’ simply refers to the strategies which the
brain uses to actively select, attend to, organize, perceive, encode,
store, and retrieve information.
There have been several models of perceptual styles formulated
by psychologists of these streams of activity. Four of such
approaches have received greater attention. These are:
1. Levelling-sharpening (Gardner, Holzman, Klein, Linton

& Spence, 1959)
2. Field Dependence – Independence (Witkin, Dyke,
Faterson, Good -enough & Karp, 1962).
3. Analytic – Relational conceptual styles (Kagan et. al
1963).
4. Impulsivity – Reflectivity (Kagan, Roseman, Day,
Albert & Philips (1964)
Leveling – Sharpening tendencies to stimulus categorization is a
stream of activity in perceptual functioning grown out of the work of
Gardner and his associates (1959). Klein and Schlesinger (1950)
describe this conceptual style in terms of individual variations in
differentiation of the stimulus field.
Individuals with leveling tendency characteristically do not easily

distinguish between successive perceptual impressions so that
distractions within a perceptual field are blurred. On the other hand,
sharpeners are characterized by a high degree of separation between
memory of what has been learnt before and new information. That is

4
why Onyejiaku (1980) presented sharpeners as having discrete

recalled images. For levelers, perceptual impressions are not so
distinct and categorization is somehow vague.
Field Dependence–Independence, often referred to as
psychological differentiation, is the work of Witkin and his group
(1962). His approach distinguishes between individuals who separate
an object from an organized field (field independent) from those who
do not (field dependent). It is because of the consistencies
individuals manifested in both perceptual and symbolic activities
that led Witkin to distinguish them as styles of intellectual
functioning.
Characteristically, field independent individuals are able to perceive,
imagine, separate and analyze units embedded in a larger
configuration. Field independents can distinguish and co-ordinate
relevant attributes in a complex and often unstructured and
distracting stimulus world. On the other hand, the field dependent
individuals are characteristically unable to separate and co-ordinate
discrete units or sub units from a larger context or stimulus world.
Analytic –non-analytic perceptual functioning grew out of the
work of Kagan and his associates. They proposed analytic,
inferential and relational modes of conceptualizing and categorizing
stimulus. They observed that some individuals fractionate a stimulus
world into small sub-units and respond to them accordingly while
others simply respond to a large stimulus chunk as a whole. Out of
these varying strategies of responding, they distinguished two
groups: the “splinters’ and the “lumpers’. The former
characteristically analyze and differentiate stimulus field applying
labels to sub-unit of whole. The latter refers to those who tend to
categorize a relatively undifferentiated stimulus, thus, paying less
attention to details within a stimulus arrangement (Onyejiaka, 1980).
On a closer examination of these characteristic modes of
categorizing stimuli, Kagan and associates postulated three
perceptual styles, namely:

ASAGWARA
5
(1) analytic – descriptive (2) inferential – categorical and

(3) relational concepts. The authors’ definition of these styles as
paraphrased by Onyejiaku (1980).
Analytic Descriptive.
Analytic descriptive responses are defined on the basis of shared
stimuli. The subjects differentiate the stimulus configuration by
applying labels to sub-elements of the whole characteristically, they
prefer to split environmental stimulus or a given configuration into
discrete entities and responds to them as separate entities.
Operationally, analytic individuals refer to those who classify objects
together on their shared characteristics, for example, objects having
four legs, objects having one leg missing, animals with only one eye.
An analytic individual scores above the median on analytic
responses but below the median on inferential and relational
responses.
Inferential Categorical
Individuals with inferential categorical responding mode use
common class membership in relating to stimuli. In other words,
they group stimuli together on the basis of inferential quality of
language convention, not on the sub-elements of the whole.
Classification is based on the super-ordinate concept. Operationally,
individuals with inferential style are those who tend to group objects
because, for example, they are wooden furniture, or vehicles, or
living things, or just human beings. An individual with an inferential
style scores above the median on inferential responses but below the
median on analytic and relational responses.
Relational Style
Individuals with relational responding mode
characteristically pair stimulus configuration on the basis of
functional relationship between the stimuli. In a relational concept,
two stimuli are not independent conceptually, rather each derives

meaning from the other. In some texts, this style has been variously
labeled as global, contextual or theoretical mode of categorization
because of the characteristic ways these individuals associate a
whole stimulus with another whole stimulus in making an individual
with relational style group objects on functional basis. For example,
“a man lives in a house,” “a pen is used for writing”, “husband and
wife live together.” A relational individual scores above the median
on relational responses but below the median on analytic and
inferential responses.
According to Kagan et al (1963), relational concepts differ
from analytic descriptive concepts with respect to the part – whole
analysis of the stimulus. In a relational concept each stimulus in a
group retains its complete identity and is classified as a whole. In an
analytic-descriptive concept, the subject selects from each stimulus a
specific sub – element that is similar to a sub-element within another
stimulus, thus, separating figures, and there are no background
elements. For example, in a descriptive concept, “people wear shoes
on”, the crucial stimulus element is the presence of shoes, while the
remaining aspects of the stimuli are disregarded.
While the descriptive concepts involve an active conceptual analysis,
relational concepts seem to involve a passive acceptance of the
whole stimulus configuration.
Impulsivity-Reflectivity
Impulsivity-reflectivity dimension of intellectual functioning was
identified by Kagan et al (1964). It describes an individual’s
tendency to reflect on an aspect of problem situation, that is, when
there are available alternative solutions to a given problem but with
some uncertainty over which one is the most appropriate . when
highly alternative answers of which only one is the correct answer
are provided to subjects, subjects who respond quickly and in most
cases register more errors are labeled impulsive while those who
characteristically pause to as “reflective”.

ASAGWARA
7
Thus, under experimental conditions in impulsivity-

reflectivity measures, response time and errors are most important. It
should be noted, however, that delay in responses due to ignorance
should not be taken as reflective stance.
Kagan (1964), operationally defines the reflection variable as
the response time in problem situation in which the subject is
presented with a standard stimulus and an array containing the
standard and 5 to 10 highly similar variants.
The reflective and the impulsive may arrive at the same
answer in a given situation, yet there is difference in action time.
Generally, in any given situation, the child who is above the median
on MFF response time and below the median in errors is called
reflective. On the otherhand, the child who is below the median on
responses time but above the median on errors is called impulsive.
Purpose
The purpose of this study was to investigate if there was a
relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status.
Hypothesis
There is no significant relationship between perceptual style and
scholastic status in J.SS.II students in Rivers State.
Assumptions Of The Study

1. In the school system, scholastic status of a learner can be
measured.
2. The learner’s perceptual style can be identified, measured
and it varies among learners.
Sample
The sample was drawn from the population of J.S.S. II students
in Rivers State. The population was made up of thirteen
thousand, two hundred and fifteen boys (13,215) and thirteen
thousand, eight hundred and eight (13,888) girls with a total size
of twenty seven thousand, one hundred and three (27,103)

students. Their age range by between twelve (12) and fifteen (15)
years. Actual sample size was 1205. Stratification of the sample
was based on territories.
Research Instrument
The research instrument was modified from Sigel’s cognitive style
Test (SCST). The actual triads used in the test were adapted from a
doctoral study titled, “Effects of cognitive styles and instructional
strategies on Academic Achievement, “(Onyejiaku, 1980). The
instrument was captioned ‘Perceptual Organization Visual Battery
Test’ (POVBT). An analysis of the various items in the different
tests making up the POVBT reveal ‘Embedded Figure Tests’ (sub-
test on figure-ground differentiation) which turns out subjects that
are Field independent/Dependent. Matching Familiar Figure Test
(MFF) (sub-test on constancy of shape) which way diagnose subjects
under the mould of impulsivity/Reflectivity. While the SCST which
stipulates the child to identify related pictures will indicate students
who are Analytic and Non-Analytic in their mode of perceptual
categorization. The instrument was validated by a team of experts in
psychology.
Besides, reliability was also established using the simple random

sample to select a sample of 60 students. The Cronbach Alpha
Reliability technique revealed a reliability coefficient of .73.
Result
There is no significant relationship between perceptual style and
scholastic status.
TABLE 1: Chi square contingency test result: perceptual style
versus scholastic status.
Perceptual Mainstream Highrisk Total

n=1204
Styles students students
(n=742) (n=462)

ASAGWARA
9
Analytic Fo = 266 Fo = 252 Fo = 518

Fe = 319.2 Fe = 198.8 Fe = 518
Inconsistent Fo = 112 Fo = 98 Fo = 210
Fe = 194.4 Fe = 80.6 Fe = 210

Non-analytic Fo = 364 Fo =112 Fo = 476
Fe = 293.3 Fe = 182.7 Fe = 476
742 462 1204
X2 = 73.61., DF = 2, P <.05
From table 1, the observed (ie computed X2value of 73.61) far

exceeded the critical X2 value of 10.60 for 2 df at the .05 significance
level. This implies that the null hypothesis that there is no significant
relationship between perceptual style and scholastic status is
rejected.
Discussion
The result showed that relationship between style and scholastic
status is significantly high.
However, the finding of this study supports that of Goodacre (1971),

Onyejiaku (1982) and Schneider (1996) who found that perceptual
cognitive styles influence the manner in which the learner
understands and interprets what has been presented to him.
Perceptual styles must play an important part in the degree of
persistence the learner brings to the task. In studies by Ward, Pelco
and Landrum (1998), Schaiper and Flores (1985), individual
differences in learning were determined and subjects were made
more aware of their overall perceptual/cognitive learning style, their
overall perceptual/cognitive learning style preferences and their
actual strengths.
Possible reasons for this finding can be explained in the examination
of the construct of perceptual style itself. An individual’s perceptual
style is based on his responses to each triad of familiar pictures.

10
Analytic students choose to break these perceptions into discrete

entities while the nonanalytic students choose to treat them as
unified wholes.
This is supported by Onyejiaku (1980), Satterly (1976),
Frehner (1973), Mercer and miller (1992) where results of tests of
significance show that analytic students scored significantly higher
than nonanalytic students.
In a similar vein, Crow and Piper (1993), in their study found
that students who were field dependent and possessed a positive
attitude scored significantly higher on a science achievement test
than students who were field dependent and possessed a negative
attitude.
Ogunyemi (1973), and Duttweiler (1992) investigated the
relationship between science achievement and cognitive style. They
reported that among boys, the difference between high and low
science achievers on the inferential and analytic styles increased with
academic level. The studies also confirmed the finding that the
preferential style is superior to the analytic in terms of cognitive
hierarchy.
This is also in consonance with the findings of Cropley and Field
(1969), Stevens (1990) who reported that honours graduates came
almost exclusively from among those who have been rated high
divergent in their style of thinking on entry to the University four
years previously. In effect, what Cropley and Field observed is that
better understanding of the role of style in classroom performance
would be particularly useful in view of the current desire to identify
talent early and to foster its realization. In the same vein, De Nike
(1974), Deshler and Shumaker (1993), demonstrated that teachers
can individualize instruction by being aware of the cognitive style of
the individual learner.
This present study also affirmed that students with analytic
cognitive style perform significantly better than students with
nonanalytic cognitive styles.

ASAGWARA
11
Recommendations/Counselling Implications
Based on the finding of this study, and subsequent conclusions, the
following recommendations have been made:
 For effective teaching and learning, the mode of the learner’s

perceptual style, in other words, his mode of understanding
seems to be basic. The results of this study have shown that
analytic and nonanalytic students react differently to stimuli
presented to them.
 Students should be exposed to the instructional technique in
which they would benefit more. If learning activities are
prescribed that match even the highrisk student’s perceptual
style, the certainty of successful accomplishment of a
learning task are guaranteed.
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15
FUNCTIONAL FOODS: AN EVOLVING FOOD FOR

HEALTHY LIVING
BY
CHINA, MERCY A (MRS.) & MACAULAY, EGBO D.
Abstract
In the world today good health is one of the major concerns of every
nation because, a healthy nation is a wealthy nation. Food plays a
paramount role in our lives; everyone has the ambition of becoming
something in life this can only be true if we are healthy. This paper
therefore, focuses on the consumption of functional foods. In a
country where people are well fed with these functional foods, there
will be less incidence of sickness therefore; less amount will be
expended on health. The importance of functional foods was
critically examined. This paper concludes with the note that
functional foods are an integral part of on overall healthy lifestyle.
The paper recommends among others that people should strive to
consume a wide variety of functional foods.
Introduction
Consumer interest in the relationship between diet and health has
increased the demand for information about functional foods. Rapid
advances in science and technology, increasing health care cost,
changes in food laws affecting label and product claims, an aging
population, and rising interest in attaining wellness through diet, are
among the factor fueling a nations interest in functional foods.
Food has been defined as any substance, which after consumption,

digestion and absorption by the body produces energy, promotes the
growth and repair of tissues and regulates all the body process
(Olusanya, 1988). Functional food on the other hand is defined as
the dietary components that provide a health benefit beyond basic

16
nutrition (Hasler, 1998). (Achalu 1998) equally asserts that health is

more than just the absence of physical pain or disease as previously
thought in the ancient past. He defines health as a condition of the
body that enables one to cope with his or her environment and
enables one to derive reasonable satisfaction from one’s daily
activities, physically, emotionally, socially or otherwise. World
Health Organization (2003), views healthy living as the state of
complete physical, mental and social well – being of an individual,
individual healthy living is often contingent upon his dietary pattern,
which largely makes for his overall life success. There could
therefore be no skepticism that most person could struggle with
much assiduity to achieve good health through the consumption of
functional foods. In the same vein, healthy living may not be
achieved if we fail to take personal responsibility for promoting
health by practicing good eating habits especially, consumption of
functional foods (Haster, 1998).
Functional Foods from Plants Sources

Oats
Functional foods have been defined in a number of ways by different
persons, the emphasis however, inspite of the variation is on disease
prevention and health promotion. Borrowing from the words of
Okada (2005:40), “Oats products are dietary source of the
Cholesterol – lowering soluble fiber b-glucan”. From the foregoing,
it therefore means that oat consumption can reduce total and low
density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol thereby reducing the risk of
coronary heart disease (CHD) some examples of oat products are
Quaker oat, corn flakes etc.
Soybean
Soybean is without doubt one of the most important food crop ever
discovered by man from nature. Soy has been in the spotlight during
the 1990s not only is soy a high quality protein as assessed by the
FDA’s protein digestibility correction amino acid score method, soy

Functional Foods: An Evaluation food for Health Living, CHINA & MACAULAY
17
is now thought to play preventive and therapeutic in Cardiovascular

Disease (CVD), Okaka (2005), held that, soybean consumption is
relatively low in some countries especially Nigeria.
However, soy is form of milk and flour is fast becoming household
food in some countries including Nigeria because of its diet
improving capabilities and disease prevention. Soybean should be
made a household food he added.
Tomatoes
Credible scientific research indicates there are many clinically
demonstrated and potential health benefits from food components.
These benefits continue to expand the health claims not permitted to
be identified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Hasler
(1998), clearly stated that tomatoes as a functional food have
received significant attention, that tomatoes was selected by eating
well magazine as the 1997 vegetable of the year because of its role in
cancer risk reduction. However, the big question here is! Are we
eating tomatoes at least 10 or more time per week? (Fresh or
processed) the answer may not be far from the negative, if this be the
case, then we are very far from attaining or achieving good health.
Buttressing further, he added that tomatoes should be eating at least
10 times per week for prevention and reduction of cancer risk.
Garlic (Allium Sativum)

The purported health benefits of garlic are numerous, garlic is widely
quoted in the literature for medicinal properties. According to
Hasler (1998), garlic has ranked as the second best selling herb in
the United States, reason been that garlic is noted for prevention of
CVD, through it’s antihypertensive properties. However, there is
still insufficient evidence to recommend it as a routine clinical
therapy for the treatment of hypertensive subjects. Adlercreutz and
Fotsis (1982) opined that, the cardioprotective effects are more likely
due to its cholesterol – lowering effect. According to them, the
result of five randomized placebo controlled clinical trials, involving

18
410 patients, showed that an average of 900mg garlic per day (as
little as one – half to one clove of garlic) could decrease total serum
cholesterol level.
Citrus fruits
The major nutrient in citrus fruit is Vitamin C (ascorbic acid).
Borrowing from the words of Olusanya (1998), “citrus fruits are
protective against a variety of human cancers” from the foregoing, it
therefore means that, oranges, lemons, limes and grape fruits should
be adequately consumed because they are the principal source of this
nutrients.
Hasler (1998) views it as mild natural laxatives, as the cellulose is
however indigestible and so adds bulk to the stool. He held that
consumers should strive to consume a wide variety of citrus fruits.
Citrus are particularly high in a class of phytochemicals (ADA,
1995).
Tea
Tea is second only to water as the most widely consumed beverage
in the world. A great deal of attention has been directed to the
polyphenolic constituents of tea particularly green tea (AHF, 1992),
ADA(1995) posits that tea consumption can reduce the risk of CVD
in human.
AHF (1992) held that, most research on health benefits of tea has
focused on its cancer chemopreventive effect. This of course makes
it functional.
Wine and Grapes

Wine and grapes particularly red wine has some functional
attributes. Red wine has been known to reduce the risk of CVD
(Hasler 1998). He added that, the link between wine intake and
CVD first became apparent in 1979 when St. Leger in 1979 found a
strong negative correlation between wine intake and death from
Ischemic heart disease in both men and women from 18 countries.

19
France in particular has a relatively low rate of CVD despite diet

high in diary fat. AHF (1992) supported that, moderate wine
consumption has bee associated with a decrease risk of age related
macular degeneration especially non-alcoholic wine ADA (1995)
attributed the positive benefits of red wine to the ability of phenolic
substance to prevent the oxidation of low density lipoprotein (LDL)
a critical event in the process of atherogenesis. However, a note of
caution is in order, as alcoholic wine of all kinds have been linked to
increased risk of several types of cancer, including breast cancer
(Adlercrleutz et al 1982).
Functional Foods from Animal Sources

Although the vast number of naturally occurring health-enhancing
substances are of plant origin, there are a number of physiologically
– active component in animal products that deserve attention for
their potential role in optimal health.
Fish Omega – 3
According to Albert and Hennekens (1998) Omega – 3 fatty acids
are essential class of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAS) derived
primary from fish oil and known to play an important role in
reducing CVD risk.
Conclusion and Recommendation

As scientific and technological advances develop in the field of
health and nutrition, more and more focus has been directed towards
the emerging field of personalized nutrition which involves the
application of the human genome to nutrition and personal health to
provide individual dietary recommendations. Since functional food
has already been described as foods or dietary components that
provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition, this gives clarity
that, you can take greater control of your health through the food
choices you make, knowing that some foods can provide specific
health benefits. Examples are fruits and vegetables, whole grains,
fortified or enhanced foods and beverages etc. It is therefore

20
recommended that people should strive to consume a wide variety of

functional foods.
- Attention should be paid on preventive rather than
curative
- Diet should be personalized considering genetic make
upon and nutritional requirements.
- Access to food by all, food security should be achieved.
References
Achalu, E. I. (1989). Communicable and non-communicable
diseases, Causes and prevention (Rev. Ed.) Ibadan Afrika –
link books publishers Int. Ltd.
American Dietetic Association (ADA) (1995). Phytochemicals and

functional foods. Retrieved on 15/07/2008 from wikipedia
Org/nutrition/functional food/index.cof.
Albert C. M. & Hennekens, C.H. (1998). Fish consumption and risk

of sudden death J.A.M. Assoc. 279:23-28
http/www.nutriwatc.org/04foods/ffhtmt 15/07/2008.
Adlecreutz H. & Fotsis, T (1982). Excretion of the lignans

enterolactone and enterodiol in Omnivorous and vegetarian
postmenopausal women with breast cancer. Lancet: 1295-
1299. Retrieved on 15/07/2008 from wikipedia
org./nutrition/functional food/index.Cof.
American Health Foundation (1992). Pharmacological effect of

camellia Snensis (Tea): Implication for cardiovascular
disease, cancer, and public health. Retrieved on 18/07/2008
from Http/www.nutriwatch.org/04foods/ff.html.

21
Hasler, C. M. (1998). A publication of the institute of food

technologists expert panel on food Safety and nutrition.
http/www.nutriwatch.org/o4food/ff htm/ 15/07/2008.
Iwe, M. O. (2003). The science and technology of soybean Enugu.

Rojoint Communication Services Ltd.
Okaka, J.C. (2005). Handling, storage and processing of plant foods.

Enugu. OCJ Academic Publishers.
Olusanya, J. O. (1990). Foods and Nutrition for Senior Secondary

School 1 – 3 Ibadan University Press Plc.
World Health Organization (2003). A health and nutrition atlas.

Retrieved on 17/0708 from http/www.health and
nutrition.org.

22
SENSITIZATION AND EMPOWERMENT OF FEMALE

TEACHERS: A TREND TOWARDS GENDER PARITY IN
NIGERIA
OWHONDAH, SAMUEL NARIOCHUKWU, Ph.D.
Abstract
Taking note of a world that is apparently giving audience to its

deprived and oppressed women folk, the need for sensitization and
empowerment of female teachers towards gender parity in all
spheres of life in Nigeria emerged. A theoretical review of related
literature was embarked upon to fathom the persistent gender
inequalities and oppressive practices against women, and outline
efforts, and specific projects/strategies towards curbing the
oppressive practices. Based on the facts of the review, the paper
recommends unwavering commitment to women education,
(including second chance opportunity for those who missed their
chance and those who dropped out), membership of NGOs and co-
operative societies and advocacy on women empowerment among
other imperative actions.
Introduction
The speedy transportation provided by airline services, the fast and
far-reaching information delivery of radio, the amplified
dissemination of the video effect of satellite-driven
television/internet and the voluntary instant link of GSM
telecommunication have combined to compress the world into a
global village, thus reducing the cartographic delineation of the
various states, nations and countries into imaginary faint lines.
Consequently, the socio-cultural uniqueness of Nigeria and other

countries of the world are fast disappearing and being steadily
neutralized into a single global entity. With this progressive global

23
harmonization of human affairs, changes have consistently been

generated and sustained in all spheres of human development by
United Nation’s – a voluntary aggregation of well meaning nations
of the world.
In the Beijing Conferences (UNIFEM and UNIC, 1995:6), some

efforts made to neutralize the socio-cultural uniqueness of countries
include the United Nation’s Conferences and Summits on Women in
Nairobi in 1985, on Children in New York in 1990, on Environment
and Development in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, on Human Rights in
Vienna in 1993, on Population and Development in Cairo in 1994
and on Social Development in Copenhagen in 1995.
Besides, an editorial titled “Mainstreaming Gender Approach in

Unions” in Awurusa (2004:2) added that Mexico 1975, Nairobi
1985, Beijing 1995 all preached gender justice and women’s right as
a human right. All these meetings provided useful platforms for
women movements to focus attention on their quest for equality and
equity. Mainstreaming gender perspective is necessary in society
especially among the female teachers who are privileged by virtue of
their profession to sensitize and empower other women and who also
ought to belong to current women organizations including the
Nigeria Union of Teachers (N.U.T.) because they are the mirrors of
society and are concerned [as mothers] about the welfare of the
majority of our vulnerable members who are the women. The
ultimate goal is to achieve equality, unity, peace, democracy and
gender justice.
Efforts are made to address the social ills against women as

embodied in the United Nations human rights declaration which
called for equality between men and women, the Beijing Declaration
and Platform for Action the Convention on the Elimination of all
forms of Discrimination Against Women, the 1979 Nigerian
Constitutional Provision on the equal rights and opportunities of all

Sensitization and Empowerment of Female Teachers: A Trend Towards Gender Parity in
Nigeria., OWHONDA
24
citizens before the law, Better life for Rural Women of Babangida’s
Regime, Family Support Programme of Abacha’s Regime, National
Policy of the year 2000 and the current NEEDS/SEEDS of
Obasanjo’s administration.
Statement of the Problem

The persistent gender inequalities and oppressive practices against
women which deny them the possibility of realizing their potentials,
marginalization of women in the family and societal decision making
process, such as in early marriage, gender specific roles, right to
reproductive health, access to economic resources, responsible
parenthood, social security, access to education etc, including other
gender issues such as violence against women like battery and rape,
travails of widow hood, boy-child vs. girl-child dichotomy leading to
preference of male to female children, high rate of maternal
mortality, female genital mutilation, denial of right to education and
vocation of feminization of poverty, which leads to prostitution and
its related hazards.
This paper therefore outlines the need to enlighten female teachers,

nay women, on the burning issues, and challenge them to take
positive actions that will enhance the realization of the elimination of
all forms of discrimination against women-a move with positive
imperatives for the well-being of all people, irrespective of race,
creed and nationality.
Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is the need to sensitize and empower
female teachers in Nigeria towards gender parity. The specific
objectives of the investigation are:
1. To outline the persistent gender inequalities and oppressive
practices against women,
2. To highlight a number of efforts made to address the outlined
social ills against women, and

25
3. To highlight the specific projects/strategies to address the

outlined social ills against women.
The Persistent Gender Inequalities and Oppressive Practices

against Women
1. Overbearing Interest of Man
The world is often described as men’s world. The man is the head of
the family. He often sees the women as men’s property married
(bought with bride price) and therefore owned. His desires and
wishes are laws that cannot be queried but simply complied with.
The women’s aspiration therefore must obtain clearance from the
man to be sustained. The husband can send the wife packing at will
(Nsirim, 2006 & Bosaji, 2005).
2. Early Marriage
The under age girl-child is often withdrawn from school in some
parts of the country against her will and married out to her fathers
choice husband, irrespective of her emotional, physical,
psychological and economical immaturity. Child pregnancy, VVF
and the attendant complications are possible consequences with
harrowing experiences.
3. Gender Specific Roles
The girl-child is expected to help her mother draw water, fetch
firewood, keep the house clean, helping in the farm where men
preside, do the shopping, go to the market to sell the agricultural
produce etc. Chabaud (1970) notes that a woman’s pre-occupation,
or wishes are to pass on these domestic skills to her daughter. Men
are to be served.
4. Right to Reproductive Health
The decisions of when to have sex, get pregnant and how many
children to bear and how to space them (that is family planning)
belong to the man irrespective of the state of the woman’s medical
and mental health. Any resistance is punished with sanctions,
violence or taking another wife or outright repatriation to her
parents.

Nigeria., OWHONDA
26
5. Access to Economic Resources

The National Policy on Women (2000:12) posits that patriarchy and
its related practices constitute major impediments to the full
integration of women into the Nigerian economy. As practiced in
Nigeria patriarchy gives men ascendancy in inheritance, authority
and decision making inside and outside the home. Patriarchy is
inheritance through the male with high value on male children, strict
adherence to division of labour along gender lines. Land property
and the family savings are inherited by males only.
6. Responsible Parenthood
This involves being socially and economically stable to many, and
raise children responsibly. The practice of child spacing and number
limitation are expected to respect the health of the mother and ensure
that children are adequately fed, clothed, trained (go to school) and
generally cared for. The ceaseless search for the preferred male child
often leads to un-bargained number of children who subsequently
become potential maids and candidates for trafficking.
7. Access to Education
This has improved a lot in the Southern Nigeria. In a not too distant
past, the girl-child was considered someone’s property the boy child
went to school at the expense of the girl, especially when the
parent’s financial muscle was weak.
In advanced communities university education was an exclusive

preserve for men at a time. Such subjects like Mathematics, Science
and Technology were referred to as masculine. Girls were for arts,
social sciences and education.
On this matter, UNESCO (1981) affirmed that boys are entitled to

training that paves the way to occupations connected with production
and to jobs with responsibility, whereas girls are confined to courses
for service, occupations for family life.

27
Apparently, lamenting the admission of the first set of women

admitted into the university, Frazier and Sadker (1973) had reported
a university vice chancellor as saying that Men will lose as women
advance. We will have community effeminate women and
emasculated men.
8. Violence against Women
Issues as rape, battery, forceful ejection from matrimonial homes are
facts of violence against women. When reported even to the police,
such assaults are dismissed as domestic affairs.
9. The Travail of Widowhood
At the death of a husband some widows are compelled by custom
and tradition to sit on bare floor for weeks in half-node without a
bath, compelled to have strange sexual intercourse to sever her bond
with the dead and forced to drink the water used in bathing the
corpse of the late husband if suspected to have had a hand in the
husband’s death. Such suspicion usually arose if the relationship
between the woman and the husband was strained shortly before his
death. Surviving the strange drink proves her innocence.
10. Other Oppressive Practices against Women
These include female mutilation to reduce their sexual urge and
prevent them from being wayward. This is a primitive practice which
is known to be harmful to the woman’s reproductive health. High
rate of maternal mortality due to poor maternity facilities,
feminization of poverty which appears to force the girl-child into
seductive attire, prostitution and the danger of contracting STDs, STI
and HIV/AIDs also expose some girls to the danger of trafficking for
forced prostitution abroad (Bosaji, 2005).
Efforts towards Curbing the Oppressive Practices
A number of efforts have been made to curb the oppressive practices
against womanhood
1. UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The UNICEF in an undated publication on CEDAW noted that the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms the principle of the
inadmissibility of discrimination and proclaims that all human

Nigeria., OWHONDA
28
beings are borne free and equal in dignity and rights and that
everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth therein
without distinction of any kind including distinction based on sex.
Nigeria as a member of the United Nations should also respect and
honour its Universal declarations.
2. Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995)
The biggest and most successful women conference took place in
Beijing China on August 30, 1995. Over 46000 women from 189
countries of the world deliberated and made far-reaching
declarations indicating international commitment to the goals of
equality, development and peace for all women everywhere. A few
out of the 38 documented declarations include:
(a) We dedicate ourselves unreservedly to addressing these
constraints and obstacles and thus enhancing further, the
advancement and empowerment of women all over the world
and agree that this requires urgent action in the spirit of
determination, hope, co-operation and solidarity, now and to
carry us forward into the next century.
(b) We affirm our commitment to the equal rights and inherent
human dignity of women and men and other purposes and
principles enshrined in the charter of the United Nations to
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other
international human rights instruments, in particular, the
convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW) as well as the Elimination of
Violence Against Women [EVAW] and the Declaration of
the Rights to Development [DRD]. Nigeria was adequately
represented in Beijing Conference and is committed at least
in policy to the declaration she was party to the making.
(c) The Provisions of the 1979 Constitution Women
empowerment is justifiable. Chapter 11, Section 17,
Subsection 2 of the 1979 Nigerian Constitution states that
“every citizen shall have equality of rights, obligations and
opportunities before the law.” Subsection 3 added that “all

29
citizens without discrimination on any group whatsoever,

have the opportunity for securing adequate means` of
livelihood as well as adequate opportunity to secure suitable
employment.
(d) Better Life for Rural Women
This was a pet project of the spouse of President Ibrahim
Babangida, a politico-socio attempt to empower women, an
indication that a concerted effort to mobilize women to self-
help and sustenance is feasible.
(e) Family Support Programme
Like her predecessor, Mrs. Myriam Abacha, wife of
President Sanni Abacha stepped out to lend support to ailing
families. It was believed to be a form of assistance to the
women folk because an ailing family in practical terms is
primarily the woman’s burden. She must improvise while the
man is away sniggling for the family’s up-keep.
(f) National Policy on Women (2000)
This was a powerful government thrust that genuinely
showed government commitment to the global trend in
women welfare, different in seriousness from previous pet
project of government appendages.
Some of the goals of the policy include:

i. Raising national awareness of the citizens’ constitutional
rights and on a long term basis, mobilizing and educating the
public on human rights in order to remove legal, cultural,
religious and other constraints against the attainment of
social justice and equity in the society.
ii. Ensuring the elimination of all forms of discrimination
among women.
iii. Instituting an effective Gender and Development (GAD)
management structure for the co-ordination of all GAD
activities in the country.

Nigeria., OWHONDA
30
The Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth Development

[MWAYD] should coordinate these activities. The policy thus
includes:
1. Equity, social order and social well-being;
2. Resource allocation for full participation of women in
economic programmes for improved self image;
3. Economic growth and efficiency through educational and
skill development of women for capacity/ potential
utilization;
4. Discouragement of patriarchy through education,
enlightenment, egalitarianism and legislation review on
gender and enactment of new ones where necessary; and
5. Cultural dynamism, which is, eliminating those aspects of
our culture that inhibit the development of positive self-
identity of women and their participation in the society.
Specific Projects/Strategies towards Curbing Oppressive

Practices against Women
NEEDS/SEEDS
The National Economic Empowerment Development Strategies
(NEEDS) cited in Bosaji (2005) is the most current developmental
thrust developed by the Federal Government. Its state counterpart is
State Economic Empowerment Development Strategies (SEEDS).
Since SEEDS is yet at formulation stage and a translation of Federal
Government development thrust at the state level, Anikweze
(2004:9) indicated that NEEDS aims at fully integrating women
through enhancing their capacity to participate in the economic,
social, political and cultural life of the country.
The specific projects/strategies to achieve this were outlined as:

1. Ensuring equitable representation of women all over the
country in all aspects of our national life, the affirmative
action of proportionate representation of not less than 30%
will be pursued, where feasible;

31
2. Domestification of the UN Convention on the Elimination of

all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW);
3. Pursuing legislation for the abolition of all forms of harmful
traditional practices against women;
4. Mainstreaming women concerns and perspectives in all
policies and programmes;
5. Promotion of women access to micro finance and all poverty
alleviation strategies with a view to reducing feminized
poverty;
6. Empowerment of women through sustained advocacy,
education and mobilization to reduce women’s vulnerability
to HIV/AIDS, STI and other STDS.
7. Establishing scholarship schemes at the secondary and
tertiary levels in order to expand educational opportunities
for female students where necessary and expanding a
programme on non-formal education e.g. Adult and
Vocational Education to cater for women beyond formal
school age.
Recommended Actions for All Female Teachers

Female teachers and indeed all women in Nigeria are urged to:
1. Note the oppressive/discriminatory practices outlined in this
paper and make concerted efforts to update it to a
comprehensive compilation of all forms of discrimination
against women in the school setting. One needs to be aware
and conscious of the discriminations before addressing them.
Besides, an adage says that problems properly identified are
half solved.
2. Note that all efforts are put in place to address the
discriminations and empower women. This will enable
female teachers take advantage of such provisions as they
concern or benefit them and use them to assist individuals or
group that need help within and outside the school setting.

Nigeria., OWHONDA
32
3. Generate a list of local, state, national and international

NGOS, government organizations and cooperative societies
interested and committed to the course of women with a view
to approaching them for assistance, support or affiliation.
4. Equip yourself to be a role model in the classroom, school,
union [NUT] and society by encouraging young and aged
women alike, through words and actions to appreciate the
value of education. This could be through formal and
informal classroom interactions. Those women who are
incapacitated by lack of access to school or by dropping out
should be assisted to take the second chance position
provided by life long education, adult and non-formal
education and distance education programmes. Ignorance is a
big set back to all forms of women empowerment.
5. As female teachers aspire to update yourself educationally,
socially, economically, spiritually, and politically if need be.
6. Female teachers should form, join or mobilize women
advocacy groups to remind government, ministries,
parastatals or NGOs that have made policy pronouncements
or declaration of intent on women affairs, need and
empowerment to live up to expectation. Women affairs in the
hand of men may continue to be forgotten or postponed to a
more auspicious time, which may never come.
7. Examine and ensure that women are fairly represented in
NUT, classroom Teachers Association and other
organizations in which one is a member.
8. National Economic Empowerment Development Strategies
(NEEDS) is a new and rich women empowerment
programme, which female teachers should take advantage of.
It should be closely monitored and embraced.
9. The provocative, seductive and sometimes irresponsible
fashion of over revealing or flaunting the contour erotic
parts of the body along the street may be fancied by
many, but is surely loaded with negative implication for

33
the girl-child who knows next to nothing about her

reproductive health, the dangers of STDs, STI, HIV/AIDs
pandemic and the human trafficking syndicates. Female
teachers should be the leading vanguards of these
obnoxious practices that are too serious to be ignored.
References
Anikweze, C. M. (2004). Educational policies, practices
and strategies for achieving reforms in Nigeria. A Resource
Paper Presented at Workshop on Capacity Building
Organized by Education Tax Fund at Federal College of
Education (Technical) Umunze, Anambra State.
Awurusa, H. (2004). Mainstreaming gender approach in
unions (Editorial). Pro women, Jan – Dec.
Bosaji, S. O. (2005). The need to sensitize and empower women in a
changing world. Lecture at Nwafor Orizu College of
Education Nsugbe, during CTT/NUT In-service Planning
Workshop for Teachers Held from July 25 – 29, Anambra
State.
Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Youth Development
(2000). National policy on women, Abuja: FMWAYD.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1979). The Nigerian constitution.
Frazier, N. and Sadker, M. (1973). Sexism in school and society,
New York: Harper and Row Publishers.
Nsirim, E. U. (2006). Problems and prospects of the education
of the girl-child in Emohua local government area.
Unpublished B.Ed Project, RSUST, Port Harcourt.
UNESCO (1981). Sex bias in training and the labour force, Paris:
UNESCO
UNICEF (Undated). Convention on the elimination of all forms of
discrimination against women.
UNIFEM and UNIC (1995). Beijing declaration and platform for
action, Nigeria: UNIFEM and UNIC.

34
TOWARDS ENHANCING NIGERIA’S SPORTS

PERFORMANCE: ISSUES AND PROSPECTS.
BY
G.A. DEEMUA
Abstract
Sports is a strong force which contributes immensely towards
maintaining a peaceful co-existence in societies. Nigeria’s
awareness is improved toward excellent performance in competitive
sports through healthy competitions. Although there has been a
growing controversy on the dwindling fortune of Nigeria’s sport
performance in contemporary time, particularly, in the context of
how to sustain efficiency in administration organization, coaching
strategies, motivation of athletes and time utilization series. The
paper harnessed to ensure brilliant performance of Nigeria’s
athletes in global sports competitions. Such factors include the
availability of sports facilities and equipment as a prelude for
sustaining optimal performance. The paper highlighted in strong
terms the need for adequate funding, motivational strategies for
athletes, the competency of sports personnel in administering sports
programmes and of course human performance attributes among
others. The paper made recommendations that would help to
improve the standard of sports in Nigeria, chief among which is
good training programs where the athletes will be adequately
prepared for the challenges ahead of time. Finally, our coaches
should be knowledgeable and skillful so that they will attain the
efficiency level of foreign coaches.
Introduction
Sports arouses the interest and enthusiasm of people all over the
globe including Nigerians. It is well known that sports capture the
interest of people in almost all countries no matter what their stage
of development. According to Morakinyo (2002), sports is a social

35
phenomenon that has grown from its humble beginning of being an

entertainment and recreation past-time to becoming a viable and
prominent business phenomenon that could no more be ignored in
the social, political and economic environment of any nation.
Nigerians are sports loving people who even in early times
devoted themselves to such sports as wrestling, hunting, swimming,
acrobatic display and boat regattas. The increasing awareness of
Nigerians about sports and excellent sports performance at
competitions has become a contemporary concern of the present day
Government, corporate bodies and individuals alike. As Awosika
(2000) said, today there is a new dimension to sports development in
Nigeria with emphasis not only on the physical and mental
development but also financial encouragement and scholarships from
government and philanthropists for individual sports men and
women. The general recognition and importance of sports has made
it to become a vehicle for promoting rapid sports development in
Nigeria. Sports as an important social phenomenon in the world have
attracted a lot of personnel, money and time for its development.
Apart from the athletes, and their coaches, some other
categories and specialization supportive personnel have emerged.
According to Oyebola (1997), dieticians, sports administrators,
physiotherapists, doctors specialized in sports medicine and sports
physiologists are now important in ensuring that athletes achieve the
best possible results in competitions. Sports is a business enterprise
which tasks the brains and minds of coaches and sports
administrators to harness the human and material resources
embedded in sports culture of Nigeria, to make Nigeria great in the
sporting world. There is no doubt that sports deal with human
beings, and as such the determinants that will help them should be
properly implemented in order to succeed. These determinants range
from facilities and equipment, incentives and other enabling inputs
which will facilitate the achievement of efficiency and excellence in
sports.

Towards Enhancing Nigeria’s Sports Performance: Issues and Prospects. DEEMUA
36
Factors Enhancing Excellent Sport Performance

The Coach: The position of a coach as a team handler and trainer is
a very crucial one. Coaching is not an all comer job. Coaching
should attract competent, qualified and professional personnel
(Igboanugo, 1986).
Bucher (1979) listed four qualifications of good coach. First,
is the ability to teach fundamentals and strategies of the sport; he or
she must be a good teacher. Second, there is also the need to
understand the players: how they function at a particular level of
development. Thirdly, he or she must understand the sport coached –
through knowledge of techniques, rules, strategies, formation.
Fourth, the coach has desirable personality and character. Patience,
understanding, kindness, honesty, sportsmanship, sense of right or
wrong, courage, cheerfulness, affection, and enthusiasm are
imperative.
The coach, as a decision maker in the field of play and

practice sessions is often seen as a helper who assists in bringing out
the talents of athletes to fullest potentials (Eboh, 2002). The coach
plays the following roles that revolve around motivating of athletes,
creating a conducive atmosphere for participating for all athletes,
providing athletes with all necessary and required medical/health
facilities, assisting in planning and conducting practice sessions,
scouting and recruiting new players into teams, establishing training
programmes, conditioning athletes mentally, physically, and
emotionally for training and competitions. He is also involved in
keeping records of and training and conducting practices, taking care
of correspondence on all team matters, updating of coaching skills
through clinics and workshops, maintaining good public relations,
making arrangement for trips and travelling with team(s) and
maintenance of facilities, equipment and supplies.
Some people have the erroneous impression that they have
outstanding athletes. Igboanugo (1986) emphasized that exceptional
skill in any sport does not necessarily guarantee success in the

37
coaching of the sport. The writer supports the position that the best
preparation a coach can have is to train in the field of physical
education, specializing in coaching a particular sport.
The big questions are whether Nigerian coaches handling
various sports are experts and the best candidates available? Are they
employed on the basis of expertise and the ability to deliver the
goods and not on the basis of quota? Why are we relying so much on
foreign coaches for the grooming of our athletes for international
competitions?
It is the contention of this paper that Nigeria coaches are
proving their mettle in their chosen profession. To satisfy the
yearnings of Nigerians towards achieving the desired performance
expectations, the sports administrators, at both the national and state
sports councils, should set up periodic in-service training courses for
coaches so that they will attain the efficiency level of foreign
coaches. It is equally important that there must be enough incentives
to be able to employ and retain the best hands in coaching
profession.
Sound Administrative Competence: The term administration is
commonly used in government organizations and institutions.
Administration involves the activities and processes adopted by a
group of individuals toward the attainment of set objectives or
policies. It is an attempt at coordinating people, facilities,
equipment, supplies and materials towards attaining set objectives.
Administration is a means to an end and not an end itself. It is the
methods and strategies adopted by individuals toward policy
attainment (Bucher, 1979). Traditionally, administration exists in
order to carry out the policies that had been developed by the duly
constituted policy – forming group, like Sport Management Board.
Bucher (1971) posits that when policies are properly selected and
developed, they enable each member of the organization to know
what duties are to be performed, how best the departments’ goals can
be accomplished and the procedure by which accountability can be
established and evaluated.

38
Administration can only take place if the following four

elements are available (Halpin, 1962):
• Formal organization
• Task to be performed.
• Workers to perform task
• Leaders to show the way
Sports administration involves the coordination of essential elements
in an administrative environment for the purpose of ensuring
efficiency and effectiveness in the running of a sporting organization
so that a set policy could be achieved.
Sports administration entails two main areas of emphasis,
namely: institutional/organizational administration and
situational/event administration. Institutional or organizational
administration involves administrative activities and processes
geared towards ensuring successful policy outcome while
situational/event administration entails activities and processes
geared toward ensuring the success of training and competitive field
situations. However, for Sports Administration to succeed, whatever
forms of operational policy that is adopted should not negate the
broad policy guidelines.
Sports administration is fast becoming a vital part of the
overall organization of sports. Bucher (1979) asserts that effective
organization starts with good administration. The emphasis should
be on employing adequate and qualified persons to organize and
administer sports in Nigeria if desirable performance expectations
are to be ensured. Competent sports organization and effective
administration involve human, material and financial management.
Days are gone when any body in any trade or profession can ascend
sports platform and perform the job satisfactorily. Ikulayo (1986)
affirmed that unless sports administrators are well equipped and
knowledgeable enough about the mechanical and technical demands
of their callings, they can never perform the job as effectively and
efficiently as the real professional at the job. It is the contention of
this paper that the resultant effect of the practice of having non-
39
specialists occupying the administrative posts in sports management

are evidence of fluctuating performance outputs which have
characterized our sporting performance in recent times.
Equipment and Facilities: Sports equipment and facilities occupy
strategic position in the making and performance of an athlete. There
have been numerous studies which results portray the influence of
good and appropriate equipment and facilities on participation and
performance in sports. Umeasiegbu (1981) states that good sports
programmes can only function effectively when they are supported
with good and appropriate equipment and facilities.
Other studies, Ajisafe (1974), Anyanwu (1979) and
Onyilogwu (1975) emphasized that it would be impossible to
achieve satisfactory results from athletes whose training facilities are
inadequate or substandard. Standard facilities and equipment are
essential pre-requisites for good and impressive performance.
In these days of economic difficulties, programme directors
are expected to demonstrate competence in soliciting for funds from
other sources like the interested public, fans, alumni associations and
philanthropic organizations. To do this successfully requires the
ability to identify the present and future financial needs, as well as
identifying all available sources of funds. He also needs human
relations skills in reaching all potential contributors. The problem
we have in Nigeria with regards to procurement and maintenance of
the facilities we spend millions of Naira to build/buy is lack of
maintenance culture. Omoruan (1996) observed that:
One of the best ways of maintaining sports
facilities and equipment is to put them into use.
Just as it is important to provide these sport
facilities and equipment, it is even more
important to maintain them. These can be
achieved in these three ways. First, people
should use rather than misuse these facilities
and equipment. Secondly, those employed to
look after them must have the knowledge of

40
what they are to take care of. Thirdly, money

should be provided for maintenance. (p. 116-
117).
It is no gain-saying that due to lack of sporting structures and

equipment, most of our youths migrate overseas where there are
abundance of these. That is why for a long time we will continue to
depend on foreign-based athletes for the realization of our sports
performance expectations.
Finance: Perhaps the most important element to achieve effective
organization of sports and resultant performance objectives is the
availability of finance to support and execute it. Athletes are
expensive commodities to maintain. Without money there can be no
standard facilities and equipment for training. Since sports is no
longer a play thing but a business and an enterprise there is the need
of identifying and adequately fund sources, so as to optimize output
from input for an effective and productive outlay. Sport
development officers and sport managers in developing economies
can explore and thus exploit adequately the following fund sources
for the purpose of ensuring steady supply of funds for sports
development. These are:
• Government
• Ticketing
• Fund raising campaign
• Donation from philanthropic individuals and organizations
• Media rights
• Endorsements
• Transfer fees
• Marketing of items and products
• Sponsorship
• Lottery
Government is the largest spender of funds in the developing
world and thus provides some of the funds for sports development. It
is not surprising that all through the year, sporting agencies and
41
associations depend on government. According to Jackson (1998)

government involvement with both private and non profit sport
entities is marketing technique that has been applied in the United
States of America and Canada. It means that while government
funding exists, other fund sources should be exploited.
However, now that most developing countries which regard
sport as a social service are experiencing financial constraints that
have necessitated a cut in budget from year to year, it has become
difficult for sporting organizations to survive. Therefore, sports
development officers and administrators must act fast and look for
other sources of revenue. It is therefore seen that adequate provision
of finances for effective organization and administration of sport in
Nigeria is a must if high performance in this country is to be
realized.
Human Performance Factors: Human performance factor can be
defined as physical, psychological, physiological and motor
performance attributes which enable the performer or athlete to
execute his skills efficiently, economically and gracefully (Owolabi,
1897; Umeasiegbu, 2002). These factors are built and executed.
This is because no athlete can be successful unless he is in line with
the basic and refined skills of his sport. In the same way, no athlete
can succeed in executing his learned or acquired skills unless he is
naturally endowed with or has acquired the performance attributes
relevant to his sport.
The identified performance attributes include age, height,
body weight, body fat, strength, endurance, flexibility, speed and
psychological traits such as motivation and personality (Owolabi
1987). Most of these performance factors in sports have been
identified through research studies on habitual performers, and
champion athletes in each sport. (Sharp, 1980; Owolabi, 1985;
Schwartz, 1973).
These factors have been found to vary according to their skill
levels, being higher in champion athletes and lower in habitual
athletes. However, with specific reference to Nigeria sports, Owolabi

42
(1987) lamented that there is no doubt that little or no attention is

paid to training and improving the performance factors in our sports
men and women for efficient productivity.
Motivation
Motivation is defined in various ways by scholars and professionals
of various backgrounds. It is the tendency for the direction and
selectivity of behaviour to be controlled by its connection to
consequences and the tendency of this behavior to persist until a goal
is achieved (Alderman, 1974). The persistence of an individual
partaking in any act is influenced by possibilities of achieving set
goals and targets or accomplishing ambitions or felt needs (Akhioya,
1993). Motivation must be kept up pre and during the period of
competition. Both the coach and the learners/athletes need to be
motivated. Adeyanju (1975) opines that to enhance performance, it
may be necessary to organize pre-competition motivation dur ing the
hours before competition. In the process, negative thoughts will be
eliminated and positive thinking used and words employed to
increase self-confidence. Athletes should be motivated to build
athlete confidence on tangible, practical cues to which they can
relate and during competition where the coach can directly
communicate with them for an all out efforts and supervisor
performance (Bompa, 1999).
The sport managers/coaches roles in sport competition is
very important because the learners/athletes take direction from him.
Although, according to Amuchie (1987), coaching is regarded as a
very risky venture that is full of uncertainties. This is because the
efficiency of the athletes and the coach is usually measured by their
success at the end of the competition. The losing coach stands the
risk of losing his job while the victorious coach becomes the darling
of the public. Therefore, both the athletes and the coach should be
highly motivated. They should be less nervous and adapt coping
behaviour and strategies. Coaches should know that the power of
the mind is the key element in competition. Meeting the mental
demands, the ability to remain focused, maintain emotional control,

43
concentration, sustain his job performance, use psychological

principles and skills relating to motivation, goal setting, attention
control, feedback, performance profiling, personality and stress
coping – techniques (Rushall, 1986).
Strategies for Motivating Athletes

The importance of motivation in higher level competitions or any
field of endeavour can not be overemphasized. The following are
strategies for motivating athletes:
1. Knowing each performer
2. Communicating effectively
3. Administrative effectiveness
4. Application of leisure
5. Ensuring that motivational incentive schemes are
standardized and athletes educated and informed on the
conditions and requirements for application
6. Developing and enhancing leadership
7. Enhancing team friendship
8. Making approved payments as at when due
9. Athletes should be recognized when they perform well
Conclusion
Nigeria holds the performance expectations of athletes, coaches and
administrators in sports scene very high. The federal government of
Nigeria has taken the task of controlling and regulating sport expect
coaches and technical advisors to be more competent, dedicated and
result oriented, while the athletes should train harder and performer
better in order to win more laurels at international competitions.
Nigeria in the organizations of sports demands a review of
the organizational model of sports. Therefore, to improve sports
performance the administrative and technical crews must be proven
professionals working together to effect proper organization at all
levels.
However, in order to ensure organizational efficiency and
effectiveness, the representatives of government must join hands

44
with the interest groups in taking appropriate decisions and actions

on matters relating to sports development.
Recommendations
Based on the above discussion, the following recommendations are
made towards improving sports performance:
(a) In-serve programmes, seminars and workshops should be
organized regularly for coaches, sports managers and
administrators to keep abreast of innovations in sports.
(b) Adequate funds should be provided to run the sports
programme of this country. Sports is capital intensive.
Fund is needed to provide sports facilities and
equipment, build and maintain infrastructure, provide
conducive environment for training and maintaining athletes
and their handlers. However, sports philanthropists
industrial establishments and co-operate bodies should assist
the government in the sponsorship of sports programmes if
the desired goal is to be met.
(c) Federal government should help build state stadia to
international standard and refurbish other existing stadia
throughout the federation for effective use by
athletes/coaches.
Sports facilities and equipment should be properly
maintained to meet with what is obtainable in developed
countries. This will help coaches and athletes for effective
performance.
(d) Poorly constituted administrative sports organs and
ineffective organizations are among the major factors that
negatively affect sports performance in this country.
Sometimes, geographical spread, ethnic affiliations and
unwarranted favouritism are brought to bear in appointments
into sports management cadres in this nation. For
performance to improve significantly, the administrative and
technical crews of sports in Nigeria must be proven
professionals working together to effect proper organization

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 5., No 2, September, 2008 45
at various levels. Unless sports administrators are

professionals who are well equipped and knowledgeable
enough about the mechanical demands of the profession, they
can never perform well.
(e) In matters relating to the human performance factors, it is
advised that the coach or the trainer must identify the
relevant performance factors in his sport and then train them
along the skills/factors. A thorough understanding of the
performance factors is essential for the result-oriented coach
or athlete who aspires to excel at international competitions.
(f) Organizations should develop a well structured motivational
package for employees. A well structured motivational
package is necessary for job satisfaction and commitment since
employees get to know and articulate such welfare programmes
before accepting an offer of appointment.
References
Awosika, B.Y. (2000). Predictors of students’ participation in
limited Resources Recreation in third Generation of two
Nigerian Universities. Journal of Nigeria Academic of Sports
Administration, Vol. 1 No. 2 pp. 51-57.
Adermen, R.B. (1974). Psychological Behaviour in Sport.

Philadelphian: Saunders.
Adeyanju, F.B. (1986). Psychological preparation of athletes with

International Sports engagement. Tips on coping with stress
of competition. A paper presented at Sports Psychology
Association of Nigeria (SPAN) seminar held at N.I.S.
Surulere, Lagos.
Amuchie, F.A. (1986). Preliminary observation on the effective

organization and performance in sports in the Nigerian
Universities. Proceedings of Guiness-NUGA’86 sports clinic

46
(Udoh, C.O., Sohi, M., Ajala A. (eds) Ibadan Calverianum

Press Bodija.
Anyanwu, S. U. (1979) The strategies for effective organization and

administration of school sport Health and Physical Education
and Magazine. U.N.N.: Vol. 3 No. 3.
Bucher, C.A. (1979). Administration of Physical Education and

Athletic Programmes. St Loius. The C.V. Mosby Company.
Bucher, V.A (1971). Administration of Health and Physical

Education Programme including Athletes (5th Ed) St. Loius: the
C.V. Mosby Company.
Ikhioya, O.S.A. (2001). Functional strategies for effective sports.

Management Practical. Lagos: Sport & Leisure Consults.
International Olympic Committee (1999). Sports Administration

manual. Jackson R (Ed) Lausanne: Mc Dra Printing Limited.
Igboanugo, V.C. (1986). Effective organization of sports:

Relationship to performance. Proceedings of Guinness-
NUGA 86 Sports clinic. (Udoh, C.A., Sohi, M., Ajala J.A.
(ed). Ibadan: Claveriannum press, Bodija.
Omoruan, J.C. (1996). A handbook in Physical Education, Sports

and Recreation. Zaria: S.A. Asekome and Co.
Owolabi, E.O. (1987). Human Performance factors in achieving

excellence in sports. (Udo, C.O., Sohi, M., Ajala, J.A. (eds)
Department of PHE, University of Ibadan Monograph series,
No. 2

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Professionalization of Sport Administration and Management in

Nigeria (2002). Issues and challenges. NAPHER-SD
Uchegbu J.N. (1992). Motivational Strategies of Physical and Health

Education teachers and sports participants for maximum
productivity in the UBE programme. A paper presented at
NAPHER-SD. 35th National Conference, 25th – 28th
September, in Port Harcourt in Rivers State.
Umeasiegbu, G.O. (2002) “Towards Achieving Nigeria’s sports

performance expectation in 21st century: Issues and
prospects”. In E.O. Ojeme; F.A. Amuchie & O.S.A. Ikhioya
(Eds). Professionalization of sports Administration and
Management in Nigeria – Issues and Challenges. Lagos:
Aduke Ventures.

48
CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS OF SUCCESS ON GOAL

ATTAINMENT OF PRINCIPALS IN AKWA IBOM STATE
OF NIGERIA
BY
STEVE U. BASSEY, Ph. D.
Abstract
The study investigated the causal attributions of success on
principals’ goal attainment at secondary school level. The
population of study was five thousand, six hundred and sixty-sixty
teachers while sample size was two hundred and twenty teachers
randomly selected from urban and rural secondary schools. A
researcher-constructed instrument was used in data collection. The
means, standard deviation and repeated measures analysis were
employed. Major finding revealed a significant difference in the
causal attribution factors (effort, ability, task difficulty and luck).
While the most important factors were effort and ability, the least
effective were task nature and luck. On the basis of the findings and
conclusion, recommendations were made to local education
committees and school Boards on need for proper orientation and
training of school heads in order to render them achievement and
goal-oriented.
Introduction
It is normal for people, for instance school principals, to seek to
explain why and how they succeeded or failed in their endeavours.
Such knowledge tends to control expectancies and determines the
probability of control. Ukpong (1997, p. 28) argues that if
individuals can find out the causes of their success, they may be able
to repeat such causes to ensure continuing success. Similarly, failure
can be avoided if past causes are known. The school principal would
want to know how far or why he has succeeded or failed to succeed
in the different roles he performs. When the performance of students

49
in sports or examinations is good, for example, school management

might wish to find out the reasons just like when the performance is
not commendable they would be keen on tracing the cause(s) so that
corrective measures can be adopted. This line of reasoning seems to
inform the need for applying attribution principle in investigating the
role performance of school administrators.
Causal Attributions and Conceptual Analysis
The term attribution refers to the perceived causes of an
event, causal assuration made regarding the outcome of an event or
performance (Jona, 2000). The principle of attribution holds that the
source to which credit or blame is assigned determines the course of
action. It seems that attribution theory emphasizes personal
perceptions of situational experiences and the consequent causal
attributions. It is argued that an individual’s perceptions of the causal
failure are determined primarily by variables specific to that situation
in which the causal attribution is made (Roptter, 1996).
Weiner (1985, p. 54) identified three dimensions of causality
which he argued determine the nature of subsequent performance on
a given task. These are locus of causality, control, and stability
dimensions. Locus of causality can be internal or external. Some
internal causes (e.g. effort) are under the control of the subject while
others (e.g. ability) are not. The stability dimension classifies causes
either as stable (invariant) or unstable (variant). The tendency to
experience pride in achievement or shame in failure is related to the
person’s perceived locus of causality for the performance outcomes
(Weiner, 1979). The increased pride for individuals who attribute
their success to personal ability or effort result in increased
achievement motivation and consequently increased success
expectancies in future when working on similar tasks
(Ukpong,1997). It is believed that success attribution to stable
factors of internal locus will produce pride which motivates greater
effort investment in subsequent tasks to ensure success and retain the
pride (Dweck & Goetz, 1978). On the other hand, attributing success
to unstable factors (e.g. luck) discourages effort input since

Casual Attributions of Success on Goal Attainment of Principals in Akwa Ibom State of
Nigeria, BASSEY
50
achievement ( as the individual tends to believe ) is not dependent on

trying but on chance ( or luck), and luck can sometimes fail. In the
same way, when we attribute failure to stable and uncontrollable
factor it tends to dry up the motivation to initiate achievement-
oriented behaviours.
Goal Attainment of Principals
The major roles (or goals) that school principals are to perform on a
daily basis have been identified by the American Association of
School Administrators (Ogbodo, 2002) to be: community relations,
personnel administration, financial administration and school plant
management. Effective operation of every school towards the
realization of its pre-determined objectives depends on the way the
listed goals are attained. The success level of a school depends on
the achievement motivation of the administrator. Principals differ in
their levels of administrative effectiveness. Some are effective in one
area while others are more effective in some other areas. It is normal
for a principal to know when he is doing well in personnel
management function, for instance, as he will experience high staff
morale or in curriculum and teaching when students of his school
will pass their examination in flying colours while the opposite is the
case in neighbouring schools.
It is against this backdrop that this study was undertaken to
investigate the ways that causal attribution of success influences the
goal attainment efforts of principals in Akwa Ibom State. The state
public school system has a teacher population of 5,666 distributed
into 214 secondary schools (SSEB, 2006).
Problem
Principals are blamed generally for observed quality degradation of
our graduates from the secondary level of education. We now
produce secondary school graduates who, besides not possessing any
general industrial skills, are essentially illiterate and “innumerate”
(Ocho, 2001, p. 12). In line with this observation, this study sought
to determine the nature of influence exerted by causal attributions of
success on principals’ goal attainment in Akwa Ibom State.

51
Purpose
The purpose of the study was to investigate the perceptions of
teachers on the causal attributions of their principals’ success on goal
attainment efforts in their individual secondary schools.
Research Question
How does the causal attribution of principals’ success influence their
goal attainment effort?
Hypothesis
There is no significant influence of causal attributions of success on
principals’ goal attainment in Akwa Ibom State.
Method
The descriptive survey design was employed. The population of
study was 5,666 public secondary school teachers, while the sample
was 220 teachers selected through the use of stratified random
sampling to ensure that teachers from rural and urban schools had
equal chance of taking part in the study. The researcher prepared a
survey instrument titled Causal Attribution and Principals’ Goal
Attainment Scale (CAPGAS) which was used for data collection. An
expert in measurement and evaluation in a university was used in
validating the instrument before its administration. The scale was a
modified six-point Likert-type questionnaire with values assigned as
follows:
VSA = Very Strongly Agreed (6)

SU = Strongly Agreed (5)
A = Agreed (4)
D = Disagreed (3)
SD = Strongly Disagreed (2)
VSD = Very strongly disagreed (1)
Reliability study to ascertain the clarity of questionnaire items
yielded a high test-retest score of 0.82. The researcher used school
Boards to administer the questionnaire. All the questionnaire copies
were correctly completed and promptly returned since school Boards
were involved in their administration.

Nigeria, BASSEY
52
Repeated Measures (F-test) analysis was used in data analysis.

Hypothesis was tested at .05 level of significance; 1 and 219 degrees
of confidence and critical F-value of 3.84.
Results
Research Question. How does the causal attribution of principals’
success influence their goal attainment efforts?
Hypothesis
There is no significant influence of causal attributions of success on
principals’ goal attainment efforts in Akwa Ibom State.
Data analysis was done through the use of Repeated Measures (F-
test ) analysis (see Table 1).
Table 1: Repeated Measures Analysis of Causal Attributions
of Success on Principals’ Goal Attainment at the
Secondary School level.
(N= 200)
Variables N x SD
Effort 220 25.76 3.28
Ability 220 24.03 2.75
Task Nature 220 22.10 291
Luck 220 20.48 2.41
Source of variation Ss Df Ms F Sig
Within + Residual 6262.36 219 28.60
Attribution Factors 469299.64 1 469299.64 16411.81* 0.00
*p<.05; df=1 <219; critical F = 3.84
The independent variable was causal attributions of success, while

the dependent variable was principals’ goal attainment in secondary
schools. The causal attributions (or variables) compared were ability,
effort, nature of task and luck. The level of importance of each case
was derived from teachers’ perception of the relative importance of
each causal attribution on their principals’ goal attainment efforts.
The means (X) and standard deviations (SD) of the variables were
computed and presented. In order to generate weighted values, the
causal attributions were measured with interval scale of

African Journal of Education and Developmental Studies . Vol 5., No 2, September, 2008 53
measurement in six-point-level of questionnaire. Repeated Measures

analysis (F-test) was then used in comparing the mean scores of the
four causal attributions of each respondent.
The result of the Repeated Measures (F-test) analysis in
Table 1 revealed a significant difference in the relative importance of
causal attributions of principals’ success in secondary schools. The
relative effectiveness of each causal attribution is reflected in the
mean difference (X) as reported (see Table 1): ability (24.03,p.<5)
effort (25.76,p<05) nature of task (22.10,p<.05) and luck (20.48,p
<.05). The obtained F-value was 16411.81. The value was tested for
significance by comparing it with the critical F-value at .05 alpha
level with 1 and 219 degree of freedom. The obtained F-test value
(16411.81) was greater than the critical F-test value (3.84) hence the
result was significant and the null hypothesis was rejected. The
significant differences in the relative importance of these causal
attributions at the secondary school level suggest, in their order of
relative importance, that the most effective cause is effort followed
by ability, nature of task and luck, respectively.
Discussion
Research results from the hypothesis (Table 1) reported a significant
difference in the relative importance of the four casual factors, as
follows: effort (X = 25.76), ability (X = 24.03); task nature (X =
22.10); and luck (X =20.48). The positive mean values were
significant at .05 alpha level, hence the null hypothesis was dropped.
This finding corresponds with the research reports of earlier
researchers, like Atkin and Maruyama (1979, p.86), Garner (1983),
and Umobong (2004, p.56). Further examination of Table 1 revealed
that the first attribution factor (effort) resulted in the highest mean
difference (X = 25.76) followed closely by ability (X=24.03). Dweck
and Goetz (1978) in their findings noted that some school
administrators who attributed their previous success to ability or
effort commonly persisted and actively pursued more difficult tasks
with the hope to succeed while others gave up easily in the face of

Nigeria, BASSEY 54
threats to failure. They concluded that success attribution to stable

factors of internal locus tend to produce pride which motivates
greater effort investment in subsequent tasks to ensure success and
retain the pride.
Ukpong (1997, p. 28) argues that of all the causal
attributions, the only one completely under the control of the
individual is effort. It is within the individual to decide on the
amount of effort to expend on a particular task. Studies on high
achievers whether in science, mathematics or business reveal that
most of those who succeed usually exert enormous effort (Garner
1983). Similarly, at the students’ level, it has been reported that
students who attributed their performance to effort generally showed
significantly more consistent response pattern than those who
attributed their performance to other factors (Umobong, 2004).
These students persevered on given tasks because of their belief that
the more effort they put into a task, the higher their achievement will
be. However, students who attributed their performance to luck,
which is an unstable factor, lacked motivation and determination to
persist long on given tasks. The report supports the earlier findings
by Atkin and Maruyama (1979, p. 86) that examinees who attributed
their performance to effort showed consistency in performance
significantly higher than those who attributed it to ability, luck and
task difficulty.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The investigator studied causal attributions of success on principals’
goal attainment at the secondary school level. It was concluded, in
order of relative effectiveness, that the most important causal
attribution factor of principals’ success were: effort, ability, task
difficulty and luck. The highest mean differences were recorded by
effort and ability; while task difficulty and luck were the least potent.
It appears that performance will be optimized when principals accept
responsibility for their successes and failures and understand that
with effort and persistence they can always achieve more.

55
On the basis of the findings and conclusions, we recommend as

follows:
1. Since performance on tasks is optimized when principals
accept responsibility for their success and realize that with
effort and persistence they can overcome failure, the Local
Education Committees (LECs) and Board should orientate
principals on the relationship between their behaviour and
task performance.
2. Principals should be encouraged to make external attributions
for failures while internalizing attributions for successes,
since internal attributions for failures tend to discourage and
weaken (or reduce) more efforts.
3. Since more training increases ability on tasks, the LECs and
Board should train principals through workshops, seminars,
and lectures on modern management techniques.
4. Principals should be motivated so that they would be
encouraged to put in more effort, especially where task
difficulty is involved.
5. There is the need to enrich and re-design the work role of
principals in order to equip them adequately to be
achievement and goal-oriented.
References
Akwa Ibom State (2006). State Secondary Education Board (SSEB),
Statistics Division, Uyo.
Atkin, R. M., & Maruyama, G. M. (1979). Attribution, effect and
college examination performance. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 72, 86-93.
Dweck, C. S., & Goetz, T. E. (1978). Attribution and helplessness.
In J. H. Harvey, W. Icks, & R. R. F. Kidd (Eds) New
Directions in Attributions Research. Hilldal, New Jersey:
Eilbaum, 79-90.
Garner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple
intelligence. New York: Basis Books.
Nigeria, BASSEY 56
Jona, I. (2000). Influence of causal attribution on performance

outcome of handicapped athletes in Akwa Ibom State.
Journal of Education and Society, 3(2), 23-29.
Ocho, L. O. (2001). Philosophical issues of financing education. In
E. J. Maduewesi (Ed.) Financing of Education in Nigeria.
The Nigerian Academy of Education Yearbook, 3,1-16
Ogbodo, C. M. (2002). Administrative effectiveness of male and
female principals in Akwa Ibom State secondary schools.
Journal of Education, 2, (1), 19-24
Roptter, J. B. (1996). Generalized expectations for internal versus
external control of reinforcement. Psychological
Monographs, 80.
Ukpong, E. M. (1997). Students will be better learners: A causal
analysis of success and failure: Nigerian Education Journal,
1 (1), 28-32.
Weiner, B. (1979), A theory of motivation for some classroom
experiences. Journal of Education Psychology, 71, 3-25.
Weiner, B. (1985). An attribution theory of motivation and emotion.
Psychological Review, 92(4), 548-573.

57
APPENDIX
QUESTIONNAIRE ON CAUSAL ATTRIBUTIONS OF
SUCCESS ON PRINCIPALS’ GOAL ATTAINMENT IN
AKWA IBOM STATE ON NIGERIA.
Note: This questionnaire is meant to seek information on the

perception of teachers on the causal attribution of success on their
principals’ goal attainment effort in their individual secondary
schools.
Part I : Demography
Name of School: ……………………………………………………
Gender of teacher:
Male: ……………………………………………………….
Female: ……………………………………………….......
Part II:
Please check (√) the statement that best explains your perception of
causal attributions of success on your principal’s goal attainment
efforts.
Very strongly agreed = 6

Strongly agreed = 5
Agreed = 4
Disagreed = 3
Strongly Disagreed = 2
Very strongly disagreed = 1
IN THIS SCHOOL
ABILITY VSA SA A D SA VSD
1 Ability of principal to
hold regular staff
meetings ensures teacher
involvement in school
management.

Nigeria, BASSEY
58
2 Principal’s competence
in evaluating
instructional
programmes helps the
school to be more
effective.
3 The good performance in
football is made possible
by the principal’s
expertise in co-curricular
activities
4 Principal’s aptitude in
preparing of good school
budget contributes to
effective school business
management.
5 The healthy school
community relationship
is due largely to the
speech making ability of
the principal
(EFFORT)
6 Our excellent
performance in sports is
caused by our principal’s
exertion
7 The high morale of
teachers is promoted by
the principal
8 Staff and student
discipline is made
possible by the efforts of
the principal
9 Success of the principal
59
as a good school plant

manager comes from his
labour.
(LUCK)
10 Students’ terminal
results are always signed
and released by the strain
of the principal on the
closing day.
11 The good performance
we have in public
examinations is because
the school is lucky.
12 Our success in athletics
is caused by chance.
13 Additional number of
teachers posted here is
due to fate.
14 Our achievement at
science competitions is
determined by fortune.
15 Our principal is able to
provide for the welfare
of his teachers by
accident.
(NATURE OF TASKS)
16 The principal’s
administration is a
success because he/she
has mastery of human
engineering.
17 The principal uses
committees to settle
some disputes,
Casual Attributions of Success on Goal Attainment of Principals in Akwa -Ibom State of
Nigeria, BASSEY
60
depending on the type of

issue involved.
18 The interest of the
principal in teaching
accounts for the high
quality of instructional
supervision available
19 Principal’s personal
traits makes him/her a
good counselor
20 Our principal is an active
change agent because
he/she encourages
creativity and new ideas.

61
CONFLICT GENERATION AND MANAGEMENT IN THE

NIGERIAN SOCIO-POLITICAL ENVIRONMENT
BY
DAN. I. MEZIEOBI & SAM A. MEZIEOBI, Ph.D.
Abstract
This paper examined conflict as a social problem which is capable of
derailing a nation’s stability and unity if not properly managed and
guided. The sources of conflict as a pervasive negative social
phenomenon were incisively examined, they include militarization of
the society, political domination, religious crisis, cultural diversity,
economic deprivation, government inactivity, inflammatory reports,
injustices and marginalization, while potent conflict management
devices in Nigeria’s socio-political environment such as
transparency of government in power, judicious disbursement of
national resources, formulation of basic national ideology, effective
leadership, political education, amongst others were discussed and
conclusion highlighted.
Introduction
Conflict is a pervasive social phenomenon prevalent in all man’s
societies without exception. It is a negative social development
tantamount to obstructing nation building, national unity, patriotism
as well as national stability. The existence of conflicts portends the
non-acceptance or agreement of social values, occasioning unstable
accommodation, non-cooperation, destructive criticisms,
marginalization, discrimination, ethnic violence and even war at a
large scale in a nation.
It is instructive that for political stability to be attained there
must be conducive followership. Some of the attributes of conducive
fellowship are deep political awareness, that is the appreciation of
the invaluable nature of freedom and sovereignty, patriotism,
adequate sense of nation-hood, habitual obedience to constitutional

62
rules and regulation and a good sense of rights and obligations. The
political actions and reactions of the followership should practically
manifest Rosseau’s concept of government: the governments are
contracts between the followership and the leadership (Obalato,
1999).
Conflict in Nigerian societies could be perceived at the
villages, communities, local government areas, states and national
levels. The destructive aspects of conflict are that it affects unity of
purpose of the various human elements of the society constituting a
nation. The new trend to conflict in Nigeria is the disregard of the
traditional norms of the society by the youth (cultural conflict),
cultism, faulty elections and heinous cases of armed robberies are
indices of a society enveloped in crime. In addition, the non-
collective acceptance and adherence to national objectives, national
consensus and the abject neglect of national conference to iron out
constitutional defects and ascertain the pressing needs of the various
ethnic groups in Nigeria, make the existence of virile Nigerian nation
with collective citizens’ will for social intercourse, harmonious
existence, convivial interdependence and interactions elusive. This
paper tends to expose the sources of conflict, conflict management
devices from which conclusions and generalizations can be drawn on
conflict generation and management in the Nigerian socio-political
environment.
Concept Clarification
Conflict, conflict management and socio-political
environment are notable concepts to be examined in this discourse.
Every society not only has prescribed goals but in addition has
socially approved means of achieving those goals. When individual
is not given access to these, means that deviant behaviour is likely to
result (Iyoha, 1997:10). Gleaned from above postulation is that
conflict is borne of discord with the levels of human relations and
competition and competition for scarce resources in a polity.
Conflict undoubtedly is a crucial factor stimulating political and
social instability in Nigeria. Megginson et al (1983) in Oyigbo

Conflict Generation and Management in the Nigerian Socio-Political Environment,
MEZIEOBI & MEZIEOBI
63
(1997) defined conflict as oppositional behaviour in social

relationship. Equally, Oyigbo (1997) contends that conflict is
manifest at intra-personal, inter-personal, interdisciplinary, intra-
organizational as well as the international arena of human relation,
and we add inter-ethnic, regional, social, economic, political and
technological. Nigeria is a geo-political entity, the prevalent attitude,
beliefs, emotions and values of the society including the citizens and
citizens’ relationship with the government of Nigeria. Management
of conflicts entails appropriate and purposeful steps to contain and
ameliorate the degrees of conflicts in Nigeria as a nation.
Sources of conflict
Given Nigeria’s plural ethnic composition, there is apparent
conflict amongst competing ethnic groups, citizens and the state in
their ultimate demands for better social conditions. Some factors that
occasion conflict in the Nigerian socio-political environment are
delineated as follows:
Militarization of the society: The long enduring military rule in the
political scene of Nigeria has helped in militarizing the civil society.
Nigerians want to use force and violence to settle scores without
recourse to conventions, which is a neglect of the principles of
natural justice. Okere (1998) in corroboration lends support when he
stressed that the military has not lived up to expectation as a
corrective regime. Instead, their involvement in governance has
accelerated the pace of corruption and social vices.
Political domination: Nnoli (1978) opined that African politics is
dominated with tribal sentiments and considerations. Politics in
Nigeria and the ticket to leadership at the centre has been lopsided.
Those Nigerians who are deprived of access to political power by
marginalization occasioned by tribal discrimination, politicization,
electoral malpractices amongst others will be restrictive in
supporting the incumbent government. Iwe (1991:17) added that
“leadership in an atmosphere laddened with sectional political
interest is not likely to enjoy total support of the citizens of a
country”.

64
Religious crisis: Religion has been politicized in Nigeria. The

Christians and the Moslems in some sections of the country engaged
in fierce violent conflicts, occasioning destruction of lives and
valuable properties. One observable thing is that political miscreants
use religion to create social chaos in the country. They achieve their
way, because of the ignorance level of the masses. The Sharia issue
and its application on non Moslems is a burning national issue that
has ignited religious conflicts, which claimed lives, property and
stability of the Nigerian nation and yet the federal government is
inactive in formulating policies to counter the use of religion to
threaten national security and economic well-being of many
Nigerians. Religious conflict and intolerance have been major
disintegrative factor towards nation building.
Cultural diversity: The Nigerian society is an aggregation of
multiple ethnic groups with divergent cultural values and prejudices,
which work against national unity. Ethnicity and tribal
discrimination affect, to a large extent socio-political and economic
relations in Nigeria. In affirmation, Nnoli (1978) explained that
various ethnic groups scramble for political positions as an
advantage of accumulating national resources. Invariably, the failure
of tribal men to be in government consequently results to neglect in
governments’ provision of social amenities and political patronage.
Economic Deprivation: Unemployment has social, economic and
political consequences. Socially, it increases misery and degradation.
It may also give rise to social agitations, turmoil and violence. These
would in turn pose a danger to stability of political systems order.
Political instabilities may result in slowing down of economic
growth as well as weakening of state’s credibility (Nwizu, 1997:61).
The socio-economic conditions of most Nigerians are alarming.
Unemployment and the increasing rate of inflation without effective
functional socio-economic programmes to alleviate poverty, and
policies to better the lot of most Nigerians, encourage aggrieved,
economically depressed citizens to vent their misfeeling through
violence and other unimaginable destructive activities. In addition,

MEZIEOBI & MEZIEOBI
65
the oil wealth is not equitably distributed to cushion the effects of the
harsh economic conditions on citizens. There is perceived abject
neglect of rural communities and the host oil communities whose
environment’s are depleted through oil exploration. This anomaly
has been the foundation of the ceaseless Niger-Delta crisis in
Nigeria. Another common source of conflict in Nigeria is the
pressure over available resources or their near scarcity. Since the seat
of government at the centre has large economic, social and political
benefits attached, Nigerians employ civilized and uncivilized
approaches in order to be placed in power. Those who are
unjustifiably denied, resort to conflict as a measure to be reinstated.
Chief M.K.O. Abiola’s experience is tenable; NADECO’s relentless
criticism of Abacha’s rule of alimony is remarkable.
Government inactivity: Those at the corridors of powers lack the
political will and initiative to uplift the standard of living of the
masses. Most politicians connive in unwanted corruption, nepotism
and over-inflation of contracts to the utter neglect of empowering the
impoverished Nigerian masses economically.
Injustice and marginalization: Most states in Nigeria have little or
no federal presence. Appointment, promotion and training in the
civil service and other government parastatals lack merit or
reflection of federal character. Some states of Nigeria tend to enjoy
advantage in the allocation of resources. Against this background,
Etumodor (1999) suggests a thorough inspection of leaders in
political positions as to curtail their excesses and unfairness.
Inflammatory reports: The mass media blow some explosive
strategic events and information out of tune. These results in
suspicion, hatred, insinuations to inflame rivalry, especially on issues
of religion and ethnic bias.
Conflict management devices in Nigeria’s socio-political
environment
Conscious of the fact that no nation or state attains national
stability, without collective spirited efforts of the citizens at national

66
development. The following conflict ameliorative devices are

delineated:
Transparency of government in power: The government in power
should be transparent and live above ethnic sentiments and local
parochialism. In addition, accountability, necessary checks and
balances in the conduct of public affairs, will inspire confidence in
the populace, promote patriotism, and accelerate equity, justice and
fair play, including potential reliability on government activities,
policies and programmes.
National political parties’ formulation: Political parties for
national stability, peace and progress ought to be embracing, national
in outlook, instead of glue to ethnic alignments, which unavoidably
promote conflicts. Political activities in Nigeria for worthwhile
national stability should grow and be devoid of ethnic sentiments
and support.
Judicious disbursement of National resources: Government in
power should use the national wealth judiciously for the overall
national development of all sections of Nigeria, without undue over
concentration of social amenities in certain locations of the country.
Aggressive rural policy development programmes in Nigeria should
be reinvigorated, sustained and given primary focus and attention.
Revisit of our cultural values: Njoku (1998) suggests a revisit of
our cultural values in Nigeria before British Colonization, which
promoted morals and care for the less privileged. The economic
empowerment of the many less privileged citizens in Nigeria will
make the society a better place to live in.
Formulation of basic national ideology: An acceptable political
ideology will provide basis for acceptable national values, the
adoption of common philosophies will engender collective input
towards achieving a virile nation with patriotic political activities
guided by sound democratic principles.
Attention to be given to national conference: The national
conference issue shunned by most governments is ideal for
cementing solidarity amongst Nigerians, as it will provide genuine

MEZIEOBI & MEZIEOBI
67
fora for dwelling on national issues geared at strengthening national

unity in a multi-national geo-entity as Nigeria, also, the resolution of
areas of conflicts in ways most satisfying to large sections of
Nigerians will be amicably worked out.
Inculcation of the spirit of tolerance amongst Nigerians:
Mechanism for conflict resolution on matters bothering on ethnic
antagonism should be given high preference by our political leaders.
The social integration of ethnic groups in Nigeria is a purposeful
means for strengthening nation building. Against the essence of
solidarity and convivial social intercourse amongst ethnic groups in
Nigeria, Nwankwo (1985:15) said “national consciousness is the bed
rock of nationalism”.
Effective leadership: Our leaders should be determined, effective,
guided by national needs and aspirations, and above all, enthrone
dynamism, periodic constitutional reviews and leadership’s faithful
implementation of the constitution without bias and favour.
Political Education: In view of the persistent prevailing conflicts in
the Nigerian socio-political environment, Akude (1991) advocates
for political education as a measure of functional citizenship
training, which will include knowledge of our political system,
citizens awareness of his basic rights, his responsibilities to the state
as well as other citizens and understanding of the principles of our
political culture.
Restraints on explosive publications: Harmonious environment for
peaceful social relationship can be projected through mass
citizenship education. Outside the educational institutions, the mass
media should serve as a vanguard for injecting in the citizenry
morals, new attitudes and values for cohesive social living. This is
insinuates that the mass media should have restraints on explosive
publications that tend to break up the entity.
Conclusion
Conflict in the political environment of Nigeria, is a
despicable social problem. The achievement of national growth and
development stands to be achieved through collective national social

68
integration. Leadership and the Nigerian citizens have a collective

responsibility in building a stable and virile nation.
References
Akunde, I. (1991). The Role of Social Studies Education in
Promoting Political Education in Nigeria. Journal of Social
Issues 1(1) pg. 20.
Azelemg, J. U. (1996). An Introduction to Management and Public

Finance. Lagos: Oshoke Yakubu Enterprises.
Etumudor, M. (1999). Checks and Balance in Government: A

Panacea for good government in Nigeria. In M. O. Ezegbe, &
S. C. Owunmwa, (Eds.). Social Sciences and National
Development. Owerri: Whyte Publishers.
Ezegbe, M. O. (1994). Social Studies Education and Nation

Building. In G. W. Joof., & H. C. Amadi, (Eds.). Social
Studies in Schools. Onitsha: Outrite Publishers.
Iyioha, O. O. (1997). Sociological and Legal Elements of Deviance.
Benin: Gaboh Ventures.
Iwe, S. S. N. (1991). Socio-Ethnical Issues in Nigeria. Obosi: Pacific

College Press.
Mezieobi, K. A. (1994). Contemporary issues in Social Studies

Education. In G. W. Joof., & H. C. Amadi., (Eds.). Social
Studies in Schools. Onitsha: Outrite Publishers.
Mkpa, M. A. (1999). Education and National Development: The

Status, Problems and Prospects in Nigeria. In M. O. Ezegbe,
& B. C. Owunwa, (Eds). Social Science and National
Development. Owerri: Whyte and Whute Publishers.

MEZIEOBI & MEZIEOBI
69
Njoku, N. L. (1998). Tradition and Culture in African Politics: An

Historical Analysis of the Nigeria Cases. In C. E. Emezi,. and
C. A. Ndoh,. (Eds). African Politics. Owerri: Achugo
Publishers.
Nnoli, O. (1978). Ethnic Politics in Nigeria. Enugu: Fourth

Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd.
Nwankwo, A. A. (1985). National Consciousness for Nigeria.

Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishing Co. Ltd.
Nwizu, G. (1997). Major Social Problems in Nigeria and their

Consequences. In A. M. Uzoma, G. Nwizu & D. Njoku
(Eds). Reading in Social Sciences: ABSU Fresh Course in
Citizenship Education. Uturu: Abia State University.
Obalato, A. (1999). The Role of Followership in the Nigerian

Political Instability. An Unpublished Paper Presented at
Conference Organized by SOSTAn at Abia State University
Uturu.
Okereke, O. O. (1998). Civilianized Presidents and Militarisation of

Civil Society in Africa. In C. E. Emezi & C. A. Ndoh (Eds).
African Politics. Owerri: Achugo Publications.
Oyibo, E. E. (1997). Organizational Theories and Application.

Benin: Osasu Publishers.

70
DEATH, BEREAVEMENT AND CAREGIVING:

IMPLICATIONS FOR COUNSELLING
By
DR. (MRS.) GRACE EGO OMONI
&
MRS. SCHOLASTICA U. IJEH
Abstract
The study was designed to find out the relationship between
bereavement and caregiving. Three research hypotheses were
formulated to guide the study. A sample of 178 workers consisting of
106 lecturers and 72 administrative staff were used for the study,
using stratified random sampling technique. Data were obtained
using the Death, Bereavement and Caregiving Inventory (DBCI) and
analyzed with the use of Pearson Product Moment Correlation and
t-test statistics. The findings revealed that there was a relationship
between bereavement and caregiving based on the perception of the
subjects. It was then recommended that counsellors should help the
bereaved through caregiving strategies.
Introduction
Death is an inevitable phenomenon in human existence. It is
conceived of differently by people, depending on their cultural,
religious or idiosyncratic orientation . Its unpredictability and
inevitability seem to fascinate and, in the same vein, frighten many
individuals. Various assertions have been proffered as to the
definition of death. There is a general consensus that death brings to
an end the existence of human life. Once a person dies, he or she
can no more physically interact with the living. Thus, the stresses,
pains, anxieties, worries and pleasures of life cannot be experienced
by one certified dead. He or she is separated from all forms of life’s
hassles; hence the dead is said to be asleep, at rest or having transited
according to cultural belief. The researchers are of the view that the

71
bereaved actually experiences pains, worries, anxieties,

purposelessness, shattered world and hopelessness after the death of
a loved one. Therefore, his/her predicament should be the concern
of caregivers such as counsellors and psychologists.
Definition of Death
The concept of death is always placed within the perspective
of either religion, philosophy or culture. From the theological point
of view, Paul in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-16 sees death as a form of
sleep. This implies that death is a transition from earth to heaven or
hell. In our cultural setting (among the Urhobos and Ukwuanis), it is
believed that the dead has gone on a long journey. The implication
is that the living could still communicate with the dead; hence the
idea of ancestral worship. Philosophically, death is seen as the
cessation of the integrated functioning of the human organism. This
is in line with Nnabuchi’s definition (1987:24), which says that death
is a “permanent seizure of human body as known to have existed at a
particular time tract and at a definite place to function and is
subsequently buried or cremated or allowed to decompose on itself”.
The implication of this is that death brings to an end the existence of
life.
There are various causes of death. It could be expected after
a diagnosis of terminal illness or an unexpected accident or medical
condition. It could be clinical or biological. One could also be
physically active but socially dead when you are no longer
functional in the society. People also believe it is sometimes not
natural. Eyetsemitan (2002) asserts that for this reason people
consult dead ancestors to find out the cause of a beloved’s death. It
is assumed by such adherents that illness and death are from some
spiritual elements (witchcraft, offending one’s ancestors or gods)
rather than the reason being medical or physical.
Bereavement
Bereavement is referred to as separation distress. It is an
experience that must be treated with great respect. When a

Death, Bereavement and Caregiving: Implications for coaunseling, OMONI & IJEH
72
relationship is no longer available, the survivor experiences self-

devastation. Bereavement refers to the painful experiences of losing
a loved one through death. Following the death of a loved one,
members of the family are likely to exhibit traumatic dysfunction,
especially by those whose integrity were dependent upon the
relationship with the deceased. Oxford Dictionary defines
bereavement as the state of losing a loved one by death.
Bereavement is characterized by grief exhibited in various degrees
from one individual to another. Association for the Advancement of
Behaviour Therapy (AABT) (1991) asserts that bereavement could
be complicated or uncomplicated. Asonibare (1998) identified ten
stages of grief – shock, disbelief, searching for emotional release,
physical distress, feelings of depression and gloom, sense of guilt,
anger and hostility, unwillingness to engage in normal chores,
gradual coming around and readjustment. AABT (1991) also
identified anger, waves of difficulties, feeling of guilt, numbness,
and crippling loss of ability to function. Iliya (1998) identified
sorrow, uncertainty, insecurity and fear of who will take care of the
children, which is accompanied by self-pity. These identified
traumatic dysfunctions exhibited by bereaved people prompted the
researchers to undertake this study.
Statement of Problem
The loss of a loved one is a powerful stressor in life. Those
experiencing bereavement exhibit symptoms of anxiety, worry,
depression, loneliness and equally undergo physiological changes,
which are likely to reduce their bodies’ ability to function positively.
Caregivers need to recognize the predicaments of the bereaved.
Counsellors can help to guide the bereaved through education and
counselling. Thus, the study sought to answer this question: If death
is said to be tougher for the bereaved than the dead, what is to be
done to help them adjust to normal life?

73
Research Hypotheses
Three research hypotheses were raised to guide the study:
Ho1: There is no significant difference between lecturers and the

administrative staff of College of Education, Agbor on their
perception of death and bereavement.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between bereavement and
psychosocial problems experienced by the bereaved.
Ho3: There is no significant relationship between bereavement and
caregiving for the bereaved.

The study was carried out to determine the relationship
between bereavement and caregiving from the perspective of
workers of the College of Education, Agbor. It was also aimed at
identifying ways of helping the bereaved to adjust to life after losing
a loved one.
Method
The researchers adopted the survey research design, since the
study was aimed at having a general assessment of opinions and
feelings of the subjects about bereavement. 200 copies of the
questionnaire were distributed to the respondents by the researchers
but only 178 were properly filled and returned.
Research Instrument
The instrument was titled ‘Death, Bereavement and
Caregiving Inventory’ (DBCI) constructed by the researchers
themselves but amended and modified by three lecturers from the
Counselling Psychology Department of Delta State University,
Abraka and one from College of Education, Agbor. It had an
internal consistency of 0.85 at 0.05 level of significance, using the
Cronbach Alpha. The instruments had two sections. Section A
sought to elicit information on respondents’ personal data based on

Death, Bereavement and Caregiving: Implications for counseling, OMONI & IJEH
74
job status, religion and sex. Section B consists of 25 items, which

sought to elicit information on respondents’ perception of death,
bereavement and types of caregiving what could be used to help the
bereaved. Respondents were asked to respond to each of the items
on a modified Likert format of four options ranging from Strongly
Agree to Strongly Disagree. Data collected were analyzed using
Pearson Product Moment Correlation and the t-test statistics.
Results
The results of the study are presented in the table below:
Hypothesis 1:
There is no significant difference between lecturers and the
administrative staff of College of Education, Agbor on their
perception of death and bereavement.
Table 1: t-test Analysis of the Perception of Death by Lecturers

and Administrative Staff
Critica
Calculate
Variable N SD df l t- Decision
X d t-value
value
10 2.994 .374
Lecturers Hypothesi
6 9 9 17
-0.24 .981 s
Administrativ 2.996 .372 6
72 Accepted
e Staff 2 0
The above results show that the calculated t-value of -0.24 is

less than the critical t-value of .981 at 0.5 level of significance. Null
hypothesis is therefore accepted. The results maintain that there is
no significant difference between the perception of lecturers and
administrative staff of College of Education, Agbor on beliefs about
death and bereavement.
Hypothesis 2:

75
There is no significant relationship between bereavement and

psychosocial problems experienced by the bereaved.
Table 2: Correlation Analysis of Bereavement and Psychosocial

Problems
Calculated Critical
Variable N Decision
‘r’ ‘r’
Bereavement 178
Hypothesis
Psychosocial .471 .000
178 rejected
Problems
The above table shows that the calculated r-value of .471 is greater
than the critical r-value of .000 at 0.01 level of significance. The
null hypothesis is rejected. Thus, the result indicates that there is a
significant relationship between bereavement and psychosocial
problems experienced by the bereaved.
Hypothesis 3:
There is no relationship between bereavement and caregiving
of the bereaved.
Table 3: Correlation Analysis of Bereavement and Caregiving of

the Bereaved
Calculated Critical
Variable N Decision
‘r’ ‘r’
Bereavement 178 Hypothesis
.429 .000
Caregiving 178 rejected
Table 3 shows that the calculated r-value of .429 is higher than the
critical r-value of .000 at 0.01 level of significance. There is a
significant correlation between bereavement and caregiving for the
bereaved. The null hypothesis is therefore rejected.
Discussion of Results
76
The first finding shows that there is no significant difference

between the perception of lecturers and the administrative staff of
College of Education, Agbor about death and bereavement. From our
cultural setting, death is seen as a communal concern, a transition, an
inescapable occurrence, an event that causes grief and disrupts
family life and often celebrated with rituals and rites.
Onukwagha (2001) opines that death-denying attitude is
observed in how Africans conceptualize death. Hence they believe
that death is a transition. The finding also supports the thoughts of
Eyetsemitan (2002) that when death occurs, divination as to the
cause is sought for from spiritual elements rather than medical or
physical reasons. Death is shrouded with funeral rites and rituals as
well as suspicion.
The second hypothesis indicates that there is a relationship
between bereavement and psychosocial problems. The loss of a
loved one causes a lot of psychological, social and financial restraint
for the bereaved. Asonibare (1998), Okoli (1998) and Eyetsemitan
(2002) in their different studies enumerated variables such as shock,
guilt, anger, sorrow, worries, anxieties, depression, breakdown in
communication among the bereaved, physical distress, loneliness,
suspicions, poverty, fear of the future and deprivations as some of
the signs and symptoms exhibited by the grievers. Eyetsemitan
(2002) asserts that widows have no right to inheritance but could do
so through their children while Iliya (1998) asserts that some of the
bereaved interviewed spoke of their fears of not having people to
care for their children after losing the breadwinner. Again, Okoli
(1998) is of the view that confronting the death of a loved one has a
shock effect, which requires emotional and physical adjustment.
Lastly, the third hypothesis indicates that there is a
significant relationship between bereavement and caregiving. The
study reveals that the bereaved requires emotional, social, financial,
legal and medical support from caregivers. Asonibare (1998),
Onukwagha (2001) and Eyetsemitan (2002) express the view that the
counsellors have roles to play if the bereaved are to adjust to life

77
after the bitter experiences. Asonibare (1998) talks of faith therapy

while Okoli (1998) suggests supportive empathic attention that
communicates a sense of objective reality. AABT (1991)
encourages talk therapy and removal of reminders of the dead such
as photographs. It is opined that friends and relatives should help
any bereaved person to adjust by encouraging him/her to talk about
feelings and thoughts about the dead.
Conclusion
Death and bereavement have many dimensions. Death
disrupts the griever from carrying out daily activities. Bereavement
could be complicated or uncomplicated. While some people return
to their normal life rapidly, others never do. Death of a loved one
destabilizes the bereaved psychologically, financially and socially.
It is generally believed that the dead are either sleeping, resting or
transiting so they experience no pains or trauma. The death of a
loved one is painful and tough. Hence there is the need for
counselling intervention to enable the bereaved adjust to life faster.
Counselling Interventions
Based on the findings, the following counselling strategies
should be adopted:
1. People should respect the bereaved and give formal grief
intervention.
2. Help the bereaved to be less depressed and less anxious using
talk therapy.
3. Use imagery and behavioural counselling, provoking and
safely reviewing thoughts and painful memories.
4. Educate the bereaved to understand how he/she can exercise
his/her rights in court.
5. Provide opportunity for the bereaved to talk about the dead
and the relationship that existed while the loved one was
alive.
6. Get the bereaved to engage in creative activities.

78
7. Speak about faith in God into the consciousness of the

bereaved.
8. Death education should be included in the school curriculum.
9. Counsellors should make use of assertive skills and
dissemination to help the bereaved.
10. Periodic seminar should be advocated.
11. Social, legal and financial supports should be encouraged
among sympathizers.
References
Association for Advancement of Behaviour Therapy (1991). New
York. yellowpages.com/…/Association-for-Advancement-
of-Behavior-Therapy
Asonibare, J. B. (1998). Death Sting in Grief and Counsellor’s Role

in Caring for the Bereaved. The Counsellor 16(1), 171-176.
Death: Definitions, Synonyms and much more from death

Answers.com
Ekoja, A. A. & Ekoja, O. C. (1998). Counselling the Nigerian

Widow: A Particular Reference to Idoma Widows in Benue
State. The Counsellor 16(1), 21-217.
Eyetsemitan, F. (2002). Cultural Interpretations of Dying and Death

in a Non-Western Society: The Case of Nigeria. In W. J.
Loner (ed.) Online Readings in Psychology and Culture (Unit
14, Chapter 1).
Iliya, H. (1998). Facing Death as the Inevitable End. The

Counsellor 16(1), 99-105.
Kubler-Ross, E. (1993). Death and Dying. New York: Collier

Books.

79
Nnabuchi, N. (1989). In Defence of Igbo Belief System. Enugu: Life

Path Printing Press.
Okoli, C. E. (1998). Counselling Strategies for Coping with

Terminal Illness and Bereavement. The Counsellor 16(1), 1-
5.
Omebe, S. E. (1998). Counselling for Death and Dying. The

Counsellor 16(1), 7-11.
Onukwagha, G. O. (2007). Many Africans Believe that the Spirit of

the Deceased Remains in the World, Death and Dying in the
African Context. http://www.natanie_tuner.com/death/and
dying African http://www.answers.com/defunction+of+

80
ANALYSIS OF RESORUCES MANAGEMENT IN PRIMARY

SCHOOLS IN DELTA STATE, NIGERIA.
BY
DR. ENAMIRORO PATRICK OGHUVBU
e-enamiroro2001@yahoo.com.
Abstract:
The study analyzed the management of resources in primary schools
in Delta state. The instruments used for the study were derived from
the Report of the Staff Distribution and on Infrastructure in Sub-
committee set- up by the Ministry of Education , Directorate of
Primary and Secondary Education in Delta State. Ten local
government areas were selected using stratified random sampling
from the three districts and all the schools (520 )and the staff
(10319) were used for the study. Eight research questions were
raised and answered using mean, percentage and chi- square test
statistics at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed a teacher
– pupil ratio of (1:22). This is less than the national teacher- pupil
ratio (1:44). Eighty one percent of the teachers are with teaching
qualification. There is a significant difference in the distribution of
teachers and non- teaching staff by qualification in schools among
Local Government Areas. There is no significant difference in the
teacher- pupil ratio among riverine, rural, semi- urban and urban
primary schools. Riverine schools have the highest teacher- pupil
ratio 1:78, with 9% of the schools with less than 6 teachers in a
school. Facilities are inadequate and not proportionally distributed
in schools among the Local Government Areas
Keywords: Management , Resources , Riverine , Facilities , Human.
Introduction
The State Primary Education Board is in charge of the
management of primary education, especially the human resources.
The board is in charge of management needs for human resources to
be provided and deployed. She is greatly concerned with the
planning, monitoring and control to facilitate the achievement of the
81
objectives of primary education. This involves the process of

achieving the objectives of primary education through efficient
use of the resources and the planning, organization, coordination,
direction and control of the activities of teaching and non- teaching
staff in primary schools.
The quality of education depends to a large extent, on the
quality of teachers (Ogbodo 1995), the quality of education and
learning achievements of students depend heavily on the quality,
competence, personality and dedication of teachers . Also number of
studies have shown that students’ achievement has a positive
relationship with the quality of teachers. The training which a
teacher receives, has been proved to be important to students
academic success (Idiaghe, 2004:92).The current teachers’ statistics
in primary schools in Delta State, showed 17, 529 teachers to 391,
491 pupils resulting into teacher - pupil ratio 1:22. This is quite
adequate, even below approved standard of 1:35 teacher- pupil ratio.
(Ministry of Education Report, 2007:4).
The board may face the following challenges in the effective
management of primary schools:
a. Changing mix of the work force- more female (12,654) than
male( 4875) teachers in schools, more working mothers.
b. Changing personal values of teachers such as, low moral
standard, low motivation, hard economic situation and so on.
c. Lack of appreciation for merit and hard work in schools
(Okoh, 1998:28)
Researchers
(Oghuvbu,1999;Ogunbowale,1984;Ogunsanju,1983) have
identified some management problems in primary schools such as
inadequate preparation by teachers, over crowded classrooms, poor
facilities for pupils and teachers, lack of instructional supervision,
change in curriculum, geographical location of schools and the type
of supervising climate in schools and teachers’ experience.
The number of primary schools in Nigeria increased from
48,552 with total enrolment of 17,907,008 in 1999 to 59,174 with

Analysis of Resources Management in Primary Schools in Delta State, Nigeria. OGHUVBU
82
total enrolment of 25, 765,969 in 2003. Total number of teachers in

the 59,174 primary schools is 591,041, resulting in teacher-pupil
ratio of 1:44 (Universal Basic Education commission 2004).On the
relationship between educational resources and students academic
performance, Idiaghe( 2004:141) concluded that teachers’
qualification and adequate facilities were determinants of assessing
academic performance of students in secondary schools. Hence the
availability or non-availability of facilities in schools affects the
academic performance of students in Delta State.
This is in agreement with Nwangwu (1997) who believes that
teaching materials facilitate teaching and learning activities, which
result in effective teaching and improved academic performance.
Aihievboloria (2005:10) on staffing ascertained that the school is an
essentially human organization, because it has human operatives,
clients and products, hence students’ performance has positive
relationship with the quality of teachers. The importance of adequate
staffing of a school is clearly demonstrated by the way secondary
students continue to drift from one school to another in search of
school with better -qualified teachers. For efficient educational
management, facilities help the school to determine the number of
pupils to be accommodated, number of teachers and non-teaching
personnel to be employed and the cost determination for the efficient
management of the system (Osagie 2001).
The school climate is determined by the resources, especially
classrooms under which the teachers and pupils operates which
influences attitude in teaching and learning. Unconducive
classrooms creates stress on teachers and pupils resulting in
negative attitude toward school and learning by pupils. Facilities
below approved standard could also lead to reduction in quality of
teaching and learning in schools resulting to poor pupils academic
performance (Uwheraka ,2005:51).
The school environment affects academic achievement of pupils.
Facilities such as desks, seats, chalkboard, teaching aids, and
cupboard are ingredients for effective teaching and learning(Olutola,

83
2000). In the same vein the Nigeria Education Research Council

(1998) emphasized for a good education policy or programmed. To
guarantee quality outputs, it must be serviced optimally with
appropriate trained and motivated teaching staff, adequately supplied
with necessary facilities and equipment.
This study, theoretically employs the frame work of the
social systems theory, centered in the school as a social system made
up of human and material resources. The human resources are
teachers and the non-teaching staff, and facilities include classroom,
desks, toilets, offices, books and teaching aids. The idea of a system
in this study helps in analyzing the utilization of available
resources by the State Primary Education Boards and the
achievement of the objectives of primary education in Delta.
There is a general perception of a decline in the quality of
education in Nigeria, especially at the primary schools. When the
first school was established in Badagry-Lagos in 1843, there were no
qualified indigene teachers. From 1843 to late 1970’s, number of
teachers were inadequate. Hence teacher training institutions were
established in different parts of Nigeria. In 1999, the Federal
Government mandated the National Teachers Institute to organize
training centres to produce Teachers grade two certificate. The
Universities and Colleges of Education in Delta State also organize
weekend and sandwich programmes to produce professional
teachers at different level. From the experience of the researcher,
Teacher Training Institutions have awarded certificates to a good
number of persons to impart knowledge to pupils in primary schools.
It is suprising to observe that in the 21 st century, graduates of
primary schools cannot be regarded as literates in terms of simple
literacy and numeracy. They can not identify road signs, carry out
simple measurement as craft men in training.
The products of our primary schools especially rural pupils,
are not practically qualified as messengers and domestic servants,
even though they are certificated. The percentage dropout at primary

84
school level is also higher especially the rural areas (Oghuvbu

,2008). This unhealthy situation in the state calls to mind certain
questions; Are the product of teacher training institutions not
properly managed by the state primary education board? Are there
facilities in primary schools? Are the available facilities
proportionately distributed in primary schools among local
government areas in Delta State?
The importance of sound, qualitative primary education, as a
foundation for brighter secondary and higher education as a tool for
scientific, economic, political and technological development is well
known. The quality of any nation’s education depends on the
quality of her primary education. Inadequate utilization of available
human and material resources by education managers could result to
poor instructional quality leading to poor foundation in primary
education. Hence, it is necessary to investigate and analyse the
management of human and material resources in primary schools by
the State Primary Education Board in Delta State.
This study, therefore analyzed the teacher- pupil ratio in
riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban schools, average number of
classrooms per school, average number of pupils to a desk and
average number of pupils per classroom. It also analyzed the average
number of teachers per school according to school location.
Research Questions:
The study was designed to provide answers to the following
questions:
1. Is there a significant difference in the teacher pupil ratio in
primary schools among the local government areas in Delta
State?
2. Are facilities proportionally distributed in schools according
to pupils enrolment, and among local government areas
according to number of schools?
3. Is the teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools in Delta State
higher than the national ratio?

85
4. Is there a significant difference in the teacher- pupil ratio

among riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban primary schools
in Delta State?
5. Is there a significant difference in the distribution of teachers
by qualifications in schools among the local government
areas?
6. Are there primary schools with less than six teachers in the
state?
7. Are there teachers without teaching qualification in primary
schools in Delta State?
8. Is there a significant difference in the distribution of non-
teaching staff by qualifications in schools among the local
government areas?
Method and Procedure
The design of this study was ex-post facto in nature and
followed the descriptive research format. The 17,529 teachers and
2992 non-teaching staff, distributed among the 1,120 primary
schools, with a total pupil enrolment of 391,491 constitute the
population of the study. A stratified random sampling technique was
used to select 10 from the 25 Local Government Areas in the 3
Senatorial Districts in Delta State (See table 1). The pupils, teachers
and facilities in the 520 schools in the 10 selected Local Government
Area constituted the sample used in this study.
Table 1: Study Sample
S/N L.G.A. No. of pry Pupils No. of Teacher-
schools. Enrolment Teachers Pupils Ratio
1 Aniocha North 38 13,049 684 1:19
2 Ika North East 61 21,496 1095 1:20
3 Ndokwa West 52 15,232 672 1:23
4 Oshimili South 28 11,555 626 1:18
5 Ethiope West 54 17,532 783 1:22
6 Okpe 40 11,525 568 1:20
7 Ughelli North 88 34,785 1327 1:26
8 Burutu 64 13,169 664 1:20
9 Isoko North 41 21,353 657 1:33
86
10 Warri South 54 20,655 1235 1:17

Total 520 180351 8311 1:22
Source: Statistic Division, Ministry of Education, Asaba
(2007).
The data used were derived from the report of the staff
distribution and infrastructure sub-committee of the Committee for
the Formulation of a Roadmap Toward Improving Standard of
Education in Delta State ,Volumes 1 and 11A, December, 2007.
Results.
There results of the data analyses are presented according to
research questions.
Research Question 1: Is there a significant difference in the teacher-
pupils ratio in primary schools among the Local Government Areas
in Delta State?
Table 2: Chi-square Bivariate Table showing the Teacher-Pupil
Ratio in Primary Schools among Local Government Area.
L.G.A. Below 1:10 – 1:16- 1:22 – 1:28 1:34 – 1:40 1:46 Total
1:10 1:15 1:21 1:27 –1:33 1:39 –1:45 Above
Aniocha North 2(2) 14(8) 12(9) 8(9) 2(3) -(3) -(2) -(2) 38
Burutu 5(3) 20(13) 10(16) 14(13) 6(5) 3(6) 3(3) 2(3) 63
Ethiope West 1(3) 10(11) 14(13) 14(13) 3(4) 10(5) 3(3) 1(3) 55
Ika North 5(3) 16(13) 19(15) 19(15) -(5) 9(4) 1(3) 1(3) 61
Isoko North -(2) 2(8) 8(10) 8(10) 4(3) 7(5) 5(3) 5(2) 41
Ndokwa West 6(2) 6(11) 11(13) 7(12) 8(4) -(4) 2(3) 2(3) 52
Okpe -(2) 6(8) 14(10) 16(9) 2(3) -(21) 1(2) 1(2) 40
Oshimili South 1(1) 6(6) 12(7) 7(7) 2(2) 2(3) -(2) -(1) 28
Ughelli North 2(4) 9(8) 10(21) 21(21) 11(7) 12(8) 9(5) 14(5) 88
Warri South 2(2) 18(11) 17(13) 13(13) 1(4) 1(5) 1(3) 1(3) 54
Total 24 107 126 123 39 46 28 27 520
From table 2, chi-square calculated value (119.58) is greater
than critical value (79.08) at 63 degree of freedom, and 0.05 level of
significance. This showed that there is a significant difference in the
teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools among the Local Government
Areas ,Nigeria.
Research Question2: Are facilities proportionally distributed among
the Local Government Areas, according to pupils’ enrolment,
teachers’ population and number of schools?

87
Table 3: Summary of the Distribution of Facilities among Local

Government Areas in Delta State.
L.G.A. Class H/M Pupil’s Teacher Pupils Staff Football No. of Total No. of Pupils Teacher Aver. No. of Pupils per
room office Toilet Toilet Desk Chairs pitch schools Teachers Enroll. pupil ratio
Class- Desk
room
Aniocha 360 9 50 23 191 195 26 38 684 13,049 1:20 36 68

North
Burutu 397 - 22 11 3121 133 26 63 664 13,169 1:20 33 4
Ethiope West 436 - 86 45 3491 338 41 55 783 17,532 1:22 40 5
Ika North 515 18 77 58 1402 316 13 61 1095 21,496 1:20 42 15
Isoko North 375 9 20 20 3118 228 17 41 657 21,353 1:33 57 7
Ndokwa West 206 2 15 14 1030 127 13 52 672 15,232 1:23 76 15
Okpe 287 12 62 20 3558 138 28 40 568 11,525 1:20 40 3
Oshimili 221 7 26 18 1112 133 1 28 626 11,555 1:18 52 10
South
Ughelli North 486 28 61 46 5981 599 37 88 1327 34,785 1:26 72 6
Warri South 329 20 - - 3364 366 12 54 12351 20,655 1:17 62 6
Total 360 95 419 255 2636 257 214 520 8311 180,351
7 8 3
Average per 7 0.2 0.8 0.5 5 5 0.41 16 347 1:22
school
From table 3, there is a serious problem of inadequate facilities in

all primary schools in the Local Government Areas. An average of
seven classrooms per school (for 280 pupils) revealed a serious
problem of overcrowded classrooms in seven schools in Isoko North,
Ndokwa West, Oshimili South, Ughelli North and Warri South Local
Government Areas. Pupil’s desks are grossly inadequate especially
in Anochia North, Ika North, Ndokwa West and Oshimili South.
Other Local Government Areas, namely, Burutu, Ethiope West,
Isoko North, Okpe, Ughelli North, and Warri South are assisted by
NNDC as observed by the researcher. This showed that the facilities
are not proportionally distributed in schools among the local
government areas. Also there is a serious problem of inadequacy of
other facilities in primary schools e.g. Headmaster’s office, toilet
facilities and football pitch.
Research Questions 3: Is the teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools

in the State higher than the national ratio?
The teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools in Delta State is
1:22 which is lower than the national teacher-pupil ratio of 1:44.
This is an indication that on the average the primary schools in Delta
State are well staffed compared to some other states in Nigeria.

88
Research Question 4: Is there a significant difference in the

teacher-pupil ratio among riverrine, rural, semi-urban and urban
primary schools in Delta State?
Table 4: Chi-square Bivariate Table of Teacher-Pupil Ratio in
Primary Schools according to Location.
Location Below 1:10– 1:16- 1:22 – 1:2– 1:34 – 1:40 – 1:46- 1:51 Abov Tot
1:10 1:15 1:21 1:27 1:33 1:39 1:45 e 1:51 al
Riverine 4(2.7) 11 (15.5) 15 (18.7) 17 (17) 6 (5.6) 17 (8.7) 4(4.6) 2 (2.4) 1(1.8) 77
Rural 8(6.7) 40 (39) 40 (46.8) 41 14 (14) 19 (22) 14 (11.5) 10 (5.9) 7(4.5) 193
(42.7)
Semi-Urban 2(3.9) 19 (22.8) 26 (27.4) 28 (25) 10 (8.3) 13 (12.8) 9(6.7) 2 (3.5) 4(2.6) 13
Urban 4(4.7) 35 (27.7) 45 (33.2) 29 8 (10) 10 (15.5) 4(8.2) 2 (4.2) 0(3.2) 137
(30.3)
Total 18 105 126 115 38 59 31 16 12 520
From table 4, the calculated chi-square value (19.71) with 24
degree of freedom at 0.05 level of significance is less than chi-square
critical value (23.34). This revealed that there is no significant
difference in the teacher-pupils ratio among schools in riverine,
rural, semi-urban and urban primary schools in Delta State.
distribution of teachers by qualifications in schools among the Local
Government Areas?
Table 5: Chi-square Bivariate table of the Distribution of Teachers
by Qualification in Schools among the Local Government Areas.
L.G.A. With Teaching Qualifications Without Teaching Total
Degree N.C.E. A.C.E. Qualifications TC
II, NECO/SSCE
Aniocha North 2(68) 664(437) 8(51) 10(128) 684
Burutu 42(66) 173(424) 25(49) 2424(124) 664
Ethiope West 51 (78) 398(500) 314(58) 20(146) 783
Ika North 110(109) 864(700) 17(81) 104(204) 1095
Okpe 53 (57) 298(363) 5(42) 221(106) 568
Ndokwa West 75 (67) 403(429) 27(50) 167 (125) 672
OshimiliSouth 106(63) 409(400) 16(46) 95(117) 628
UghelliNorth. 243(133) 658(848) 201(98) 225(247) 1327
IsokoNorth 30(66) 459(420) -(48) 168(122) 28657
Warri South 126 (123) 994(789) -(91) 155 (230) 1235
Total 830 5311 613 1549 8311
From table 5, Chi-square calculated value (1297.2) is greater

than critical value (40.11) at 27 degree of freedom, and 0.05 level of
89
significance. This showed that there is a significant difference in the

distribution of teachers by qualification in primary schools in Delta
State, Nigeria.
Research Question 6: Are there primary schools with less than six
teachers in the State?
From fieldwork, table 1, observed frequency; no school has
below 6 teachers in Aniocha North, Ika North East and Okpe Local
Government Areas. I.e. 30%of the Local Government Area do not
have schools with less than six teachers per school. Riverine
communities in 70% Local Government Areas have schools with
less than six teachers. Burutu 37% i.e. 5 schools with only one
teacher, (7%) with teacher-pupils ratio of 1:78. Ethiope West (6%).
Isoko North (7%) with teacher-pupil ratio 1:72, Ndokwa West 15%,
Oshimili South (11%) with teacher-pupil ratio 1;50 and Warri South
(4%). There are forty-seven (9%) riverine primary schools with less
than six teachers each in Delta State.
Research Question 7; Are there teachers without teaching
qualifications, in primary schools in Delta State?
From table 5, 1549 (19%) of the teachers are without
teaching qualifications, with 27% of 1549 from Burutu, Ughelli
North (15%), Okpe (14%) and Isoko North (11%). 1072 (70%) of
the 1549 are Teachers Grade II Certificate holders ,products of the
National Teachers Institute, Kaduna.
distribution of non-teaching staff by qualification in schools among
the Local Government Areas?
Table 6: Chi-square Bivariate Table showing the Distribution of
Non-Teaching Staff by Qualification.
L.G.A. N.C.E TC II SSCE/NE FSLC/Others Total
CO
/NABTEB
Aniocha North 6(5.5) 8(14.1) 108(122) 159(139.4) 281
Burutu 2(4.0) 2(12) 81(102) 1502(117) 235
Ethiope West 3(6) 42(15) 131(146) 118(146) 294
Ika North 0(4) 5(11) 80(93) 129(106) 214
Isoko North 0 (2) 7(4) 20 (37) 59(43) 86

90
Ndokwa West 14 (5) 8(14) 126(117) 121 (133) 269

Okpe 1(2) 4(7) 55(55) 68(63) 128
Oshimili South 11(3) 1(8) 98(65) 40(74) 150
Ughelli North 2(5) 26(14) 130(120) 199(137) 277
Warri South 0 (1) 0(4) 41(32) 33 (37) 74
Total 39 103 870 996 2008
. The result in table 6 showed that chi-square calculated value
(165) is greater than critical value (40.11) at 27 degree of freedom
and 0.05 level of significant difference in the distribution of non-
teaching staff in primary schools among Local Government Areas in
Delta State, Nigeria.
Discussion
The results of this study revealed: a significant difference in the
teacher-pupil ratio in primary schools, the distribution of teachers by
qualifications in primary schools and the distribution of non –
teaching staff by qualifications in primary schools among the Local
Government Areas in Delta State. School location does not have any
influence on the distribution of teachers among schools in Delta
State since there is no significant difference in the teacher-pupils
ratio among primary schools in riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban
primary schools in Delta State. There is a serious problem of
inadequate facilities in primary schools especially in the non-oil
producing area. The teacher-pupils ratio of 1:22 is lower than the
national teacher –pupils’ ratio of 1:44 as revealed in this study.
The study also revealed that there are forty-seven (9%)
riverine primary schools with less than six teachers each in Delta
State. There are also 1549 (19%) teachers without teaching
qualification serving mostly in riverine primary schools. These
showed that teachers are on the average well managed by the State
Primary Education Board through the Local Education Authorities in
Delta State especially in urban and semi-urban schools. The study
also revealed inadequate management of teachers and facilities in
riverine schools when compared to semi-urban and urban schools.
These could be the causes of the perceived decline in quality of
primary education especially in the riverine and rural areas. These
findings are consistent with Ogbodo (1995), Idiagbe (2004),
91
Oghuvbu (1999) and Nwagwu (1997). Also, the existence of schools

with less than six teachers, teachers without teaching qualification
mostly in riverine schools, overcrowded classrooms as revealed by
average of seven classrooms per school in Delta State could hamper
effective teaching and pupils’ academic achievement. This findings
is consistent with those of Olutola(2000), Uwheraka(2005), and
Osagie (2001).
The state teacher-pupils ratio of 1:22 is an indication that
primary schools are well staffed in Delta State. The variation in the
quality of teachers could be as a result of the variation in the Local
Government council’s utilization of funds allocated to primary
education. Since the local Government also controls primary
education in Nigeria, especially the appointment and payment of
teachers’ salary especially those without nationally approved
teaching qualification. The existence of schools with less than six
teachers is an indication of stress among teachers, which could result
in inability to complete the curriculum leading to a decline in
academic standard. Also, inadequate facilities could result in de-
motivation on pupils and teachers, leading to pupils’ dropout, and
un-seriousness by teachers, as could be evidenced by lateness and
absenteeism among teachers.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The teacher-pupil ratio of 1:22 in primary schools in Delta
State is less than the national teacher-pupils ratio 1:44. Eighty-one
percent (81%) of the primary school teachers are with teaching
qualifications. There is a significant difference in the teacher-pupils
ratio in primary schools distribution of teachers and non-teaching
staff by qualification in schools among Local Government Areas.
There is no significant difference in teacher-pupil ratio among
riverine, rural, semi-urban and urban primary schools. Riverine
schools have the greatest abnormal teacher-pupils ratio (1:78), and
90% of the schools with less than six teachers in a school.
The non-crude oil producing Local Government Area schools
are more in lack of facilities such as; desk with average number of

92
pupils to a desk, varying from 10 to 68 in a Local Government Area.

The overall assessment showed that human resources are well
utilized by the State Primary Education Board in Delta State.
However, schools with less than six teachers, especially those with
only one teacher, more teachers should be posted to such schools.
Also, riverine and rural schools should be well staffed to reduce
dropout rate in such schools.
The results of the study revealed that perceived decline in the
quality of primary education may not be as result of the quality and
quantity of teachers, but could be due to lack of facilities in schools
and type of training given to teachers. Government should as a
matter of urgency provide facilities in schools. The Ministry of
Education and the State Primary Education Board should constantly
organize seminars for teachers and carry out effective supervision in
schools. These could reduce absenteeism by teachers especially in
riverine and rural schools. It could also serve as on- the- job training
for ill-trained teachers, especially the products of crash programmes.
References
Ahievboloria, J. E. V. (2005) A Comparative Study of Manpower
and Physical Facilities in Tertiary Institutions in Delta State.
Unpublished M.Ed. Dissertation, Delta State University,
Abraka.
Idiagbe, J.E. (2004) Relationship between education facilities,
teachers qualifications, school location and academic
performance of students in secondary schools in Delta State.
Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. Delta State University, Abraka.
Ministry of Education (2007) Report of the Staff Distribution Sub-
Committee for the Formulation of a Roadmap towards
Improving Standard of Education in Delta State.
Nigeria Educational Research Council (1998) National Secondary

Educational Resource Workshop Report on Technical Studies.
Lagos: Ministry of Information Division.

93
Nwangwu, N. A. (1997) The Environment of Crisis in Nigerian

Educational System. Co-operative Education 33(1) 87-95.
Okoh, A. O. (1998) Personnel and Human Resources Management

in Nigeria. Lagos: Amfitop Books.
Oghuvbu, E. P. (1999) Classroom Management Problems in Urban

Primary Schools in Delta State. West African Journal of
Educational Research. 2(2) 159-166.
Ogbodo, C.A. (1995) Managing Educational Facilities in Schools. In
V. F. Peretomode (Ed.). Introduction to Educational
Planning and Supervision. Lagos: Joja Educational Research
and Publishers Ltd.
Ogunsanju, S. (1983) Educational Supervision: Perspectives and

Practices. Ile-Ife: University of Ife Press.
Ogunbowale, O. A. (1984) The Relationship between Supervising
Climate and Instructional Improvement in Oyo State
Secondary Schools. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University
of Ibadan.
Olutola, K.S. (2000) Relationship between Educational Facilities and
Academic Performance of Students in Anambra State.
Journal of Nigeria Educational Research Association. 8(1),
33-38.
Osagie R. O. (2001) . Facilities and University development. In N.A.
Nwagwu, E.T. Ehiametalor, M.A. Ogunu & M. Nwadiani
(Eds.), Current Issues in Educational Management in Nigeria.
National Association of Educational Administrators and
Planners Journal (332-342).
Uwheraka, T. (2005) Analysis of Space Dimensions and Physical
Facilities in Senior Public Secondary Schools. Unpublished
M.Ed. Dissertation, Delta State University, Abraka.

94
KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICE OF LESBIANISM

AMONG NIGERIA UNIVERSITY
ATHLETES: IMPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATING
THE HIV/AIDS SCOURGE
BY
P.C.E. IRO, Ph.D.,
Abstract
Threads of evidence point to the practice of homosexuality by some
Nigerians. There are widespread speculations that since sport is a
microcosm of society, this practice should permeate sport in that
country. In this study, the knowledge and practice of lesbianism
among female athletes in Nigerian universities, the incidence,
recruitment variables (baits), and the associated behaviours which
constitute vehicles of HIV/AIDS transmission were investigated. One
hundred female athletes who attended the 2004 All Nigeria
University Games (NUGA) were chosen, using the purposive
random sampling technique, to constitute the sample for this study,
and a self-designed, structured questionnaire was the data-gathering
instrument. Results of the present study failed to show that the
female athletes practiced lesbian sex. However, 96% of the
respondents knew the risky behaviours associated with lesbian
relationships which serve as media for HIV/AIDS transmission.
Majority of the athletes indicated that some of their colleagues were
erroneously thought to be homosexuals because of their masculine
physique and use of dress codes which are considered male domain,
and dreadlocks. Athletes who shared these characteristics were
wrongly classified as lesbians because these attributes were indices
of lesbianism in developed countries. There was no significant
difference between first-time and non-first-time competitors in
NUGA in their perception of the indicators of lesbianism. Generally,
people from the various sectors of society, including resource

95
persons, attend university sports meets. Communication-based

activities aimed at educating the youths on body adaptations to
physical activity, and broad characteristics of athletes should thus
be mainstreamed into the programmes of university sports meets in
order to correct the erroneous perception of the sexuality of female
athletes in Nigeria.
Key words: All Nigeria University Games (NUGA), sexuality,

psycho-physiological, anti-social behaviour, injectables.
Introduction
Sport occurs in a social milieu. University sports also serve as
avenues for social interactions, devoid of the strict discipline that
characterizes the school environment. Additionally, since the sports-
men and -women have varying degrees of psycho-physiological
endowments and social tendencies, they carry their peculiarities to
the competitive situation (Coakley, 1998). The sports setting can
thus be adequately qualified as a potpourri or cocktail of some sort.
In a sense, it can serve as an avenue for healthy exchanges among
the athletes; on the other hand, it may create an opportunity for the
acquisition of anti-social behaviours that may have grave health
implications. One of such anti-social traits is homosexuality. It is
well established that acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
is a fatal disease mainly contracted from an infected person through
sex (Busari, 2004), male circumcision, sharing of unsterilized
syringes, female genital mutilation and ear-piercing materials,
contact with contaminated blood and/or body fluid in which that
from an infected person rubs into the wound of another, and
transfusion with infected blood, among other things.
Homosexuality means having sexual relations with someone
of the same gender. It is characterized by coital preference for
someone of the same sex to whom one is emotionally inclined.
Lesbianism on its part denotes a romantic, sexual and emotional
affiliation between or among females (Gianoulis, 2002). This is a
Knowledge and Practice of Lesbianism among Nigeria University Athletes:
Implications for Mitigating the HIV/AIDS Scourge, IRO
96
social problem of the proportion of a taboo in Nigeria, and is

therefore repulsive, stigmatized and criminalized in parts of the
North, where there are Islamic legal regimes. Just recently, 6
Nigerian girls aged 12 to 17 years were sentenced to and lashed 90
strokes of the cane each, for a shameful and abominable same-sex
behaviour (Sapa, 2005). The sharia law adopted in Bornu State of
Nigeria in 2002 outlawed same-sex marriages and homosexuality,
viewing these practices as very serious offences (BBC News, 2007).
This BBC report further pointed out that the penal code of Nigeria
classifies lesbianism as illegal. This offers explanation for instant
demolition of a theatre where a woman was alleged to have hosted
her invitees to her marriage to 4 other women in Nigeria (BBC
News, 2007). While the activities reported above indicate abhorrence
for same-sex relationships in that country, they also double as
pointers to the existence of lesbian practices in Nigeria.
Ironically, all ethnic groups in Nigeria visit silence on issues
relating to lesbianism, even where the culture is more permissive
(Cesnabmihilo, 2000). As a result of this attitude, sexuality in that
country is essentially, built on rumours, speculations, and myths,
thereby denying health workers and researchers vital information
about sexual orientations that should guide reproductive health
advocacy. This attitude conceals vital information which is key in
documenting the pervasiveness of homosexuality and facilitating
change of risky behaviours associated with the spread of HIV/AIDS
in that country.
Research has shown that the AIDS virus is present
principally in body secretions or fluids such as the male semen,
vaginal secretions, infected blood and blood products. Hence, any
act that permits blood, virginal secretion, semen, and/ or body fluid
exchange is a potential vehicle for HIV transmission. The foetus can
also contract it by means of mother to child transmission (MTCT)
via the placenta (UNAIDS, 2004). Research shows that HIV is
mainly transmitted through sexual intercourse with an infected
person. According to the Federal Ministry of Health - FMOH (2003),
97
sexual intercourse accounts for approximately 80% of HIV/AIDS

infections in Nigeria.
In recent years, the high prevalence of the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and incurable acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS) has received increased attention in
sport because of the growing number of infections, especially
amongst popular celebrities and prominent sports persons such as
Arthur Ashe (tennis star) and Earvin "Magic" Johnson (basketball
star). The disease has reached epidemic proportions in Sub-Saharan
Africa. In fact, World Health Organization - WHO (2004; p.1) has
revealed that, “Nigeria has one of the highest HIV/AIDS epidemics
in the world”, with an adult prevalence rate of 3.6 – 8.0%, and
overall prevalence rate of 4.4 out of every one hundred persons.
National prevalence data show that the spread has risen rapidly and
steadily since 1991. With a population of approximately 130 million
people, Nigeria constitutes about 1/5th of the population of Sub-
Saharan Africa. These figures show that Nigeria contributes
substantially to the HIV/AIDS burden in Sub-Saharan Africa (Okey,
2007). Despite the intense efforts by medical and paramedical
personnel and bodies around the world to control the spread of this
disease, the number of HIV patients continues to multiply.
HIV/AIDS infection in Nigeria has shown marked gender
disparities, with more women being infected than the men (female-
male ratio is 1.38: 1). WHO further noted that the most vulnerable
group comprised women aged 20 – 24 years. Quite a number of
female students in Nigerian Universities fall within this age-range.
Furthermore, following a preliminary investigation of same-sex
relationships in Nigeria, Cesnabmihilo (2000) identified tertiary
institutions in the country as one of the places where homosexuality
is practiced. Given this scenario, it would appear that an increasing
number of university sports-women would present with this infection
in future. The thematic focus of this paper derives from the
conviction that the actual performance of this lesbian sex and the
associated risky behaviors constitute potential vehicles for
98
HIV/AIDS transmission. A clear understanding of the popularity of

this practice, the baits and benefits, and the associated practices that
favour the spread of the HIV/AIDS virus will be useful in
formulating a comprehensive plan of action aimed at controlling
HIV/AIDS in Nigeria.
In this study therefore, the practice of lesbianism among
university athletes in Nigeria was investigated in order to guide
efforts aimed at controlling HIV/AIDS among students of Nigerian
universities. It focused on the pervasiveness of lesbianism,
recruitment variables (baits), the indices of lesbianism, associated
practices that constitute potential vehicles for HIV/AIDS
transmission, with a view to making recommendations for the
control of this phenomenon.
Research Questions
1. To what extent is lesbianism practiced by Nigeria university
athletes.
2. What psycho-sociological and economic benefits lure female
athletes in Nigerian universities into lesbian practices?
3. How knowledgeable are female athletes in Nigerian
universities about risky behaviours associated with
lesbianism by which HIV can be contracted?
4. Why are some female athletes in Nigeria universities
perceived to be lesbians?
5. Why are the variables identified in research question 4
considered to be the indicators of lesbianism?
Hypothesis
The following hypotheses were formulated and tested in this
study:
1. There is no significant difference between first-time and non-
first-time female competitors in NUGA in their perception of

99
the indicators of lesbianism among Nigeria university

athletes.
2. Expectation of psycho-sociological and economic benefits is
not significantly luring to female athletes in Nigerian
universities to engage in lesbian practices.
3. Female athletes in Nigerian Universities do not have
significant knowledge of risky behaviours associated with
lesbianism by which HIV can be contracted.
4. There is no significant reason why female athletes in
Nigerian universities are perceived as lesbians.
Research Design
The cross-sectional survey research design which involved
questionnaire was adopted in this study. This design was chosen
because it provides appropriate methodology for perception and
opinion, with respect to human behaviour.
Population and Sample
The population of this study comprised all the female athletes
who competed in the various events of the 2002 NUGA hosted
by the University of Port Harcourt. The purposive sampling
technique was used to select 100 female athletes who served as
the sample in this study. Volunteers were used to replace some
female athletes who declined to participate in this study. In all, 5
athletes were replaced, which shows that majority of those
sampled initially constituted the sample.
Instrumentation
The instrument for this study was the self-developed
questionnaire. It was self-developed with respect to the research
questions formulated to guide the study and face-validated by
three researchers in Human Kinetics and Health Education. The
questionnaire comprised predominantly closed – ended
questions. Some open – ended questions were also included in
the questionnaire where there was the need to create room for
more individualized responses. The Cronbach alpha (r) statistic
100
was used to estimate the reliability of the instrument, yielding a

reliability coefficient of 0.86. Since the theory behind Cronbach
alpha coefficient is that the observed score is the sum of true
score and error score, the high coefficient obtained indicates that
measurement error was minimized. In other words, the
relationship between the true score and observed score was
strong.
Method of Data Analyses
The instrument was administered through a team of trained
female assistants who also contested in the 2002 NUGA hosted
by the University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Frequency counts,
percentages and chi-square (χ2) calculated at .05 alpha level
were used for data analyses.
Results
Table 1: Age distribution of respondents
Age range (in No. of respondents Percentage (%)
years)
16 – 20 72 72
21 and above 28 28
Total 100 100
Table 1 shows that majority (72%) of the respondents fell within

the age range of 16 to 20 years. Only 28% of the respondents
belonged to the age-range, 21 years and above.
Table 2: Extent to which female athletes in Nigerian university
practice lesbianism.
Extent Response
No. (%)
High 0(0)
Average 0(0)
Low 0(0)
Not at all 100(100)
Total 100(100)

101
Table 2 shows the distribution of responses on the extent to which

female athletes in Nigerian universities practiced lesbianism. The
scores indicate that female athletes in Nigeria universities did not
engage in lesbian practices at all.
Table 3: Reasons why female athletes in Nigerian university

practiced lesbianism.
Reasons Responses
No. (%)
To avoid pregnancy 0(0)
Financial gains 0(0)
Sense of belonging 0(0)
Intimate social 0(0)
relationships
Revolt against 0(0)
societal norms
Lesbian by nature 0(0)
None of the above 100(100)
Total 100(100)
Table 3 shows the distribution of responses on the variables which

serve as baits or incentives to lure people into lesbian relationships.
None of the reasons stated, attracted the female university athletes
sampled into lesbian relationships. All respondents indicated “none
of the above” as their preferred option. This agrees with their
responses reported in table 2, which indicate that the female Nigerian
university athletes studied were not lesbians. Thus, Table 3
reinforces the responses in Table 2 which show that female athletes
in Nigerian universities did not engage in lesbianism.
Table 4: Knowledge of risky behaviours associated with lesbian sex

that favour HIV transmission.

102
Risky behaviour Response No. (%)
Use of sex tools (e.g. dildos) 26(26)

Genital manipulation with fingers 25(25)
Use of alcohol/psycho-stimulants 12(12)
Sharing of needles/injections 37(37)
Total 100(100)
The questionnaire items in Table 4 sought information on the

knowledge of female Nigerian university athletes with respect to
some lesbian practices that expose the practitioners to HIV infection.
The responses show that sharing of needles (37%), use of sex tools
(e.g. dildos) (26%), manipulation with fingers (25%), and use of
alcohol/ psycho-stimulants, in that order, favour HIV transmission.
Table 5: Reasons for perceiving some female university athletes in

Nigeria as lesbians.
Reason Response
No. (%)
Actual involvement in 0(0)
lesbian sex
They are self-professed 0(0)
lesbians
Use of dreadlocks 50(50)
Masculine physique 31(31)
Use of men’s dress code 15(15)
Do not know 4(4)
Total 100(100)
From the responses reported in Table 5, 3 reasons informed the

perception of some female university athletes as lesbians. These are
as follows: use of dreadlocks (50%), possession of masculine

103
physique (31%), and use of men’s dress code (15%), in that order.
However, 4% did not know the indicators of lesbianism. This shows
that the classification of some female university athletes in Nigerian
universities as lesbians is neither based on self-declaration as a
lesbian nor actual involvement in lesbian sex. It is rather based on
certain physical features and dressing characteristics of the female
athletes which portray them as lesbians.
Table 6: Why the use of dreadlocks, men’s dress code, and

masculine physique were viewed as indicators of lesbianism.
Reason Response
No. (%)
They are the indicators of lesbianism in Nigeria 0(0)

They are known lesbian codes in Nigerian 0(0)
universities
They are the indicators of lesbianism in developed 96(96)
countries
Do not know 4(4)
Total 100(100)
Table 6 highlights the rationale for which the factors reported in
Table 5 (that is, use of dreadlocks, men’s dress code, and masculine
body build) were viewed as indices of involvement in lesbianism.
Table 6 shows that these are the identification marks adopted by
lesbians in the developed countries. However, only four percent of
those studied did not know that the reasons for which these variables
were viewed as indicators of lesbianism.
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis one: There is no significant difference between first-
time and non-first-time female competitors in NUGA in their
perception of the indicators of lesbianism.

104
Table 7: χ2 Summary table for hypothesis one.

Variable First-Timer Non-
First-Timer χ2 Critical χ2 Calculated Df Remark
Actual involvement 0 0
Self-professed 0 0
Use of dreadlocks 14 39 9.49 3.41 4 NS
Masculine physique 10 22
Use of men’s dress 1 14
Not significant; P ˂.05; df = 4.

To test the hypothesis which states that there is no significant
difference between first-time and non-first-time female competitors
in NUGA in their perception of the indicators of lesbianism, the data
collected were subjected to χ2 analysis. The calculated value
obtained was less than the critical value at .05 alpha level. Based on
this, the null hypothesis was accepted, indicating that there is no
significant difference between the two groups of Nigerian university
athletes studied in their perception of the indices of lesbianism.
Hypotheses two
The female athletes in Nigerian universities will not have significant
knowledge of risky behaviours associated with lesbian sex that
favour HIV transmission.
Table 2: Chi-square summary Table for knowledge of risky
behaviours associated with lesbian sex that favor HIV transmission.
ITEMS PR NR TOTAL
Observed freq. (o) 96 4 100
Expected freq. (e) 50 50 100
o-e 46 -46
(o – e)² 2116 2116
(o – e)²/e 42.32 42.32
χ² 84.64
df 1
Critical value 3.84

105
From Table shows a calculated Chi-square (χ²) value of 84.64, df = 1

and critical value of 3.84 at .05 alpha level. The calculated χ² value is
greater than the critical χ² value of 3.84, indicating a significant
result, p< .05. The null hypothesis was therefore rejected, which
signifies glaring evidence that Nigerian universities female athletes
had significant knowledge of risky behaviours associated with
lesbian sex that favour HIV transmission.
Hypothesis three
Perception of the use of dreadlocks, men’s dress code and masculine
physique as indicators of lesbianism among Nigerian university
female athletes will not be significantly based on indices of
lesbianism in developed countries.
ITEMS PR NR TOTAL
Observed freq. (o) 96 4 100
Expected freq. (e) 50 50 100
o-e 46 -46
(o – e)² 2116 2116
(o – e)²/e 42.32 42.32
χ² 84.64
df 1
Critical value 3.84
Discussion
The results show that none (0%) of the female university athletes in
Nigerian universities reported current or previous engagement in
lesbian sex. Similarly, none (0%) of them checked any bait as what
is used to lure university athletes into lesbianism. Ninety-six (96%)
percent of them knew the risky behaviours associated with
lesbianism which serve as vehicles for HIV transmission. In
response to the question, “what evidence lead people to classify
some female Nigeria University athletes as lesbians”? , they
identified masculine body build (20%), dressing mainly in men’s
clothes (38%), and wearing of dread lucks (42%) as the major
reasons. On why these factors were seen as signifying involvement
in lesbian sex, 96% indicated that these factors were the indicators of
lesbianism in developed countries.
106
The speculation that some female athletes in Nigerian

universities may be lesbians was not supported by the findings of
this research. This contradicts the results obtained with respect to
American women in 2002 and publicized in 2005, which reported
that 11% of women in that country aged 15 to 44 years had engaged
in lesbian sex (Mosher, Chandra, & Jones, 2005).
In Nigeria, homosexuality is considered a vice and is
therefore viewed with revulsion and disdain. It may be thought that
since the present study sampled the same female athletes whose
sexuality was called to question, they may have falsely maintained
the obvious, visible and preferred heterosexual identity in their
responses in order to effectively mask their true sexual orientation
(Cesnabmihilo, 2000), while divesting themselves of the contempt
associated with lesbians and lesbianism in Nigeria. A parallel
position is that because the institution of sports is reflective of the
outer society, and should help to perpetuate practices that support the
values of society while resisting the affirmation of negative
conducts, the Nigerian university female athletes should show
respectful compliance to society. It was therefore not surprising that
no bait could entice them into lesbianism in the present study.
Transmutation from boy to man is viewed in some quarters
as not the result of a natural sequence of development. In America
for instance, sport was created as a device to help boys
metamorphose into men; hence, sports participation by women was
considered an invasion of a men’s territory (Hargreaves, 1994).
Thus, athletically competent women threaten perceived distinctions
regarding physicality between men and women, justifying female
athletic competency on the basis of the sports woman being mannish.
Hence in the view of Hoffman (2005), sports participation calls the
woman’s sexuality to question. This position is further supported by
the result of a survey conducted in America in 1994 which revealed
that female sports administrators, coaches, and athletes in that
country were agitated that others may perceive them as lesbians
because of their involvement in sport (De Jong, 2005). The concern
107
expressed by women in sport in America is closely-related to the

finding in the present study on the perceived indicators of lesbianism
among female athletes in Nigerian universities. Here, masculine
physique was one of the perceived indices; the other two indicators
being; use of dreadlocks and men’s dresses. Viewing female
university athletes in Nigeria as lesbians is therefore, not based on
actual participation in lesbian relationships. It is rather because they
appear to challenge stereotypical physique and expected conduct for
the women in society, a phenomenon called homophobia
(McDermott, 1996; & Coakley, 1998). It is for this reason that sport
is sometimes defined as a cultural and social practice wherein
societal construction of maleness and feminity features prominently.
The use of sex tools (such as dildos) and tactile manipulation
in lesbian sex may cause injury, which constitutes a possible hazard
for HIV transmission. Grown nails can injure the female external
genitalia, leading to body fluid exchanges, and contact with blood
and other blood products. Under the frenzy of ecstatic sexual
stimulation, such operations can become rough and aggressive,
especially, when it is undertaken under the influence of alcohol or
psycho-stimulants. In the process, abrasion can be inflicted which
favours bleeding, body fluid exchange, and possible HIV infection
(Fahey, Insel & Roth, 1999) if one or both partners is/are infected
with the virus.
The use of injectable drugs is associated with homosexuality
(Vox, 2008). Because of the intimacy that characterizes sexual
relationships and the strong passion it engenders, there is the
possibility of sharing needles. In the words of Fahey et. al. (1999):
Needles used to inject drugs (including
heroin, cocaine, and anabolic steroids) are
routinely contaminated by the blood of
the user. If needles are shared, small
amounts of one person’s blood are

108
directly injected into another person’s

bloodstream (p.340).
This, points to the fact that HIV can be contracted through
intravenous as well as intravenous injections.
Implications for Mitigating the HIV/AIDS Scourge
The United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force (2002) recognizes
“knowledge, life skills, the provision of a safe and supportive
environment and access to services” as the 4 pillars for effective
HIV/AIDS programming. Sport possesses these cardinal
characteristics and should serve as a veritable tool for lessening the
spread and severity of HIV/AIDS, as outlined below:
1. It is well established that the group most vulnerable to
HIV/AIDS comprises women and young persons, mostly
girls. Sport holds a strong appeal for youths and virtually all
university athletes are young people. Coaches and sports
organizers can tap in on the opportunities presented by sport
to mitigate HIV/AIDS threat for two key reasons: first, the
special relationship coaches maintain with the athlete; and
secondly, the strong convening power of sports meets. The
coach usually maintains an uncommon trusting relationship
with the athlete he/she mentors. This confidential relationship
places the coach in a vantage position to discuss and explain
personal issues, especially sex, in a manner that effectively
teaches the pitfalls of lesbianism, mechanisms of HIV
transmission, prevention and care of the HIV-positive
patients to the young athlete. By so doing, the athlete is
armed to protect self from contacting the virus, limiting the
spread, and/ or reducing the viral load if the athlete is already
HIV-positive.
2. Sports participation enables the skilled female athlete to
become more physically fit. In addition, athletic success
inspires confidence, a sense of independence (Hargreaves,
1994; & McDermott, 1996), and inculcates respect for the
109
body. These attributes encourage self preservation and

delayed involvement in coitus. The natural corollary is that
sports participation could help in delaying sexual intercourse
until marriage.
3. Akinsanmi, Ogungbenro and Oloyede (2004) once opined
that a country can use sport to emphasize its ethical values.
The safe and supportive environment of sport reinforces its
strong convening power as an excellent arena for educating
young people on healthy sexual relationships, HIV/AIDS
awareness and intervention programmmes. The fun implicit
in sport and its ability to attract people from diverse
backgrounds (spectators, officials, sports enthusiasts,
philanthropists, researchers, the media, and investors, among
others) present an excellent opportunity to openly address
most of the questions relating to sexuality, sexual health and
HIV/AIDS, to a large spectrum of the population. This
opportunity is of special significance in assisting less
privileged groups through linkages with structures,
organizations and people who may be of assistance, and
provides chances for self expression and enjoyment through
play.
4. Sport focuses on the human body. Sports participation
enables young people to better understand their bodies and
capabilities, cultivates respect for their bodies and those of
others, and equips them to respond positively to the many
challenges they encounter, including the HIV/AIDS threat.
Conclusion
Although Nigerian university female athletes are not lesbians, they
are quite knowledgeable in the risky behaviours associated with
lesbian sex by which HIV/AIDS can be contracted by the
practitioners. The mannish physique of some female athletes, the
dreadlocks some of them wear, and use of dress codes that are
110
perceived as male domain generate the false impression that some of

the female athletes are lesbians. This way of thinking appears to be
grounded in age-old, traditionally defined codes of aesthetics and
role expectations, since female athleticism appears to contradict
dominant definitions of feminity in the society. This notion,
reminiscent of old ways of thinking about the feminine gender,
threatens the formation of an adequate image of the female athlete in
Nigeria. Without spirited support for female sports, and popular
acceptance of the athletic woman for what she is, female sports may
suffer severe setback in future. Because sport attracts massive
participation, holds special appeal for the youths and creates rare
confidential relationships between coaches and their athletes, it
presents uncommon opportunities with great potentials as a veritable
arena for sexuality education, HIV/AIDS prevention, and control.
Recommendations
Based on the finding, the following recommendations were made:
1. The sports arenas attract a reasonable number of youths.
These are veritable venues for sex education of young people
and dissemination of information about HIV/AIDS and the
vulnerability of lesbians to this scourge, using their peers.
Those aiding and abetting lesbianism in sports camps should
be apprehended and penalized. Student groups should be
encouraged to constitute themselves into the vanguard for
such sexual practices. The implication is that all athletes
assume some responsibility for their own safety. This is
informed by the author’s conviction that HIV prevention is
participatory - where individuals make conscious efforts for
self-protection and preservation.
2. Each participating university should be assigned specific sub-
themes on lesbianism and HIV/AIDS to deal with by the
NUGA Council. Each university team should be allowed to
choose and adopt an appropriate method (dramatization,
recitation, mini –debate e.t.c,) ……This may be incorporated

111
into the opening or closing ceremonies of the games as a way

of driving home the points.
3. Since universities in Nigeria have defined dress codes for
their students, this may be broadened to form ethical codes
for university games. It should be spelt out in such a manner
as to eliminate such dress codes, hair dos and styles that
falsely insinuate the existence of lesbian relationships among
female athletes in Nigerian universities.
References
Akinsanmi, T., Ogugbenro, B., Oloyede, R.O. (2004). Sport: An
effective tool for national integration and cohesion. In
Igbanugo, V.C. (Ed.). Multi-disciplinary approach to human
kinetics and health education. Ibadan: Codat Publications.
BBC News (2007). Nigeria “lesbian wedding denied”. Saturday, 28th

April, 17:22 GMT 18:22 UK. http://new.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/Africa/6603853.stm. Retrieved
on 8th May, 2008.
Busari, A.O. (2004). Peer-led AIDS prevention programme and print

media intervention strategy in disseminating information
about HIV/AIDS among some selected secondary school
students in Ibadan. In Igbanugo, V.C. (Ed). Multi-disciplinary
approach to human kinetics and health education. Ibadan:
Codat Publications.
Cesnabmihilo, D.N.A. (2000). A preliminary survey of

homosexuality in Nigeria.
http://www.iwhc.org/docUploads/HomosexualityinNigeria.pdf.
Retrieved on 8th May, 2008.
Coakley, J.J. (1998). Sport in society. Issues & contemporary

practice. New York: McGraw-Hill.
De Jong, A. (2005). Female athletes face lesbian stereotypes. Daily
Bruin. April 13. Los Angeles: University of California.
112
FMOH(2003). National HIV/AIDS and reproductive health survey.

Abuja: FMOH.
Gianoulis, T. (2002). Lesbianism. St. James encyclopaedia of

popular cultures. Gale group. P. 1-2.
Hargreaves, J. (1994). Sporting females: Critical issues in the history

and sociology of women’s sport. London: Routledge.
Hoffman, T. (2005). What Does It Mean to Be Gay In Sports?

Canada Newswire Ltd. June 20.
McDermott, L. (1996).Toward a feminist understanding of

physicality within the context of women’s physically active
and sporting lives. Sociology of sports Journal 13, 1: 12-30.
Mosher, W.D., Chandra, A., & Jones, J. (2005). Sexual behaviour

and selected health measures: Men and women 15 – 44 years
of age, United States, 2002. U. S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Centre for Disease Control and Prevention,
National Centre for Health Statistics, Maryland.
http:// www.ncbi.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16250464. Retrieved on
29th May, 2008.
Okey, C.M. (2007). Aids Epidemic and challenges to health care

delivery. Rivers State Action Committee on Aids.
Sapa, D.P.A. (2005). Lashing for teen lesbianism in Nigeria. 24th

November.
http://www.mask.org.za/article.php?cat=nigeria&id=458.
UNAIDS (2004) Epidemiology fact sheet, Nigeria update.

www.who.int/gloval/atlas/PD.F factory.

113
United States Inter-Ethnic Agency for (2002).
World Health Organization (2004). July. Summary country profile

HIV/AIDS
treatment scale-up (NIGERIA).
Vox, D. (2008). Battling the addiction in the gay community.

Equality Forum. April 28 – May 4. Philadelphia.

114
ASSESSMENT OF WORKING CONDITIONS OF BUSINESS

STUDIES TEACHERS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN
DELTA STATE
BY
OKORO, JAMES (Ph.D.)
Abstract
The working conditions of Business Studies teachers seem to have
been neglected in the recent time. There are complaints of
unsatisfactory teaching climate experienced by the teachers. Based
on the above, the study assessed the working conditions of Business
Studies teachers in secondary schools in Delta State. A research
question and two hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. A
40 item questionnaire was designed to elicit responses from 158
Business Studies teachers from 63 out of 177 Secondary schools
offering Business Studies. The findings were that salary is not
attractive, inadequate facilities, excess workload, students do not
buy relevant text books and do not do their assignments regularly.
Recommendations were made to provide more facilities, attractive
salary, in-service training and workshops for teachers, and that
students should be highly disciplined.
Introduction
The 6-3-3-4 system of education which started in the country
in 1982 gave birth to Business Studies as one of the prevocational
subjects taught as part of the junior secondary schools curriculum.
Other prevocational subjects are Introductory Technology, Wood
Work, Metal work, Agricultural Science and Home Economics.
Business Studies is taught as an Integrated subject which has five
major components, namely: Bookkeeping, Commerce, Office
practice, Shorthand and Typewriting. It is a skill expository and
discovery subject that helps the students to explore those saleable
115
skills that can be used in the future to be self employed and self
reliant. The subject helps students to stand on their own,
economically (Okoro & Iyeke, 2004). It offers every individual the
opportunities to develop those skills, abilities and understanding that
enable them handle competently their own business affairs. At
secondary level, the sub-subjects can stand alone – Bookkeeping,
Commerce, Economics, Shorthand and Typewriting. Students can
enroll for these subjects at National Examinations Commission
(NECO), West African Examinations Council (WAEC) and National
Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB) as single
subjects.
The National curriculum for junior secondary schools states the
following as the goals of business studies education:
1. To enable the student to acquire the basic knowledge of
business studies,
2. To develop the basic skills in office occupation,
3. To prepare students for further training in business studies,
4. To provide orientation and basic skills with which to start a life
of work for those who may not undergo further training,
5. To provide basic skills for personal use in future,
6. To relate the knowledge and skills to the national economy
(Esene, 1997).
Business studies can not be divorced from business education.
Azuka, Nwosu, Kanu and Agomuo (2006) define Business
Education as a programme of studies, which aims at creating
awareness in business occupations, preparing youths for work in
business occupation, preparing people to become better citizens and
consumers of goods, services and preparing business teachers.
Business education therefore prepares the youths for vocations and
also furnishes them with relevant information concerning their lives
both as citizens and as individuals. Oliseh (2008) pointed out that
Business Education develops citizens on certain skills, attitudes and
abilities that are relevant to securing jobs in the business world, and
it gives them insight into general business and acquaints them with

Assessment of Working Conditions of Business Studies Teachers in Secondary Schools in
Delta State, OKORO
116
general business information that will make them efficient and

rational purchasers and consumers of business products (goods and
services). In the same vein, Haynes and Jackson (1997) define
Business education as that area of professional preparation for a
career in Business education, teaching business subjects and also
with business information important for every citizen and consumer
in order that he/she may better understand his/her business and
economic surroundings.
Business studies teachers are those teachers that have
undergone training in Business Education programmes and have
acquired some knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies in the
subject, who are employed to teach the pedagogy of the subject.
Teachers of this subject must have undergone courses in Accounting,
Economics, Commerce, Management, Shorthand, Typewriting
Computer Appreciation/Application, Office Practice Procedure,
Business Law, to mention but a few. Presently, teachers’ salaries are
equivalent with their counterparts’ in the civil service. Meanwhile,
teachers spend much time talking and teaching the students.
Secondary school teachers are currently agitating for a new salary
structure for their professional members-the Teachers Salary
Structure (TSS) which had resulted to Nigerian Union of Teachers’
strike in June 2008 (Guardian 14th June, 2008). Unity Schools also
embarked on indefinite strike 7th January, 2009. These have attested
to the fact that the working condition and welfare of Nigerian
teachers seem to have been neglected. The working conditions refer
to those stimulating factors that enhance teaching and learning in
schools, teachers’ remuneration, classrooms, laboratories, students
attitudes, school libraries and so on. In the same vein, Abraham
(2004) observes that successive governments in Nigeria have been
unfair and insincere to Nigerians, especially the younger ones who
they call ‘leaders of tomorrow’. Government at all levels always
present beautiful proposals to revitalize the education industry.
When the heavy budgets are approved, nothing positive seems to be
happening to better the lots of the schools. Abraham (2004) further

117
observes that a visit to secondary schools today reveals that teaching

and learning have become most uninteresting. The aids and facilities
that made teaching less tortuous and learning easy and interesting are
no longer there. Laboratories are extinct, dilapidated buildings,
overcrowded classrooms are characteristics of most public secondary
schools (Abraham, 2004). Abolade (2004) also observes that under
the compulsory nine-year schooling within the UBE programme,
transition from primary to junior secondary school, the first
challenge of the programme is the numerous number of students the
teachers are to cope with, up-to-date data are inadequate,
overcrowded classrooms, non-availability of laboratories, inadequate
technical workshops and equipment, inadequate staff offices and
library books. Contributing on the prevailing situation in secondary
schools, Anyaduba in Amaewhule (2004) reveals that most public
secondary schools lack vocational and technical teachers who are the
major actors of 6-3-3-4 system of education for the teaching of
prevocational subjects. Okoro (2008) reports that business education
teachers have excess workload due to inadequate teachers in that
field.
The above stated working conditions of Nigerian teachers in
secondary schools call for urgent attention and redress to ensure the
survival of the system. There is need to apply the concept of
motivation which Staw (1983) in Peretomode (1991) defines as a
proponent state that energizes and guides behaviour. It is rarely
measured directly, but is inferred from changes in behaviour or even
attitudes. To be motivated means to be moved to do something. It
varies from individual to individual and could be made to see that a
high level of motivation is achieved when events follow a response,
which tend to increase the frequency of that responses. Such forces
are also commonly referred to as reinforcement. Business studies
teachers are the central actors for the successful implementation of
the Business Studies curriculum in the present structure of secondary
schools. Hence, the teachers need conducive working conditions for
successful teaching of Business studies. The theoretical framework

Delta State, OKORO
118
of this research is based on Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964)

which is a process theory of motivation which has emphasized that
individuals have preference for various outcomes (goals); individuals
have expectancies about the likehood that an action on their part will
lead to intended behaviour; individual have instrumentalities and the
action a person chooses to take is determined by the expectancies
and the preferences that person has. The theory is significant to
business studies because the teachers are also human beings that are
expectant of favourable working conditions in their jobs, good
outcomes that will enable them put in more efforts, and value for
their preferences. As the teacher satisfies the needs of the
educational system, (the nomothetic dimension), the personal needs
of the teachers are relevant also (the idiographic dimension) (Okorie,
1992). The secondary school teachers are expected to teach the
subjects to enable the students acquire the relevant skills, knowledge,
attitudes and dexterities for self employment and self-reliant. Also,
working tools, instructional facilities, salary and goods offices are
highly needed by the teachers to carry out these assigned tasks.

Business studies teachers in secondary schools seem to have
poor working conditions. As a result, teachers seem not to be
dedicated to their assigned duties since the instructional facilities and
conditions prevalent cannot promote effective teaching and learning.
Teachers feel powerless to create positive learning experience and
outcomes for the students to improve their own situations. The
conditions of service available to teachers, can go a long way to
reducing their commitments which can cause teachers to be less
successful in teaching. This can have negative effect on the students
academic performance in business studies examinations.
Research Question
The following research question was formulated to guide the
study:

119
How are the working conditions of business studies teachers in

secondary schools?
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were formulated to guide the
study:
1. There is no significant difference between male and female
teachers’ perception of the assessment of the working
conditions of business studies teachers in secondary schools.
2. There is no significant difference between urban schools
teachers and rural schools teachers’ perception of the
assessment of working conditions of business studies teachers
in secondary schools.
The purpose of the study was to assess the working
conditions of Business studies teachers in public secondary schools
in Delta State. Specifically, the objectives include:
- Assessing the remunerations of business studies teachers.
- Assessing the condition of staff offices
- Assessing the instructional facilities
- Assessing the teachers to students ratio
- Assessing the level of commitment of students to classes.
Scope of the Study
This study assessed the working conditions of Business
studies teachers in public secondary schools in Delta State.
Method
The design of the study was a descriptive survey which
assessed the working conditions of Business studies teachers. The
population consisted of all Business studies teachers in the 326
public junior secondary schools in Delta State. One hundred and
fifty-eight (158) Business studies teachers were selected through
random sampling technique from the 63 (36%) out of 177 identified
junior secondary schools offering Business Studies. A 40-item
questionnaire was the instrument used for data collection. It had two
sections. Section A had 4 items of demographic variables while

Delta State, OKORO
120
section B had 34 items derived from the research question. The

questionnaire was structured on a modified 4 points Likert scale of
Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D) and Strongly
Disagree (SD). The test-retest method was used to determine the
reliability of the instrument. The questionnaire was administered to
56 Business Studies teachers in 16 secondary schools which were
not part of the study. After an interval of two weeks, the same set of
questionnaire was administered to the same set of respondents to
determine the reliability of the instrument. The data collected were
further subjected to Pearson Product moment correlation to
determine its reliability. A reliability coefficient of 0.79 was
established. The data collected were analyed using means and
standard deviations. In discussing the questionnaire items, the mean
scores which fell below 2.5 were rejected responses while the mean
scores above 2.5 were accepted responses. The z-test statistic was
used to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.
Data Analysis
Research Question: How are the working conditions of Business
Studies teachers in secondary schools?
Table I: Opinions of Business Studies Teachers’ Perception of the
Working Conditions of Business Studies Teachers
S/N Item description X SD Rmk
1. My salary is paid regularly 2.46 0.74 Rejected
2 My salary is attractive 2.34 0.77 Rejected
3 I receive over time allowance 2.41 0.70 Rejected
4 My salary is commensurate with the duties I carried out 2.40 0.68 Rejected
5 I receive bonuses during Christmas 2.43 0.77 Rejected
6 My school authority gives me money to enable me attend 2.30 0.66 Rejected
workshops
7 My school authorities sponsors me financially to attend 2.36 0.71 Rejected
seminars
8 I have opportunity for study leave 2.45 0.73 Rejected
9 I enjoy study leave with pay 2.26 0.74 Rejected
10 I have adequate office space 2.30 0.72 Rejected
11 My office has fan 2.46 0.68 Rejected
12 My office has air conditioner 2.06 0.78 Rejected
13 My office has lighting facilities 2.24 0.66 Rejected
14 My office is adequately furnished 2.31 0.57 Rejected
121
15 My classrooms have adequate chairs 2.37 0.65 Rejected

16 My classroom is ventilated 2.68 0.76 Accepted
17 My classroom is regularly maintained 2.47 0.74 Rejected
18 My classroom has fans 2.16 0.78 Rejected
19 I have shorthand laboratory for practical work 2.11 0.62 Rejected
20 My shorthand laboratory is equipped with instructional 2.30 0.07 Rejected
facilities
21 I have typing pool for practical work 2.21 0.72 Rejected
22 I have adequate typewriters for practical work 2.26 0.78 Rejected
23 I have relevant textbooks for the subject 2.66 0.73 Accepted
24 My students buy all relevant textbooks 2.34 0.28 Rejected
25 My students do assignment regularly 2.36 0.72 Rejected
26 My students return their assignments for marking 2.38 0.67 Rejected
27 My students always respect me 2.41 0.76 Rejected
28 My students cause problem to me 2.46 0.71 Rejected
29 My community involves me in making major decisions that 2.76 0.69 Accepted
affects the school
30 My community is hostile to me 2.27 0.78 Rejected
31 My community helps to provide some teaching facilities to 2.26 0.80 Rejected
help the school
32 I have excess workload 2.76 0.71 Accepted
33 My classrooms are overcrowded 2.61 0.78 Accepted
34 The business studies content is wide 2.73 078 Accepted
35 I can teach all aspects of business studies 2.38 0.70 Rejected
The data presented and analysed above clearly indicate that

business studies teachers are faced with myriads of problems. This
can negatively affect effective teaching and learning of business
studies. Most of the positive responses are rejected while few are
accepted. This means that there are unsatisfactory working
conditions as perceived by the teachers.
Ho1: There is no significant difference between male and female
teachers’ perceptions of the assessment of the working conditions of
Business studies teachers in secondary schools.
Table 1: Means and SD of male and female teachers perception of

working conditions of business studies.
Variabl X SD N Df Leve z- z- Decisio Rmk
e l of cal. crit. n
categor sig.
Delta State, OKORO
122
y
Male 2.3 0.9 8
teachers 1 2 7 15 0.05 0.9 1.9 Ns Accep
Female 2.4 1.0 7 6 4 6 t
teacher 2 1 1
The mean and SD of male teachers are 2.431 and 0.92

respectively, while the means and SD of female teachers are 2.42
and 1.01 respectively. Since the calculated Z-score of 0.94 is less
than 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance, the hypothesis which states
that there is no significant difference between male teachers and
female working conditions of business studies teachers is therefore
retained as stated.
H02: There is no significant difference between urban school
teachers and rural schools teachers perception of the assessment of
working conditions of business studies teachers in secondary
schools.
Table 2: Opinions of Urban schools and rural school teachers
perception of the assessment of working condition of business
studies teachers in secondary schools.
Variable X SD N Df Lev. z-cal z-cri Dec Rmk

category Of sig
Urban
school 2.43 0.72 92
teachers 156 0.05 0.83 1.960 Ns Accept
Rural 2.40 0.67 66
Schools
teachers
The mean and SD of urban school teacher are 2.43 and 0.72
respectively, while the mean scores for rural schools teachers are
2.40 and 0.67 respectively. The calculated z score was 0.83 less than
1.96 at 0.05 level of significance. The hypothesis which states that
there is no significant difference between urban schools and rural

123
school teachers perception of the working conditions of business

studies in secondary schools is therefore upheld.
Discussion of Findings
The working conditions of Business studies teachers are
important issue which needs urgent attention and redress to facilitate
effective teaching and learning of business studies in the present
Universal Basic Education programme. The study reveals that
teachers’ salaries are not paid regularly and not attractive. There is
no overtime allowance, salary not commensurate with the job carried
out by teachers, absence of Christmas bonus to teachers, teachers not
sponsored financially to attend workshops and seminars, absence of
study leave with pay. No fans and air conditioners provided for the
teachers, offices, inadequate offices, offices have no lightening
facilities, classrooms are overcrowded. This study was in
consonance with Abraham (2004) and Abolade (2003) which reports
on the dilapidating nature of secondary school system. Classrooms,
offices are inadequate, shortages of physical facilities to enhance
learning. Inadequate typewriters, shorthand studies, and typing pool
for practical work.
Amaewhule (2004) and Okoro (2008) earlier pointed out of
inadequate instructional facilities for business education programmes
in Nigerian educational system. This study further reveals that
students do not buy business studies textbooks, students do not do
assignment regularly and return to teachers for marking. Teachers
are involved by the community in making major decisions. The
Business Studies course content is wide, classrooms are
overcrowded and teachers have excess workload. Okoro (2008) had
earlier reported of inadequate teachers in Business education which
could result to excess workload.
Conclusion
Business education teachers are very relevant in Nigerian
educational system since they are employed to teach the relevant
Delta State, OKORO
124
areas in the content to enable the students acquire the relevant skills,
knowledge, and interest required for effective functioning in the
world of work. The teachers have to be motivated by creating
conducive working conditions to enable them teach effectively.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made for the study.
1. Business studies teachers should be given adequate
teaching facilities to enable them teach their practical
work.
2. Business studies teachers should be given in service
training with pay to encourage the teachers develop
themselves are keep abreast with innovations in the area.
3. More teachers should be employed to avoid excess
workload this also has implications for productivity.
4. Students in business studies should buy the relevant
textbooks of the subjects.
5. The students to their assignment regularly, since most
subjects in the area are practical oriented.
6. The community should assist in the provision of facilities
for secondary schools in their localities.
References
Abolade, J.O. (2003). In Eheazu, B.A. & Ivowi, U.M.O. Minimum

Standards Accountability in primary and Secondary
Education. The Nigerian Academy in Education Proceedings
of the 18 th Annual Congress held at University of Port
Harcourt, 10th – 15th November, 2003.
Abraham, N.M. (2004). Secondary School Education: Any way

forward? Seminar paper presented at a one day workshop
organized for principals and teachers at Erema Civic Centre,
Ogba-Egbema-Ndoni Local Government Area; May 12th.

125
Amaewhule, W.A. (2004). Standards in Business Education.

Journal of Business Education. 4(2), 28-36.
Esene, R.A. (1997). Methods of Teaching Vocational Business

Subjects. Agbor: Royal Pace publication.
Haynes, B.R. & Jackson, J.P. (1997). A History of Business

Education in the United States of America. Monograph 25.
Cincinnati: South Western publishing Company.
Okorie, N.C. (1992). Educational Administration Theory: and

Practice. Owerri. Totan Publishers.
Okoro, J. (2008). Assessment of Resources for Training Prospective

Business education teachers at Colleges of Education.
unpublished Master’s Degree thesis, University of Benin,
Benin City.
Oliseh, J.A. (2008). Secondary School Business Education teachers:
reaction towards the reforms of promoting gender equality
and women empowerment through business education.
Association of Business Educators of Nigeria- Book of
Readings. 1(8) 258-265.
Peretomode, V. F. (1991). Educational Administration: Applied
concepts and theoretical perspectives for students and
practioners. Lagos: Joja publishers.
Vroom, F. (1964 ). Motivating people at work. Boston: McGraw-
Hill Publishers.

126
RETIREMENT AND RETIREMENT COUNSELLING:

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
BY
PROF. JOHN BISI ASONIBARE
&
DR. ABDULRAZAQ OLAYINKA ONIYE
Abstract
Retirement is a significant change in an individual’s lifestyle and, as
any change, comes with element of emotion (Marceaus, 1998). The
perception people have of retirement is a function of their
understanding of what it connotes. Retirement is not only an
employment job related concept, rather it is one concept with several
psychosocial connotations. From a vocational point of view, it is an
indicator of the concluding stage of the occupational cycle at which
certain material; vocational and experiential achievements are
expected of the retiree (Oniye, 2001). It is important to note from the
onset that “among the various categories of workers in our labour
force in Nigeria, the workers approaching retirement and the retired
should be our great concern (Alutu, 1999). Broadly speaking the
workers in the labour force of this country could be grouped into
two main groups, namely, private employees working in companies,
firms or workers of business enterprises, and workers in the public
sector i.e. civil-servants employed by local, state or federal
governments. This presentation addressed the concept of retirement
and retirement counselling, for these categories of workers with
particular reference to issue and challenges inherent in retirement
for all and sundry.

127
The concept of Retirement

Retirement as a concept has both old and new definitions.
The old definition of retirement was when a worker couldn’t do
something anymore. He or she is laid off. However, the new
definition of retirement is when a worker does not have to do
something anymore. The concept of retirement that we associated
with leisure, travel, family activities, hobbies, and educational
pursuits is a modern idea. The role of “retiree” and the stage of
“retirement” we identify with today is a socially constructed concept
that was created as a result of the passage of Social Security Act in
1935 (in America). According to Prize (2000), with the creation of
social security, a financial incentive or pension was made available
to older workers to encourage them retire from the workforce and to
enable younger workers take their place; thus stimulating economic
growth and progress.
Retirement generally implies the terminal cessation,
relaxation or change over of financially remunerative employment. It
is a life stage because it is a period of economic inactivity or a
change over in one’s economic activity, socially/legally prescribed
for workers in later life. Retirement is a phenomenon characterized
by separation of the worker from paid employment, which has the
characteristic of an occupation or a career over a period of time. It is
essentially, a period of adjustment (Oniye, 2001).
Historically, retirement was a stage of life few individuals
lived long enough to experience or enjoy. According to Prince
(2000), in the early 20th century, the average life expectancy was 47
years. As a result, most people worked until they became tool sick to
continue. However, because the advanced medical knowledge and
resources we enjoy today were not yet available, a majority of
people died quickly of acute illness. It was discovered that before
now the overall time spent in retirement was only 7% of adulthood
or about 3 years. In the early 21st century, 25% of one’s adulthood

Retirement and Retirement Counseling, ASONIBARE & ONIYE
128
can be spent in retirement. This is because the average life

expectancy in 2002 was 76 years, thus those retiring at age 65, on
average, can expect to spend 18 to 20 years in the role of retires. For
instance, if an academic staff in a Nigerian university retires at 60,
he is expected to stay alive for another 20 to 25 years on the average.
The implication is that adequate plan must be made by such an
individual for the post retirement life stage or period.
Types Of Retirement
In the opinion of Akinade (1993), retirement is a final stage
of life when one leaves an occupation which one had been involved
in for a considerable length of one’s working life. Retirement in the
opinion of experts is an inevitable stage of ageing where the
individual gradually disengages from the main stream of active
work/social life and is eventually replaced by a younger person in
most cases.
In her own submission, Alutu (1999) noted that there are
three main types of retirement, namely voluntary, compulsory and
forced retirement. Alutu explained that voluntary retirement occurs
when the employee decides on his own to retire from service before
the attainment of the stipulated retiring age or years of service.
Compulsory retirement occurs when the employee had to retire
because he has attained the maximum age of retirement or years of
service. Forced retirement on the other hand, occurs when the
employee is not consulted before he is made to withdraw from
service with or without benefits (e.g. retrenchment, rationalization of
workforce etc of civil-servants in the employment of Kwara State
civil service in 1993/94 and 1995 respectively) (Nigerian Union of
Pensioners, 2003).
Similarly, Awoniyi (1997) submitted that retirement can be
categorized into two classes viz: voluntary and involuntary
retirement. Retirement is regarded as voluntary if the employee
freely and personally decides on it before the attainment of the
mandatory retirement age (60 years of age or 35 years of working
experience here in Nigeria) (Oniye, 2001). It is however involuntary,

129
if the decision is forced on the employee, either on attainment of

mandatory retirement age or due to other reasons like mass
retrenchment of workers, proven case of ill health, negligence of
duty etc.
The implication of these typologies is that the average
employee is likely to be retired either when he is ready or before he
is ready for retirement. The import of this awareness is that the
typical employee must properly prepare for this eventuality; bearing
in mind that 25% of his adulthood is likely to be spent in retirement.
The focus of this write up is to sensitize all prospective retirees about
the need to understand the complexities involved in retirement and
the imperative of preparing adequately for this period.
Sources Of Retirement Stress And Problems
Fear or anxiety about retirement is one constant companion
of most employees right from first day of their engagement in the
private or public service (Oniye, 2001). Instead of fear and anxiety,
the typical retiree or prospective retirees should start from day one to
have a focus on their post retirement life plan and life style. This is
crucial especially when the view expressed by Elezua (1998) is
considered that “the moment retirement comes knocking on the door
(of an employee) it enters with challenges and expectations.
Okorodudu (1998) therefore opined that because of the attendant
stress that accompanies these challenges and expectations, retirement
is believed to be fraught with a number of problems for the average
employee in a country like Nigeria, with unstable economy.
Retirement as posited by Oniye (2001) is a complex process
demanding serious planning. This he noted is possibly because of the
fact that, the experience each has in the course of this phenomenon is
to a large extent individualistic in nature. Suffice to say therefore
that retirees (especially those who failed to prepare adequately for
retirement) are bound to face certain problems in retirement for a
number of reasons. Some of these reasons and accompanying
problems include:

130
(i) Lack of understanding; (ii) Financial problems; (iii) Social stigma

and
(iv) Health constraints (Oniye, 2001).
According to the Nigeria Union of Pensioners, Kwara State
Branch, the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, sections
180 and 216 state in subsection 3 and 4 that:
1. “Pensions shall be reviewed every five years or together with any
federal civil service salary reviews, whichever is earlier”.
2. “Pensions is respect of any service in the public service of the
federation shall not be taxed”.
(Constitution of Federal Republic of Nigeria,1999).
The union noted with dismay that in spite of Federal Government
issuance of three circulars between 1999 and 2003 for 150%,
30% and 142% on pension increase respectively, the Kwara State
Government tends to implement the policy on pension by setting
up of two pension board:
(i) Kwara State Pensions Board and (ii) Kwara State Local
Government Staff Pensions Board.
However, not withstanding the setting up of these, pensioners
in Kwara State as at July, 2003, were still confronted with the
following problems:
1. Lack of proper placement of monthly pensioners retrenched in
1995.
2. Non settlement of outstanding state harmonized pension arrears
for the period January 1st, 2001 to March 31st 2003 (27 months).
3. Non implementation of 150% arrears, of pension increase for the
period of January 2001 to March 31st 2003; 30% pension
increase since January 2000, and 142% pension increase with
effect from 1st May, 2000 to July, 2003 respectively.
4. Wrong computation of pension and gratuities paid to retirees of
1st September to 31st December, 1998.
In America, it has been noted that in 1965, 57% of the US
population over age 55 was in workforce. Today the number is only
38%. Americans who are in the age bracket of 30-49 have

131
accumulated only one-third of what they will need to retire. Today’s

retirees must prepare for a retirement that could last much longer
than their parents’. This is because life expectancy for women will
rise to 81.2 years in 2020 from 65.7 years in 1940. For men it will
increase to 75.3 from 61.4.(Prince,2000). It has also been discovered
that one in every four retirees uses their retirement savings for
something other than to fund his/her retirement, such as the purchase
of a home or to fund a child’s education. Approximately 90% of
people who leave a job don’t roll their special (401(K)) distribution
into another retirement account. Funny enough, only half of
American workers are covered by a pension plan (Barbara, 1999).
Retirement is associated with financial stress. Financial stress
is complicated and it should be noted that:
- People at all income levels experience it.
- Financial stress is not the same for everyone.
- Within the families, the major source of financial stress is
how to spend what you have; not how much or how little that
amount is.
- Having a stable income helps to minimize financial stress.
- Financial stress is so prevalent today because job insecurity is
rampant at all levels in many professions.
- Having more money is not an automatic cure for financial
stress. It may just create a different form of it.
- Unfortunately, financial stress is built into the America
culture, same way it is built into Nigeria’s. As a nation, we
have grown up believing that having more is better than
having less (The Aging issue Team, 1990).
Concept Of Retirement Counselling
Retirement counseling is the process of providing prospective
retirees with factual information needed to make a pleasant transition
from world of work into the world of less rigorous occupational
schedules – retirement. The concept includes a review of all
insurance policies, management of personal income during
retirement, explanation of the retirement process, general

132
information about social security, Medicare coverage and acquisition

of life skills needed for optional adjustment to retirement roles.
Retirement, like any other life process has phases or stages.
In the opinion of Omoresemi (1987) three major stages of retirement
are identifiable viz: preparation stage (36-45 years), period of
immediate retirement (46-55years), and real retirement stage (56-
65years). It is crucial for all prospective retirees to understand the
features associated with these stages, albeit briefly. According to
Adeloye (1999), the preparation stage is characterized by the need to
educate all the children, acquire a piece of land and start building a
house, having a life insurance policy and recognizing the fact of
ageing. At the pre-retirement stage, the individual undergoes
physical and psychological changes like wrinkles on the face and
skin, growth of grey hair, and familiarization with retirement
regulations and procedures. Finally at the real retirement stage, the
individual is expected to have completed all necessary arrangement
on retirement and can now decide on what to do with life, setting up
a small business or enjoying leisure.
Retirement counseling is also interested in sensitizing
prospective retirees and retired people about issues bothering on the
effect/stressors or problems of retirement. For example, in the study
carried out among some Nigerian retirees, Omoresemi (1987)
discovered that retirement affects the income, residence, family
structure or relationship between members of the family as well as
the economic viability of retirees. It must be stated however that
those who retire voluntarily or those who have prepared adequately
for retirement tend to experience a more stable mental health than
those who are compulsorily retired (Adeloye, 1999).
Similarly, Oniye (2001) enumerated four major problems
associated with retirement. In his study of retired civil servants in
Kwara State, he found that the problems most commonly reported by
the retirees are lack of adequate understanding of the process before
retirement; social stigma of being tagged a retiree, financial and
health constraints. Alutu (1999) reported however that while 80% of

133
her research sample acknowledge being aware of retirement, a

staggering 54% of the same sample reported that adequate
preparation was not made before retirement.
The implication is that after retirement, the retiree might
experience feelings of guilt, anger, denial, fatigue or a blurred future
and so should be assisted to cope with his new experience (Adeloye,
1999). In Nigeria, there is the tendency for people to over emphasize
issues like financial assistance at the expense of more equally
important emotional aspect of retirement .The focus of retirement
counseling at this stage or period is to assist the retiree (especially if
he is the head of the family and thus the principal victim) and all
family members who are equally victims to gain insight into their
feeling concerning retirement so that they can explore alternative
ways that could help to enhance their emotional stability.
The retirement counselor would seek to ensure reasonable
management of issues like accommodation, feeding, children’s
school fees (for those who are still raising a family close to
retirement or during retirement, which of course is not advisable),
and maintenance of the family property e.g. vehicles or taking care
of aged parents.
The counseling services to be provided cut across both the
pre-retirement and post-retirement stages. For example, during the
pre-retirement stage the focus would be to assist workers plan well
ahead of retirement. At this stage workers are exposed to necessary
information that will enhance happy post-retirement life. This ideally
is expected to be organized by professional counselor(s) in form of
workshops, seminars, sensitization symposia to be handled by
specially selected resource persons in the field of education,
business, law, health, estate management and vocational skills
training.
However, at the post retirement stage, emphasis could be laid
on group and individual counseling sessions depending on the
peculiar nature of retiree’s problems. Where need be, religious
psychological counseling could also be introduced especially with

134
the assistance of Imams and church pastors to introduce a spiritual

dimension into the management of retirement stress. All these could
be accomplished through services like:
- Information service: Supplying of valid and reliable
information on various issues related to retirement, like
retirement policies, when and how to retire, how to merge
services before retirement, how gratuity and pension are
computed or and what to do after retirement.
- Vocation service: Assisting retirees to explore career
alternatives and develop leisure interest in which they can
utilize their knowledge and skills so that they can be
gainfully employed.
- Planning, placement and follow up service: Assisting the
retirees plan their lives realistically and effectively. Planning
herein connotes taking cognizance of retiree’s abilities,
interests, value system, personality disposition, aptitude and
so on. The appropriate planning and placement must however
be accompanied with periodic follow-up to ascertain the
effectiveness or otherwise of the planning and placement.
- Referral service: Sending of special cases to specialists for
appropriate treatment; like dentists to ascertain healthiness of
aging person’s teeth, medical doctors to check blood pressure
or psychiatrists to proffer therapeutic insights.
Retirement Planning And Strategies
It has been discovered that daily our society is getting more
complex both by its structure and operational challenges. Thus, it is
known that many powerful societal forces are making retirement
planning more important than ever. For instance, issues like longer
life expectancies, fewer or decreasing retirement benefits, the trend
towards multiple jobs-even careers, changes and rising healthcare
costs, increasing job insecurity, among others. All these make
planning for retirement more critical now than ever before.
The baseline of our retirement counseling is that regardless of
your age, where you work or your life situation, you should start

135
planning now for your retirement. Even if your establishment has a

very handsome retirement package like full monthly salary for a
professor emeritus, remember those funds may not be enough to
maintain your lifestyle after retirement. However, if you start
planning now, you can take steps toward the retirement income you
want.
The retirement planning advocated herein involves
identifying your wants and needs, developing a plan to achieve them,
acting on your plan and continually reviewing and revising your plan
as you approach retirement. In order to start meaningfully, start by
defining your goals. In a more practically way your retirement
planning demand that you ask yourself the following questions:
1. At what age do I plan to retire?
2. Will I start a new part-time career during retirement, or never
work again?
3. How long do I think I will need my money to last?
4. How much money will it take to support my household?
5. What type of life style do I hope to lead after retirement?
6. Where will I live when I retire?
Sequel to reasonable handling of this goal setting aspect of
retirement planning, you will answer questions like these:
1. What provisions do I need to make to take care of my
healthcare needs during retirement years?
2. How much money do I need to save to meet my goals?
3. How should I invest my money to maximize my retirement
saving?
4. How will my assets, liabilities, expenses and savings change
during retirement?
Remember, the sooner you started to save and plan for your
retirement years, the more prepared you will be. As a matter of fact,
early planning means that just a small investment each year given
reasonable profit margin could create a portfolio large enough to
meet your needs later in life (Solutions Colony 1998-2003).

136
You would invest for early retirement. Consider this story

“Jerry Mcmahan, retired a week before his 51st birthday. According
to him “what enabled me to retire early was both my pension plan
and the performance of my personal portfolio”. He was a division
comptroller and director of financial analysis”. The experience
helped him structure his portfolio. How? At 37 Mcmahan applied his
financial planning skills to his personal retirement goals, devising an
investment strategy to acquire a certain sum of money in 20 years to
fund his retirement. However, he hit the target five years early. Thus
his first major activity when he retired was to study and pass the
exams to get the certified financial planner designation. While doing
that, he joined SCORE where he spends one to three afternoons a
week offering his expertise to people starting business or those
having problems with existing businesses. In summary, today
Mcmahan is a successful retired employee of Rockwell but actively
engaged member of SCORE crop of volunteers and he makes several
hundred trades a year. He is happy in retirement.
In order to ensure a successful transition into retirement some
retirement tips are suggested for consideration:
1. Persevere and remain optimistic – No matter how difficult
the circumstances, have confidence that the basic values you
stand for will sustain you, and don’t give up on yourself.
2. Make sure you have a reason to retire, a list of things you
want to do other than work.
3. Before retiring, decide how you’re going to spend the eight
hours or more you used to devote to work. Retirement is
another vocation you have to prepare for.
4. Buy enough shares in stock market or companies to tie down
reasonable fund for retirement income.
5. Don’t allow forced retirement to throw you off-balance. You
could anticipate it even if it will never happen, because it
doesn’t have to be devastating. Instead you still have control
over what comes next.

137
6. Pension benefits are inadequate for most retirement lifestyles.

You may have to supplement your income by working. If so,
try to find something that you truly enjoy doing. Remember
that while retirement laws suggest leaving work by 65,
nothing says you couldn’t work longer if you feel like and
capable.
7. If you want to do volunteer works to fill your time then find
an activity you enjoy. If you don’t, it will be boring.
8. Be careful to choose a retirement residence where most of
your specialists like geriatric doctors, lawyers, therapists etc
could be located easily, (Adapted from SCORE, 1999).
Furthermore, when thinking about early retirement, whether
it’s your idea or your employer’s, try to consider the following tips:
(i) Health insurance availability (ii) income (iii)
retirement saving (iv) part-time employment (v) early retirement
impact on the exercise of stock options and similar benefits. (vi)
your family situation e.g. are you still sponsoring children in school,
yet to build your own house etc (vii) the impact of early retirement
on pension and gratuity.
Conclusion
In Nigeria, the apathy towards retirement has bred a lot of
socio-economic and psychological problems not only to the retirees,
dependents and friends but to the society in general. The focus of
this discourse is to enlighten all prospective retirees about issues and
challenges associated with retirement especially in a country with
unstable economy like ours. The imperativeness of getting pre and
post-retirement counseling is emphasized because all prospective
retirees need to be reminded about the rationale behind saving and
preparing for the eventual rainy and idle days (of retirement). The
stance of this write up is that for all workers, their youthful
exuberance should be occupied with foresight and goals, which have
to be rigorously and vigorously pursued (Elezua, 1998).
Retirees who have not gone through a detailed goal setting
process are much more likely to struggle I the early periods of

138
retirement as they try to deal with feelings. Such struggles can have
serious health and financial implications. The four periods of
retirement are the honeymoon period, the period of disenchantment,
the reorientation period and the stability period. If retirement
planning has only addressed the financials, then the second and the
third will present major problems for the retiree. On the other hand,
if life style planning has also been done, the retiree will slip quickly
and almost effortlessly into the stability period.
Recommendations
Not everyone has the luxury of retiring according to a long-
term plan. When people are forced into early retirement they may
suffer loss of self-esteem and subsequent depression. Therefore,
family and friends should be more loving, caring and encouraging to
the retiree to give them sense of affection and belonging. Similarly,
there should be regular contact with the retiree by friends, family
members, religious group members and past colleagues.
The policy makers should put in place post-retirement
packages capable of making lives of retirees comfortable. This is
especially crucial in the area of social and medical care, bearing in
mind that poor health and need for health care are other major
problems of retirees. Similarly, all workers must in preparation for
their eventual retirement, be mindful of their style of life and kind of
friends they keep. The mind should be focused on how, where and
when to build or buy a house, train the children and ensure a stable
standard of living for the family.
Reference
Adeloye, J.T. (1999). Retirement: its psychology, management and
counseling techniques. The Counsellor 17(1)98-104.
Akinade, E. A. (1993). Towards satisfactory, retirement, a socio-

psychological approach. Lagos: Kala Okanlawown service Ltd.

139
Alutu, A. N. G. (1995). Planning for retirement.. Workshop paper

presented at Micheal Imoudu Institute for Labour studies,
Ilorin.
Elezua, C.C. (1998). Counseling for retirement.. The Counselor.

16(1), 6-10.
Kelves, B. (1999). Coping with retirement. SCORE http.// www.

aicpa. Org/pubs/jofa/dec 1999/html/.index.
Nigerian Union of Pensioners (2003). Paper presented by the Kwara

state branch of the union to the Kwara State House of
Assembly Committee on pensioners on Tuesday, 22nd July,
2003.
Okorodudu, I.R. (1998). Counseling for retirement in an unstable

Nigerian economy. The Counselor. 16(1), 88-96.
Oniye, O.A. (1999). Sex difference in problems of retired civil

servants and the roles of counseling in the rehabilitation of
retirees. The Counselor. 17(1) 160-165.
Oniye, O.A., (2001). Problem associated with retirement and

implications for productive adult life. Nigeria Journal of
Gender and Development.. 2 (1) 55-64.
Omoresemi, D. (1987) Retirement, a real transition. Kano: Abbos

Education Service Publications.
Price, C.A. (2000). Facts about retirement http: //www. Solutions

Colony. Com/advertweb/router.asp? Zurl =Msn.com.Retrieved
6th October,2003.

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EFFECTS OF BIBLIOTHERAPY AND STORY TELLING

COUNSELLING TECHNIQUES ON PRIMARY SCHOOL
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTION OF RETIREMENT
BY
DR. (MRS.) GRACE EGO OMONI
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of bibliotherapy
and storytelling counselling techniques on primary school teachers
perceptions of retirement. One research question and one null
hypothesis were formulated to guide the study. A sample of 60 (40
experimental and 20 control) primary school teachers in Ukwuani
Local Government Area of Delta State were drawn using purposive
sampling technique. The non-equivalent pre-test/post-test control
group quasi-experimental design was used. After the participants
(experimental groups) had undergone training using bibliotherapy
and storytelling counselling techniques, it was found that the
subjects’ perception of retirement changed positively. Based on the
above findings, it was recommended that teachers should be
periodically exposed to pre-retirement counselling using both
techniques identified.
Introduction
Retirement is an event which many people dread because of stories
of emotional instability, loss of self esteem, motivation and financial
inadequacy attached to it. Furthermore, many of these outcomes of
retirement mentioned have led to separation of families,
abandonment of spouse, juvenile delinquencies, pensioners’

141
restiveness and outright demise of many retirees without claiming

their gratuities and pensions. Retirement is a major transition in the
world of work, yet many people are ill-prepared for it. The
researcher became conscious of and concerned about retirement as a
result of how retirees are being treated. Such negative treatment
include delay in the payments of entitlements. Some of them are
thrown out of government quarters without alternative
accommodation. It has also been observed that adults in the world of
work are given little or no attention in Nigeria’s guidance and
counselling practice. The prospective retiree who is still on the job
needs to be acquainted with what lies ahead after retirement. He or
she needs Pre-Retirement counselling.
Retirement
Retirement is a concept which has been variously defined.
Generally, it is seen as a major role transition – a turning point in
adult development and a shift from middle years to old age.
Oraegbunam (1988:34) defines it as “an official and formal ending
of a work life”. Ogunbameru and Adesina (2000:1) assert that
retirement is:
a situation in which an individual who has been
working for a period of time voluntarily
gives up his job or is forced to give up his
job after serving for at least an officially
defined number of years which qualify
him or her for a pension or gratuity(p.1).
One who experiences retirement has the right to economic supports,
job; has autonomy in managing his or her time and resources. He or
she has the responsibility of avoiding full-time jobs (Rainey, 2000).
Ogunbameru and Adesina (2000) also defined retirement as ‘rest’.
This is drawn from how it is called in the three major ethnic groups
in Nigeria – (Yoruba – ‘Ifehinti’, Igbo – ‘Ezumike-nka’ and Hausa –
‘Gama-aiki’). Shea (1999) Weckerle and Shultz (1999) claim that
retirement is embracing a new meaning because older workers are
Effects of Bibliotherapy and Story Telling Counselling Techniques on Primary School
Teachers’ Perception of Retirement, OMONI
142
transiting from their former career to a second one. Retirement is no

longer a sudden withdrawal from work life, but a multi-phased
transition with workers moving out slowly into full time leisure.
This new dimension coupled with the negative perceptions attached
to retirement call for pre-retirement counselling.
Retirement Counselling
Retirement counselling according to Okorodudu (1998:89) is “every
professional assistance given to midlife career workers by a
counsellor to facilitate his pre-retirement preparation as it affects his
personality and home responsibility”. Counselling is used to assist
individuals with retirement problems to resolve their conflicts in
relation to financial, physical, psychological, and social situations.
Retirement counselling include Pre and Post retirement counselling.
This study focused on Pre-retirement counselling. Okpede (1998)
asserts that the desirability of counselling service for workers’
retirement preparation is a necessity to create awareness and
conscientization of the prospective retiree about retirement.
Relevant training of on-the-job teachers is a prerequisite to a
comfortable retirement. Akinade (1993) assets that pre-retirement
counselling serves to bring about proper planning in relation to
budgets, health, social and emotional welfare of the retiree of the
several types of pre-retirement counselling, storytelling and
bibliotherapy were used in this study.
Storytelling
In Africa, storytelling is a popular means of entertainment of
inculcating morals and perpetuating the culture. National Story
Telling Membership Association (1997) defines storytelling as the
art of using language, vocalization and or physical movement and
gesture to reveal a specific life experience to an audience. Sullivan
and Pipe (2000) opine that using a properly told story can be a very
effective learning experience for perspective retirees in companies.
Gearings (1999) asserts that professional footballers were helped to

143
shape their identities after listening to stories of life experiences by

retired footballers and how they have coped with life challenges.
Bibliotherapy
Pardeck and Pardeck (1989) define bibliotherapy as a technique for
structuring interaction between a facilitator and a participants based
on mutual sharing of literature. Iwuama (1999) says it is the use of
books to assist children, adolescents and adults to handle their
emotional problems but it goes beyond mere reading. Addederholdt
and Eller (1989) see bibliotherapy as a tool for helping people deal
with their problems through reading novels or stories about
characters who possess similar problems. The fact that workers are
ill-prepared for retirement based on reports in the printed and
electronic media, coupled with the present policy by the federal/state
government on retirement and pension scheme, the need for
Retirement pre-counselling for primary school teachers cannot be
overemphasized.
Statement of Problem
In this era of unemployment, social instability, heightened youth
restiveness and the uncertainty of job security, it might be pertinent
to focus attention on retirement education. It is expedient for on-the-
job workers such as primary school teachers to be assisted in
preparing and planning for a positive and worthwhile retirement life.
The individual’s perception of retirement has been shown to be
related to social stability, health, finance and leisure satisfaction.
Therefore, this paper addressed this problem: Will primary school
teachers’ perception of retirement be influenced if assisted with
bibliotherapy and storytelling counselling techniques?
Research Question

144
Is there any difference in pre-test and post-test mean score of the two
experimental groups on primary school teachers perception of
retirement?
Ho1: There is no significant difference between the effect of

storytelling and bibliotherapy counselling techniques on the subjects’
perception of retirement.

The study was aimed at determining the effects of bibliotherapy and
storytelling on selected primary school teachers’ perception of
retirement.
Method
The study adopted a quasi-experimental design since it is interested
in the cause-effect of the techniques on teachers’ perception of
retirement. To allow for comparism, control and manipulation of
variables, the non-equivalent control group pre-test design, groups
was utilized. Groups were selected in relation to characteristics
considered to be important antecedents of the outcomes sought for
by the programme.
Sixty subjects were drawn through purpose sampling technique.

This sample consists of three groups – two experimental and one
control group of 20 each. The pre-test scores were used for a basis
for equivalence. The treatment programme consists of six sessions
of 1½ hours each spread over six weeks with one session per week.
The control group had no treatment.
Research Instrument
The study instrument is a structured questionnaire titled “Teachers’
Perception of Retirement Iventory’ (TEPORI) developed by the
researcher and given to four lecturers of Counselling Psychology
145
Department of Delta State University, Abraka who helped in the

modification. The internal consistency of the instrument was
established using Cronbach alpha. The value obtained was 0.88 at
0.05 level of significance. The questionnaire had two sections which
sought to elicit information about respondents’ biodata and their
perception of retirement. This second section had 50 items based on
a four point likert scale format of: strongly agree (SA); Agree (A)
Disagree (D), and strongly disagree (SD) – (SA) = 4; (A) = 3; (D) =
2 and (SD) = 1 for positive statements and reverse for negative
statements. The t-test and mean scores were used for data analysis.
Result
Research Question: Is there any difference in pre-test and post-test
mean score of the two experimental groups on the primary school
teachers’ perception of retirement.
Table 1: Pre-test and Post-test Mean Scores of the two

Experimental Groups
Variables N ẍ for ẍ for Grand mean score

Pre-test Post-test between Pre-test and
Post-test
Storytelling 20 127.75 158.25 30.50
Bibliotherapy 20 132.00 144.25 12.25
Control group 20 130.00 133.25 3.00
Table 1 indicates the pre-test and the post-test mean scores for the
two experimental groups. The post-test mean scores for storytelling
and bibliotherapy of 158.25 and 144.25 respectively are higher than
their pre-test means of 127.75 (ST) and 132.00 (BT). The result
shows that there was no effect of the treatment on the subjects in
their perception of retirement. The gain means scores of 30.50 for
storytelling and 12.25 for bibliotherapy proves that there is a
difference.
Teachers’ Perception of Retirement, OMONI 146
Ho1: There is no significant difference between the effect of

storytelling counselling technique and bibliotherapy on the subjects
perception of Retirement.
Table 2: The Post-test Analysis Comparism of the two
Treatment Groups and
Perception of Retirement
Variable N ẍ SD Calculated Critical Decision
t-value t-value
Storytelling 20 158.25 6.29 5.45 2.021 Reject
Bibliotherapy 20 144.25 7.93
Table 2 shows the mean scores of the two experimental groups.

Comparing the two experimental group scores, it is observed that
storytelling had a greater effect than bibliotherapy. The t-calculated
value of 5.45 is greater than the t-critical (2.021) at 0.05 level of
significance, so the null hypothesis is rejected.
Discussion
The major findings of this study are that storytelling and
bibliotherapy are very effective counselling techniques for training
would-be-retirees (Primary School Teachers) on retirement. There
was a difference in the impact of ST and BT on the perception of
teachers. The findings revealed that the two counselling techniques
were superior to the control conditions as indicated on table 1. This
is in line with the view of Stalling (1988) and Gearing (1999),
Sullivan and Piper (2003) who found storytelling to be an
appropriate technique for changing people’s perception of
retirement. The result is also in line with the assertion Adderholdt
and Eller (1989) and Ekwe (2001) who posit that bibliotherapy is a
tool used for helping people develop positive perception of
retirement. Ekwe (2001) found in his study that bibliotherapy
positively affected secondary school teachers attitude towards
retirement. The present study has extended his finding using

147
storytelling and bibliotherapy. It found that storytelling had greater

effect on the subjects. The researcher attributed this difference to the
poor reading culture exhibited by the trainee teachers during the six
weeks treatment.
Conclusion
This study has demonstrated that poor perception of retirement can
be diagnosed and treated using storytelling and bibliotherapy to
bring about positive adjustment. The fact that some primary school
teachers have poor conception of retirement has implication for
psychologists and counsellors. This empirical work shows that a
solution to maladjustment during retirement and all the accompanied
poor perception of it can be avoided through retirement counselling
using storytelling and bibliotherapy.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made based on the findings:
1. Workers, especially primary school teachers should be

assisted by providing them with pre-retirement counselling
programmes using bibliotherapy and storytelling counselling
techniques.
2. Periodic workshops, seminars and lectures should be
organized for teachers on the prospects and advantages of
retirement.
3. A counselling unit should be established by the Nigerian
Society of Educational Psychologists and Counselling
Association of Nigeria to coordinate retirement Pre/Post
counselling using storytelling and bibliotherapy.
References
Adderholdt-Elliot, M. & Eller, S. H. (1989). Counselling Students

who are Crifted through Bibliotherapy, Teaching Exceptional
Children; 22(1)26-31.

148
Akinade, E. A. (1993). Towards Satisfactory Retirement: A Socio-

Psychological Approache, Mushin Kola Okanlawin Service
Ltd.
Akinboye, J. O. (1998). Happy Retirement, Ibadan. Dot Kamarun
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150
UNIVERSITY AUTONOMY AND QUALITY EDUCATION

IN NIGERIA
BY
PROF. NNABUO, P.O.M; AFANGIDEH, S.T. & KPEE, G.G
Abstract
Today, the Nigerian university system is living on borrowed times, as
they are shadows of what obtained three decades ago. Presently,
problems like decaying infrastructure, enrolment explosion, cultism,
examination malpractices, poor funding, labour unrests,
bureaucratic and professional conflicts, academic and non-academic
dichotomy, struggles for autonomy, sex abuse, apart from the
external influences of the material nature of the larger society have
bedeviled the system. These excruciating conditions spell doom for
the university system, apart from the far-reaching implications they
have for effective institutional and academic administration and the
quality of education provided to the clients of the school system.
Experts, educators and other stakeholders believe that complete
autonomy for universities is a strong index for minimizing or
eradicating the intractable problems of the system and enhance
quality educational this paper therefore examines the implications of
autonomy as an index for achieving functional quality higher
education for clients of the university system. Recommendations
have been made for complete autonomy in funding, admission,
curricula offerings and staff recruitment.
Introduction
Today, the Nigerian University system seems to be living on
borrowed times. This may be explained in the fact that the system is
by far different from what obtained three decades ago, and when
assessed from the angle of the requirements of forces of
globalization which have set the standards for universities
(Worldwide) to attain before their products can be rated as

151
international scholars. The above picture on the Nigerian university

system is not a deliberate attempt to castigate and destroy the image
of the system. A visit to one of our numerous public universities and
an examination of the issues on ground will exonerate the scholars
from such perceived biases.
Nigerian universities are now shadows of the themselves as
their image deteriorates as days go by. The system is ridiculed
because of such problems like dilapidated infrastructure, enrolment
explosion (Enaohwo, 1990), the menace of cultism (Nwideeduh,
2003), examination malpractice, poor funding (Nnabuo, 1997)
frequent and intractable labour unrest, internal infighting between
bureaucrats and professional on one hand, and academic and non-
academic staff on the other over administrative supremacy and pay
parity respectively, the struggle for institutional and individual
autonomy (Archibong & Bassey, 2006), incidences of sex abuse,
hooliganism, students’ excessive involvement in social activities at
the expense of academic activities apart from the ever-present
influence of the material nature of the larger society which have
practically introduced materialism and corruption into the Nigeria
university system as evidenced in the material life style of students
and bourgeorlsie inclinations of academic and non-academic
personnel.
The above conditions apart from being indices of disgrace
and national shame, spell doom for the system and also have far-
reaching implications for university administrators, lecturers,
students, non-academic personnel (the major actors on campuses),
the government, donor agencies and other stakeholders in the
system. They also call to question whether the by – products from
the system can measure up with their counterparts from universities
in other nations of the world apart from the question of effectiveness
of the university system which Nnabuo, Adebamiji and Afangideh
(2007) see as the extent to which an organization is able to achieve
the purpose of its existence or in the alternative go into extinction.

University Autonomy and Quality Education in Nigeria, NNABUO;
AGANGIDEH & KPEE
152
Since, no organization will willingly want to go into

extinction, universities have made efforts to correct the ills using
strategies, some of which are proactive, administrative, academic,
philosophical and conceptual, but the conditions persist in the ‘ivory
towers’ One of the reasons normally advanced to buttress the
inability of universities to surmount these hydra-headed problems is
that they lack firm control of the themselves and their products
arising from the external pressures and influences on the system
from government, parents, students themselves, non-governmental
organizations, donor agencies and other stakeholders who continue
to interfere in the internal workings of the system. This implies that
there is the absence of what is technically referred to as autonomy in
higher education parlance.
Based on the above revelations, scholars, organizations,
students, university administrators and other stakeholders in the
Nigerian university system have suggested that universities can only
overcome or surmount some of their hydra-headed problems of
academic and administrative dimensions if they are given the
autonomy or freedom to run their affairs (Okeke 2002; Ossat, 2007;
Ekpo, 1991; Agih & Egumu, 2007; Nwafor, 1999). Particularly,
Ossat (2007) is a strong advocate for autonomy as a vehicle for
achieving quality of higher education in Nigeria. Also, Ekpo (1991)
maintains that educational institutions, particularly universities,
insist that they can only function effectively when they are
autonomous, under the umbrella of academic freedom.
The Concept of Autonomy

The concept of autonomy describes one of the basic needs of
human beings – independence with nominal sub-ordination. Ekpo
(1991) explains that this need becomes more pronounced when
human beings form organizations for the advancement of collective
goals. One of the organizations is the educational institutions of
which the universities form one of its sub-systems.

153
For Agih and Egumuh (2007) autonomy means giving the

universities the opportunity to take their own decisions. University
autonomy may be viewed from the two perspectives. These are
institutional and individual autonomy. While institutional autonomy
refers to the relative freedom of the university to conduct its own
affairs free from outside interference from the state, the market,
donors or other stake-holders (Fourie, 2004), Individual autonomy
otherwise referred to as academic freedom has to do with members
of the academic community, namely, scholars, teachers and students
pursuing their scholarly activities in respect of ethical rules,
international standards and without outside pressures. Further
conceptualizations on the concept of autonomy are beyond the scope
of this study. But let it be known that the stud pre-occupied itself
with the implications of autonomy for quality education.
Quality Education
Quality education is what every body desires from the
university system. Okeke (2007) present the following
conceptualizations on the concept of quality education:
Striving for higher quality is a strategy to

achieve institutional mission. High quality
demands the highest goals. Within the context,
quality refers to the level of efficiency with
which field amounts of material inputs are
organized and managed to raise students’
achievement. Standard provides references
points for quality of goals and encompasses
culture based on set values and belief that
members share. In wider perspective, quality
of education of relates to purpose (relevance),
potentiality (significance), productivity
(efficiency) standards (the products) defined

AGANGIDEH & KPEE
154
goals (to be achieved) culture of academic

excellence and effectiveness.
Okeke,s conceptualization on quality and quality education is
therefore an open criterion to judge the efficacy of an educational
system.
Autonomy and Funding of Universities

One of the key areas of universities’ life for which autonomy
is desired is that of funding. Presently, Nigerian’s public universities
are funded by either the state or Federal Government depending on
ownership. In Sate universities, students pay tuition fees and ‘other
charges’ are paid by undergraduates students in Federal universities.
Federal and State Governments pay staff (academic and non-
academic), provide infrastructural and instructional facilities, and
take all financial decisions concerning the universities who are
supposed to be autonomous in matters concerning financial
decisions. In total disagreement with the trend Nnabuo (1997)
suggests that the government should give the education industry the
autonomy to raise fund while maintaining standard apart from
ensuring self sustenance. As Nnabuo enunciates, protective measures
as they apply today frustrate alternative strategies for attracting
revenue into educational institutions and encourage extortion of
money from students in many ways. When universities are given
financial autonomy, they will be able to do most of what they do
effectively to ensure the continuance of effective teaching and
learning, research and development, community service and other
incidental functions which the universities perform. Ossa (2007)
reports that advocates of total autonomy maintain that there should
be full autonomy over the sources of funds, actual provision of funds
and the control left entirely in the hands of individual universities.
When this is granted individual universities will charge fees
commensurate with the amount of education required by students at
every level of education. Such funds will then be directed at the
rehabilitation of decaying infrastructure facilities, provision of

155
instructional resources, adequate remuneration of employees since a

healthy workforce in education guarantees quality education, and as
noted by the Federal Government of Nigeria (2004), no nation can
rise above the quality of its teachers if quality education must be
provided (emphasis ours).
Autonomy and Admission of Students

Another area which Nigerian universities desire complete
autonomy is the question of admission. Apart from the fact that the
issue of admission into Nigerian Universities is hunted by some
socio-political underpinnings like federal character, catchment area,
educationally disadvantaged states and other social pressures,
admission is still by merit. This may be explained in the fact that
merit is considered first before other indices. Where indices are
mentioned above are given serious consideration in universities’
admissions, then the quality of inputs cannot be guaranteed.
Advocates of complete autonomy like Usanga and Bassey (2006),
Kpee (2002) believe that if universities are given the freedom to
select their students through an internally set examination
procedures, all forces and pressures, be they social or political that
import and institutionalize quackery, forgery and mediocrity into the
ivory towers will be expunged and disregarded and by so doing,
institutionalize the merit system. This may be explained in the fact
that goof quality inputs suggest good quality products at the end of
the finishing line. When the universities admit their candidates, they
will be able to control the number that are admitted based on the
infrastructural facilities, and instructional resources and teaching
personnel available in their schools. When the number of students
admitted approximates the level of infrastructure facilities,
instructional facilities and the teaching force available, there is the
tendency that conducive environment will be provided, and that
teaching and learning will be effective. All these contribute to
enhancing the quality of education provided by universities.

AGANGIDEH & KPEE
156
Autonomy and Curricula offerings in Higher Education

One other area which universities the world over desire
autonomy is in the area of curricula offerings. In pursuance of the
above, The Scholar (2002:30) reporting the position of the Lima
Declaration on Academic Freedom and Autonomy of Institutions of
Higher Education state inter alia;
All institutions of higher education shall

address themselves to the contemporary
problems of society. To this end, the curricula
of these institutions as well as their activities
shall respond to the needs of the society at
large. Institutions of higher education should
be critical of conditions of political repression
and violation of human rights within their own
society.
If the above index of autonomy must be feasible in Nigerian

universities, then most of the things which are operational in the
system must cease. Today, university curricula, course offerings and
syllabus are designed by the National Universities Commission
(NUC) who controls and regulates the Universities on behalf of their
major financier (the Federal and State Governments). The position of
the present crop of scholars is that, universities should be given the
right to design what to teach and by implication who to teach and for
what. When this is achieved, university scholars who are experts in
their various fields will carefully select the content of the school
curricular and that which must be a reflection of the present societal
realities. Instances where the National Universities Commission (an
agency of the Government) designs what to teach spells doom for the
system and its products since the contents will reflect the thinking of
the elites who bastardized Nigeria’s political and economic life.
University teachers and scholars are experts in their various
fields, when given he autonomy to select content, for which students

157
should be made to participate, there is the tendency that they will be

guided by the forces of reason and to the advantaged position of the
down-trodden. The society cannot be a better one when tailored
towards extravagance, it is only an independent and or autonomous
curricular and course offering that can guarantee an egalitarian
society. It is only when the state and other stakeholders in the
education system reduce the amount of pressure they exert on the
university system that we can think of quality in education.
Autonomy and Recruitment of University Personnel

Another strong index of autonomy which can be manipulated
to achieve good quality university education is the issue of staff
recruitment. Proponents of complete autonomy for universities
advocate that individual universities should recruit their staff
(academic and non-academic) without external interferences.
Actually, universities have partially assumed this position since
lecturers and some officials are appointed by the Appointments and
Promotions Committee (A&PC) of the individual universities
(Nwafor, 1999). This index of autonomy is seen to be partial, since
the appointment of key officials of the universities like the
Chancellor, Pro-chancellor, Vice-Chancellor and Registrar, are done
by the Federal Government. Even in the appointment of the other
categories of academic and non academic personnel, external forces
and pressures to impress on university councils to appoint mediocre,
apart from forces of nepotism and favoritism. The Nigerian
university system cannot achieve quality education in the face of
these interventions, as the quality of officials determines the quality
of output expected.
Conclusion
University autonomy connotes freedom for the universities
and their members to operate without external influences. Such
indices of autonomy include funding, admission, curricular offerings
and recruitment of personnel. These have been critically appraised in

AGANGIDEH & KPEE
158
the light of which recommendations are made with belief that if

religiously and sincerely implemented, they will guarantee quality
university education for Nigerians.
Recommendations
In the light of the revelations in this paper, the following
recommendations are offered:
1. Universities should be given the freedom to source for funds
and ensure independent use of funds sourced and those given
them as subventions.
2. Individual universities should be to set entrance examinations
for new entrants into their schools so as to reduce the number
of mediocre who come into the system through political
considerations.
3. Universities deserve full autonomy to design what to teach,
who to teach and for what purpose in line the yearnings and
aspirations of the society.
4. Universities should be allowed to hire all categories of staff.
References
Agih, A & Egumuh, A. (2007). Emerging issues on sustainable
institutional autonomy and academic freedom in Nigerian
Universities. Journal of Education and Developmental Studies.
4(1), 26-34.
Archibong, J.A. & Bassey, U.U. (2006). A critical appraisal of
autonomy and external controls in Nigerian University. In J.B.
Babalola, A.O. Ay eni, S.O. Adediji, A.A. Suleiman & M.O.
Arikeriyo (Eds). Educational management: Thoughts and
practices (536-546). Ibadan. Codat.
Ekpo, O.E. (1991). Autonomy: Its Implications for Classroom
practices. Journal of Education. 1(1) 24-29.

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Enaohwo, J.O. (1990). Economics of education and the planning

challenge. New Delhi: Anmol.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National policy on
education. Abuja: NERDC.
Fourie, M. (2004). Autonomy and Accountability: Keeping the
balance in South African higher education. (www.google.com)
Kpee, G.G. (2007). Strengthening and enhancing quality of
secondary education in Nigeria: The public examination and
constraints perspective. Trends in Educational Studies. 2(1),
102-107.
Nnabuo, P.O.M. (1997) Strategies for improved education funding in
Nigeria. In A.N. Ndu, L.O., Ocho & B.S. Okeke (Eds.)
Dynamics of educational administration and management. The
Nigerian perspective. Onitsha: Meks.
Nnabuo, P.O.M. Adebamiji A.M. & Afangideh, S.T. (2007). Rules,
regulation and career orientations as factors of primary school
effectiveness in Akwa Ibom State. Trends in Educational
Studies. 2(2), 1-10.
Nwideeduh, S.B. (2003). Trends in the management of universities
in Nigeria. Owerri: Springfield.
Okeke, B.S. (2002). Politics of Education: The Nigerian Experience.
Awka: Doone.
Ossat, S.D. (2007). Autonomy and quality of higher education in
Nigeria. Trends in Educational Studies. 2(2), 42-50.
The Scholar (2002). The Lima Declaration of Academic Freedom
and Autonomy of institutions of higher education. Ibadan:
Academic Staff Union of Universities.

160
EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: A

COHERENT PHILOSOPHY
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION?
BY
PROF. E.B. AWOTUA-EFEBO
&
BARIBOR VIKOO; PH.D.
Abstract
In recent years there has been a growing consensus that
environmental education should be oriented around the idea of
‘sustainable development’. This paper examines some of the
ambiguities and tensions that exist within this notion and suggests
that its considerable attractions may be outweighed by its lack of
clarity with regard to a range of fundamental values and principles
which motivate environmental concern. It is argued that our
relationship with nature is a central element of our sense of identity
and that whereas sustainable development is highly problematical
when taken as a statement of policy, sustainability conceived of as a
frame of mind have positive and wide-reaching educational
implications. Issues concerning the kinds of knowledge and
approaches to teaching that should characterize environmental
education are raised.
Introduction
In recent years much of the discussion of environmental action and
education has taken ‘sustainable development’ as a key guiding
notion. The growing consensus that has settled around the usefulness
of this notion has been reflected in a number of influential reports
such as those of the ‘Brundtland Commission – Our Common
Future’ (Brundtland Commission, 1988) and the Rio Earth Summit’s
Agenda 21 (UNCED, 1992). But how helpful is it to orientate

161
discussion around this notion and how adequate a conception of

environmental education does it offer?
A large part of the appeal of ‘sustainable development’’ is
that ostensibly it brings into harmony two politically attractive but
potentially conflicting notions: (i) the idea of sustaining that which is
valued, but which is currently endangered through depletion,
pollution and so forth; (ii) the idea of accommodating ongoing
human aspirations to develop, i.e in some sense to have more or
better. The later has particular force in a situation where large parts
of the global population are regarded as suffering from
‘underdevelopment’ and where it therefore seems both unjust and
unrealistic to expect them to remain so. But the seductiveness of
seeming to marry these two highly desired goals has been matched
by a suspicion that ‘sustainable development’ might involve a certain
semantic sleight to hand. In this paper, we will attempt to outline,
and then begin to negotiate, some of the serious tensions and
problems which are in danger of vitiating the notion and
consequently any environmental education policy which rests upon
it.
We will do this firstly by looking at some significant
ambiguities and thinly masked, but highly problematic, value
judgements inherent in the notion of ‘sustainability’ itself. The we
will examine some problems that arise in combining the idea of
sustainability with ideas of ‘development’. Finally, we will attempt
to sketch a way forward from these problems and to explore some of
the issues that are raised for environmental education.
Sustainability
Notwithstanding their pivotal role in the discussion of environmental
issues, the terms ‘sustainable’ and ‘sustainability’ seem frequently to
be used as if their meaning were self-evident and somehow value
neutral, almost as thought they simply reflected a desire to preserve
some readily identifiable underlying natural state of equilibrium.
However, of course this is far from being the case. To begin with,

Educational for Sustainable Development: A Coherent Philosophy for
Environmental Education, EFEBP & VIKOO
162
there can be divergence over what is to be sustained. For example,

for some the focus has been on sustainable economic growth, for
others it has been the ‘balance of nature’ or an eco-system. For
others again, it has been a culture (for example the ability of a
community to create a way of life which is an expression of its
values and aspirations’ (Vandeburg, 1995) or human needs (for
example ‘to meet the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (Brundtland
Commission, 1987). Each of these clearly gives a different meaning
to ‘sustainability’ and very different sets of policy implications, and
there is no prima facie reason for supposing that they need be
compatible with each other. Indeed, it has been pointed out by Rist
(1997) that trading on such ambiguities has enabled the rhetoric of
some policy makers to give the impression that they wish to do one
thing (such as sustain natural ecosystems) while in fact attempting
something quite different (such as sustain conditions for continued
economic growth).
Similarly, there seems sometimes to be a too easy
assimilation of ecological sustainability with sustaining democratic
culture. However, not all find this plausible. For example, according
to Ophuls (1977:3) “liberal democracy as we know it … is doomed
by ecological scarcity; we need a completely new political
philosophy and set of institutions”. This view arises from the claim
that there are certain fundamental ‘ecological imperatives’, which
derive from the fact that nature, as a closed system, cannot sustain
endless economic growth. In addition, it is often allied to the claim
that nature has intrinsic value, giving it priority over things that only
have contingent, instrumental value. The resulting ‘imperatives’
have been taken to include, for example, by Porritt (1984:216-217)
low consumption, local production for local need and labour-
intensive production. And for Ophuls there is one key question to
ask of social policy: ‘Is the way we organize communal life and rule
ourselves compatible with ecological imperatives and other natural

163
laws”. For ‘… how we run our lives will be increasingly determined

by ecological imperatives”. (1977:7-8).
Clearly this presents a serious challenge to any comfortable
alliance between democracy and ecological sustainability, for if there
are such ecological imperatives deriving from the laws of nature,
then clearly certain policies are proscribed. They are in effect not
only removed from the area of democratic debate, but set the
parameters within which democratic debate can be allowed to
function. Furthermore, insofar as such enframing is broad in scope, it
is tantamount to defining a conception of the good life to which
citizens need to be brought to conform and thus both run counter to
the assumption of democracy of valuing diversity of view and hold
the danger of peripheralising democracy as a contingent value,
instrumental to achieving the public acceptance of these imperatives.
There is, then, a basic value conflict between the authoritarianism
implicit in ecological imperatives and democratic procedures
(Saward, 1995). The educational impact of this conflict will be
explored when we examine approaches to environmental education
in the final section.
But perhaps the most significant general feature to arise from
a discussion of sustainability at this point is the recognition of the
value position inherent in the views of all who use the term. Not
everything can be sustained and as soon as one clarifies what is to be
sustained (and at what level and over what spatial and temporal
scales), one is involved in a selection which reflects a particular
value/cultural position. In its broadest sense, this brings us up against
one of the great axes of debate in the area of environmental ethics:
the issue of anthropocentrism as against biocentrism – should be
given priority to, measure policy in terms of, the satisfaction of
(long-term) human needs or the needs of the biosphere (of which
human beings are but one small part)? At one level generalized talk
of ‘sustainability’ only cloaks the tension between anthropocentric
and biocentric attitudes; it does nothing to resolve them. Yet at
another level the term is generally used in a way which tacitly

164
decides the issue, for notwithstanding the expression of concern for

natural systems, its use is generally inherently anthropocentric in
assuming the desirability of sustaining those natural systems which
are conducive to human flourishing (however that is defined). But
should we simply accept this as a given? A number of writers have
championed the worth and ‘rights’ of non-human aspects of nature,
either setting human needs strictly on a par with the needs of all
other members of the ‘great community of life’. (Taylor, 1986 in
Bonnett, 1997), or subordinating them to the well-being of the
biosphere (Foremen, in Attwood, 19994: 228 – 229).
Finally, there is a set of theory epistemological problems
raised by the idea of sustainability. Put briefly, it has been claimed
that even so-called stable system remain predictable for relatively
short periods of time and the significance of contingency in any
scheme of evolution, and the evolution of human-environment
relationships in particular. For example, what was there to predict
that it would be Europe and not India or China that would develop
into modern industrialisms? (Simmons, 1995), makes far-reaching
prediction a hazardous business. However, often it is precisely far-
reaching effects (social, biological, climatic, etc) that are of such
importance in environmental matters – to wit, the cases of nuclear
power and genetically modified crops – and this general problems is
only exacerbated by the extreme complexity of the systems relevant
to environmental sustainability and the highly imperfect state of our
current knowledge of them. It is not, of course, that we are not
entitled to have quite high degrees of confidence in our knowledge
of some highly significant aspects of the environment (such as the
ability of certain food chains to concentrate certain toxins or to
maintain a certain population). The problem is that one of the great
virtues of talk of sustainable policies is that it invites us to take a
holistic rather than an atomistic view of consequences, so essential
when dealing with a system of organic interrelationships. But now, if
we cannot predict the consequences of actions in these terms, how
can we decide what is truly sustainable?

165
This raises further questions: just what kind of knowledge

will best illuminate and equip us to deal with issues of sustainability?
For example, is it best conceived in terms of aspects of science and
geography, as is the current policy in the National Curriculum of
Nigeria? Where does this leave the moral, social, economic,
aesthetic and spiritual dimensions of the issues which any adequate
understanding of our relationship with our environment involve? In
any case, should we simply assume that traditional subject domains
are the appropriate vehicles for pursuing environmental issues when
historically many of their central motives were shaped in a cultural
milieu preoccupied with subordinating and exploiting nature? For
example, Merchant (1992, Ch.2) discusses how the gendering of
nature as feminine seemed to legitimize an aggressive and invasive
stance taken by modern empirical science at its inception. Such
considerations suggest that we cannot simply assume that the tacit
values operative in traditional subject domains themselves will
facilitate the holistic, and therefore, interdisciplinary nature of
sustainability issues.
Clearly , there is a need to acknowledge such problems and
to work them through carefully if we are to achieve a coherent
interpretation of ‘sustainability’ and its educational implications.
This is certainly no less the case for the idea of sustainable
development, to which we now turn.
Sustainable Development
As previously noted, the addition of the idea of development to
sustainability seems to provide a political ‘dream ticket’ in the area
of environmental policy making. However, a number of writers have
suggested that sustainable development has several problematical
features and inexorably reinforces a questionnaire anthropocentric
stance. For example, Mitchum (1997) suggests that its underlying
motive is escape from scarcity and that this later is defined by the
modern (Western) world as the economy of subsistence. Yet it may
turn out that the economy of subsistence and self-reliance is the only
truly sustainable way of life! He also makes the point that

166
sustainable development involves a subtle addition to management,

looking upon the world as ‘a spaceship in need of an operating
manual’. For some, such an attitude is highly problematical in
continuing to express the kind of arrogant instrumentation towards
nature that has been a prime contributor to present problems (Falaye,
2007).
Again, Shiva (1992) suggests that in the Western mind
‘development’ can hardly escape connotations derived from the
market economy and immediately has read into it economic
development in the sense of economic growth. Combining it with
sustainability thus holds the danger of transmuting the fundamental
motive to conserve into one of finding substitutes (e.g. in terms of
energy and materials) which continues to express and feed the
underlying motive for material growth and consumption. Indeed,
from another perspective, this invites the view that if artificial
recreations of nature (may be ‘plastic trees’, virtual worlds) can
provide for human needs, satisfaction and happiness more cost-
efficiently than nature itself, why should we bother to preserve the
real thing? (Krieger, 1973; Maser, 1988) Shiva argues that from the
perspective of the market economy, sustainable development will
inevitably be measured by, and therefore come to mean, the
maximization of profits and capital accumulation. To the extent that
this occurs, it will override and denude the economies of nature and
of people. For Shiva, true sustainability requires that development is
not separated from conservation and requires that markets and
production processes are reshaped on the logic of nature’s returns. It
requires a recognition that it is nature’s economy that is primary, not
the logic of profits.
Yet there are others who are more sanguine about the
prospect of marrying sustainability to development. For example,
Attwood (1994:223-233) has argued that developmentalism and
environmentalism, properly understood, can be mutually supporting.
If we see development as a moving away from ‘underdevelopment’,
which in turn is:

167
… a condition of society where several of the

following factors reinforce one another; malnutrition,
high infant mortality, low levels of literacy, relatively
high morbidity among the young and middle-aged,
poor medical facilities, poor educational facilities,
low levels of income per head and low levels of
productivity per head …
then we can see that not only does justice require such development
where it is possible, but that so does environmentalism. For,
according to Attwood, it is underdevelopment in the above terms that
is an underlying cause of population growth and of ecological
problems. Furthermore, the attitude of mind that sanctions the
injustice of exploitation and oppression, whether it be towards other
humans or nature, is essentially the same and is thus the common
enemy of both developmentalism and environmentalism (see also
Katz, 1997). While there are aspects of these arguments which
require a good deal more supporting empirical evidence, the notion
of the significance of an underlying frame of mind which is
highlighted in all three of the accounts to which we have referred is
one which we believe rewards further consideration and to which we
will therefore return.
Notwithstanding this, it is clear that the notion of sustainable
development requires careful explication, and ultimately stipulative
definition, if its use is not to invite confusion and perhaps betrayal of
the motives it was intended to express. Even then, depending on
these as yet unknown realities of, for example, population growth
and the sustaining power of ecosystems, its coherence may turn out
to be chimerical. The great danger is that it simply becomes a term
of political convenience used to mask and/or legitimate vested
interests.
Sustainability as a Frame of Mind
In the previous two sections we have sketched a number of political
semantic, ethical and epistemological difficulties which arise from

168
taking the notion of sustainable development as a statement of

policy. Before exploring a positive response to these we would like
to consider what we believe to be the shortcomings of a view that is
not infrequently offered as a contribution to practical issues of
sustainability and confronting environmental problems, namely the
example provided by certain indigenous cultures.
While there is no space to develop the argument here, we
suggest that there is a limited point in industrial cultures looking to
non-industrial cultures for indications of practical solutions to their
environmental problems. For example, Smithson (1997) observes
that the benevolent image of some native cultures is somewhat
tarnished when we learn that their talk was not matched by their
practice. More importantly, he points out that the chief reasons why
they lived in a more ‘sustainable’ way with the environment were: (i)
a very low population density; (ii) a very low level of technological
development. It seems reasonable to suppose that if either of these
factors had reached anything like the current levels in Western
society, some of the attitudes and practices of these cultures (such as
some forms of shifting agriculture) would have had catastrophic
consequences for the environment.
We think this point is instructive in a number of ways.
Firstly, it illustrates the pretty obvious but sometimes insufficiently
recognized point that the conditions to which such cultures were
attuned, and in term of which their practicals were in some cases
sustainable, were very different from the conditions which face us.
This itself is a stark illustration of the sense in which environmental
problems and sustainable solutions are historically, geographically
and culturally local.
Secondly, while it is undoubtedly beneficial to have one’s
conceptions of possible responses to the environment broadened by
an awareness of the possibilities expressed in practices and rhetoric
of other cultures, it remains necessary for Western society (and
indeed any other) to produce its own solutions, for no other society
has precisely its capacities, faces its problems for no other same

169
possibilities for ‘internal’ insight into them. The point has been well
made by, for example, Cooper (1992), that one’s primary
understanding of the environment derives from one’s ongoing
involvement in one’s own life world, and by implication by
Oakeshott (1962), that attempts to simply import the principles and
formal procedures of one culture into another are doomed to failure.
Thus, ultimately we must look to our own cultural resources and
possibilities of innovation which grow out of them in order to
understand the way forward, for they represent the only authentic
horizon of intelligibility for such an endeavour.
Thirdly, by implication, we have a further reminder that
central to environmental issues is the manner of our consciousness of
them – that we need to conceive of sustainability not simply as a
policy designed to achieve a certain state of affairs, but as an attitude
of mind, a way of relating to nature/the environment. The
importance of an honest appraisal of our underlying motives towards
nature grows in proportion to our ever-increasing power to
implement them. Policy stands in need of constant revision in the
light of new evidence and extended power. This can only be properly
directed if we work from a right frame of mind in terms of basic
values, motives and attitudes towards nature.
It seems that such considerations, set alongside the
difficulties of prediction of environmental consequences previously
discussed, suggest that we should give attention to developing
sustainability as an attitude of mind as contrasted with a policy
aimed at achieving a certain state of affairs. To be sure,
consequences, and what we can realistically know of them, are
highly important, but so too is the ‘internal’ quality of the action
itself. Arguably, it is a right relationship to nature which should be
an ultimate goal of environmental education, for it is this that gives
our felt experience of nature and thus fundamentally conditions our
quality of life in this respect.
In this sense, proper environmental awareness parallels
morality in that it is not essentially about calculating consequences

170
in terms of criteria external to this relationship, such as how to

maintain economic growth, energy supply or even biodiversity and
extant ecosystems, but about identifying the qualities of a
flourishing, mutually sustaining relationship in its lived day-to-day
occurrence. What counts as ‘mutual flourishing’ and what unique
responsibilities humans have to nature are highly contentious issues,
but they are ones that cannot be ducked if we are to properly found
an environmental ethic. In the same way that the plausibility of
utilitarianism as a basis for social action depends upon some
underlying, and in some sense intuitive, understanding of human
welfare that by far outruns what any ‘happiness calculus’ can
encompass, so it is with any notion of a ‘sustainability calculus’.
They are both in danger of operating at an essentially instrumental
level and with too simplistic (i.e materialistic) a sense of what is of
ultimate or intrinsic motive into the fields they inform – which, as
previously mentioned, may itself be part of the problem and
therefore needs to be made visible rather than insinuated as part of a
tacit background for analysis and decision making which sets it up as
though it were the solution.
There is a need, then, to establish a proper balance between a
potentially overweening concern for consequences and the felt
qualities of a lived relationship with the environment, which in turn
requires a re-interpretation of consequences which reflects a proper,
i.e. rich, understanding of human flourishing. The qualities of such a
relationship will now be explored in the context of education.
Sustainability and Environmental Education
How can we fill out the idea of sustainability as a frame of mind and
how should this affect the way that we view environmental
education?
Perhaps the first thing to note is that sustainability as a frame
of mind puts the focus on our everyday way of relating to things,
including our everyday practices. This has to be the level at which

171
any genuine transformation of consciousness occurs. It requires,

therefore, a re-evaluation of the motives and values that pervade
daily living from the perspective of what is mutually sustaining and
with the prospect of deciding actions which may involve radical
change from current practices. At this point we run up against a
previously foreshadowed ethical and pedagogical problem: can we
assume, as some writers in the field seem to, that: (i) a mutually
sustaining relationship will incorporate democratic values, (ii) that
teaching environmental education issues should reflect democratic
values by being procedurally neutral? We will take the latter issue
first.
Elliott (1999) Breiting and Mogensen (1999), in their oppose
the notion of teachers promoting environmentalist attitudes amongst
the young, preferring a more democratic teaching approach that
encourages them to exercise their own critical faculties and to make
up their own minds in a rational manner on the issues. In the case of
teaching straightforwardly controversial issues, it might be hard to
argue with this view if we wish to avoid the charge of indoctrination,
and even in non-controversial areas it may be argued that the
approach remains preferable because it encourages greater personal
engagement by learners and ultimately a deeper and fuller
understanding of the issues. Such points are not, we think, to be
lightly dismissed. However, certain reservations need to be
expressed in the context of environmental education. These are of
two main kinds. The first refers to the place of rationality in the
development of understanding and the second refers to the political
climate in which environmental education is conducted in modern
times. Put concisely, can education afford to be procedurally neutral
when so many other powerful influences in society certainly are not?
In such circumstances, are we justified in an assumption that ‘pure’
rationality will: (i) prevail; (ii) provide the truth; (iii) support the
democratic values its proponents favour; (iv) support sustainability
of the desired sort?

172
This set of reservations opens very large issues and we can

do little more in the space available here than indicate some of them.
At the heart of the matter is the question of the adequacy of
rationality alone to resolve issues in an area as complex, subtle and
multidimensional (e.g. in terms of involving ethical, aesthetic and
spiritual sentiments) as environmental concern, not least from the
perspective of the motives and values embedded in modern
rationality self, which may prejudice its stand on these issues and
may themselves have been causes of the problems that now have to
be addressed by environmental education. The central point here is
that rationality itself is not neutral; it expresses certain aspirations
towards the world, notably to classify, explain, predict, evaluate and,
as far as modern rationality is concerned, increasingly to control and
exploit it (Heidegger, 1977). Arguably, it is the growing ascendancy
of such motives and our increasing power to implement them that
has led to our current environmental predicament.
This suggests that sustainability as a frame of mind may well
require a rather different orientation which is less aggressive and
more celebratory. Its aspiration will be attunement; a sensing of
harmony and discord in terms of a more intuitive acquaintanceship
with nature/the environment and our responsibilities towards it. And
its central qualities will be receptiveness and a genuine
responsiveness which is open to, and engaged with, the many-
sidedness of things themselves in the way that, for example, great art
and literature can be. Thus, such an attitude of mind would not seek
to create a distance from things suitable for the operation of
calculative rational scrutiny and assessment, but rather would seek a
more direct, felt involvement. It would be essentially ‘poetic’ (see
Bonnett, 1994, Ch. 11), its non-manipulative spirit being nicely
expressed by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides in his
description of true thinking as a native ‘letting-lie-before-us and a
taking-to-heart’.
In turn, this view of sustainability clearly invites a
perspective on what would count as development, personal or

173
cultural, which relocates the economic into a subservient position

and suggests that the kind of knowledge required by environmental
education will not be exclusively, or even predominantly, scientific
(whose own rationalistic motives have been questioned). To say this
is not to deny the value of pupils exploring the effects of human
activity on the environment and the causal connections within it,
studying closed ecosystems in ‘Gaia bottles’ (Tomkins, 1995) and
becoming aware of the complexity, diversity and vulnerability of
nature. Rather, it is to invite a relocation and integration of such
studies into a broader and more open poetic milieu that is pervaded
by a basic sympathy with nature as that which ultimately sustains us
both in material and psychological terms. There is an important
sense in which nature does not simply exist ‘out there’ as an external
object for our separate perceiving subjectivity, but that our
relationship with it (how we reveal it to ourselves) is a primal
conditioner of our experience as a whole and is constitutive of our
own identity, our sense of place and purpose in the greater scheme of
things. We exist in our relationship to nature (Bonnett, 1997).
With regard to the issue of assimilating sustainability and
democratic values, large questions are again raised. As previously
discussed, it is clear that at least some have not found it natural to
make this assimilation, instead wishing to assert the well-being of
the biosphere above that of any particular species such as human
beings or any individual’s rights and so earning themselves the
epithet ‘eco-fascists’ from their critics. On the other hand, some seek
to insinuate democratic values into sustainability by claiming that
“the environment’ includes the social environment and that
democratic values such as freedom, equality, justice, respect for
persons and rational discussion should be viewed as ecological
conditions for sustaining societies which promote the well-being of
their members. Clearly, ‘ecological’ is here being used in a very
anthropocentric sense and this leads us to revisit the dichotomy with
biocentrism in search of a resolution. This may not be immediately
forthcoming. But perhaps, there is some mileage in drawing a

174
distinction within anthropocentrism between what we might term

‘strong’ and ‘weak’ versions.
The strong version holds that human beings are not only the
source of value in that only entities functioning at their level of
consciousness can confer or recognize values, but that they are also
the only bearers of intrinsic value. This immediately entails that
domination of non-bearers of intrinsic value. The weak version
accepts the first claims, but not the second. It suggests that it is
perfectly intelligible, and, for example, much closer to some aspects
of our experience of nature, to allow that an essential part of human
awareness is its capacity to recognize the intrinsic value of the
‘other’, indeed to be capable of a deep respect for things non-human
and that are not perceived as primarily serving human purposes and,
indeed, on occasion precisely because of this. We might think here
of the feeling of respect evoked by a tropical rainforest mahogany or,
for that matter, a ciliate protozoan in a drop of pond water viewed
through a microscope, not to mention a mountain or a galaxy or
things of deep religious significance. This, again, is to reassert the
significance of a more poetic dimension to human awareness and has
clear implications for viewing the whole curriculum as a potential
vehicle for environmental education. Sustainability as an attitude of
mind seeks awareness of as many facets and significances of nature
as possible.
Given this interpretation of human flourishing, it must remain
an open question as to whether democratic values are either
necessary or sufficient to its realization. In practice they may well be
both, but there remains an important sense in which they need to be
viewed less as definitive of the quality of human flourishing and
more as instrumental to and facilitators of its achievement. They may
well expedite richer engagement by more individuals with their
environment in a full sense, but the rationalistic elements which
incline everything to be subject to public articulation, explanation
and evaluation, etc., may also detract from this. Further, the market
orientation which is arguably embedded in liberal democratic views

175
(Achterberg, 1995) may elevate a strong calculative element. These

are all issues that need to be carefully thought through in the context
of the implicit values to be conveyed through the procedures and
goals of environmental education.
Yet it seems clear that the development of sustainability as a
frame of mind would seem to involve commitment to a certain basic
environmental ethic which, while falling short of a set of ecological
imperatives, it seems fair to assume will need to be instilled into the
young (in just the same, way that a human ethic is) if it is to take root
in a society where its short-term consequences are likely to be
politically and economically uncongenial and where so many vested
interests are countervailing. Pollution and depletion are symptoms,
not causes. It is prevailing values and social/economic/political
arrangements that give rise to them. If we are to enable pupils to
address the causes of environmental problems rather than the
symptoms, we must engage them in those kinds of enquiry which
reveal the dominant underlying motives that are in play in society.
Ultimately, this may lead to a need to reveal and examine motives
which are inherent in our most fundamental ways of thinking about
ourselves and the world, a metaphysical investigation. That this will
be discomforting seems unavoidable, but it is likely to be more
productive in the long term than proceeding on the basis of easy
assumptions about the coherence of sustainable development and its
suitability as a pivot for environmental education.
Finally, the development of sustainability conceived as a
frame of mind highlights the importance of those aspects of
education which are not part of the normal taught curriculum. Many
relevant attitudes and values will be expressed in the ethos and daily
practices of the school, in the literature that it directs pupils to, in the
versions of life that it holds up as being successful and the status it
accords to different activities and relationships.

176
These will need to be carefully evaluated from the perspective of

sustainability if damaging inconsistency of message and pupil
cynicism are to be avoided.
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