Bamboo Shoot Processing: Opportunities and Challenges

1Debangana Choudhury, *2Jatindra K. Sahu and 1G.D. Sharma

1Department of Life Science, School of Life Sciences, Assam University, Silchar – 788 011, Assam,

India

2 Department of Biological Systems Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Science, 312 Seitz

Hall, Blacksburg, Virginia Tech, Virginia 24061, USA

*Corresponding author: E-mail: pjksahu@gmail.com (Dr. J.K. Sahu); Tel: 540 – 231 - 7937; Fax:

540 – 231 – 3199,

Abstract

Bamboo shoot forms a long-established culinary grace of various cuisines. However, the production

of bamboo shoots is seasonal, unpreserved and short-lived. The consumption pattern of bamboo

shoots in most of the countries is in dried, canned, boiled, fermented or medicinal form, which is

traditional, non-standardized, unorganized and region-specific with a little value addition. Therefore,

it is the need of the hour to develop plausible process technologies in order to preserve this renewable

natural resource to make them available through out the year. The present review gives an insight into

bamboo shoots, their global scenario, quality attributes, processing opportunities and various

challenges in supporting and establishing bamboo shoot-based industries. It is expected that despite of

the numerous challenges, the article will boost to develop a suitable and sustainable bamboo shoot-

based food processing industries in a organized manner.

Keywords: bamboo shoots, bamboo shoot based snacks and powder, value addition, fermented

bamboo shoots, bitterness in bamboo shoots.

1. Introduction

Bamboo shoots are the young and tender culms of bamboo that are consumed for various food items

after harvesting. Bamboo shoots form a traditional delicacy of many countries like especially China,

Japan, US, North East India, Thailand, Nepal, Bhutan, Malaysia and Indonesia. The freshly harvested

shoot is cream yellow in color, has a strong smell and sweet taste, if eaten on the day of harvest.

There are 1250 species of bamboo shoots under 75 genera in the world (Upreti & Sundriyal, 2002).

However, all species of bamboo shoots are not edible. The consumption pattern of bamboo shoots in

most of the countries indicates that it is consumed in forms of raw, dried, canned, boiled, fermented or

medicinal, which is traditional, non-standardized, unorganized and region-specific with little value-

addition. Bamboo shoots are seasonal and perishable in nature, short-lived and unpreserved. At the

same time, they are becoming one of the preferred food items in the world; thus, implying the need to

develop a well organized and sustainable bamboo shoot processing industry, making them available

all throughout the year.

2. Global Scenario of Bamboo and Bamboo Shoots

Bamboo shoot is a natural resource and found in many countries. Bamboo is spread in over 1250

species under 75 genera in the world (Upreti & Sundriyal, 2002) with 136 species under 23 genera in

India (Sharma, 1980). Nearly 300 species are found in China, 237 in Japan, 90 in Burma, 55 in

Philippines, 50 in Thailand, 44 in Malaysia, 33 in Bangladesh, 31 in Indonesia, 30 in Nepal, 30 in Sri

Lanka, and 300 in P. R. China (Sharma, 1980). With unmatched abilities, they are used from fiber to

food to floor, through musical instrument to housing to making various articles of everyday use.

At present, yearly over 2 million tonnes of edible bamboo shoots are consumed around the world,

mostly in Asian countries (Vaiphei, 2005). India is the second richest country for bamboo production.

About 26.2 tonnes, 435 tonnes and 426.8 tonnes of bamboo shoots are harvested in Sikkim,
Meghalaya and Mizoram, respectively (Bhatt, Singha, Singh & Sachan, 2003). About 78 species of

indigenous and exotic varieties of bamboo are grown in North Eastern India (Hore, 1998). The annual

average consumption of bamboo shoots in the north eastern states of India is 1979 tonnes, 2188

tonnes, 442 tonnes, 433 tonnes, 442 tonnes and 201 tonnes in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,

Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura, respectively (Sarangthem & Singh, 2003).

Total potential of bamboo shoots worldwide is estimated at $10 billion and the current market for

bamboo shoots in India is Rs. 5 crores. In the international market, China earns US$ 130 million

every year from exports of edible bamboo shoots, with imports of US at around 44,000 tonnes

accounting for 14.5% of the total world imports and Australia imports at 8,000 tonnes per annum

(Cahill, 1999). It has been observed that every year US imports 30,000 tonnes of canned bamboo

shoots from Taiwan, Thailand and China to be consumed as food items (Lewis, 1996). Taiwan

consumes 80,000 tonnes of bamboo shoots annually constituting a value of US$ 50 million (Tai,

1985). Thailand covers 30,000 hectare of land of bamboo shoots under cultivation, producing

3,80,000 tones per year (Tai, 1985). In Singapore, people mostly consumed canned shoots (Pan,

1995). In Japan, the annual per capita consumption of bamboo is now 3 kg per person presently,

compared to 1.2 kg per person in 1950s.

3. Bamboo shoots

Bamboo shoot is one of the favorite food items in the world. How ever, there is hardly any organized

bamboo shoot processing and marketing industry in the national and international markets. In order to

understand the qualities of bamboos shoots, in the sub-sections, an attempt has been made to highlight

the quality attributes of bamboo shoots and the subsequent products derived or to be derived from

them.
3.1. Physical qualities of bamboo shoots

Bamboo shoots are generally 20 -30 cm long, taper to one end, grow extraordinarily and weigh almost

to 0.45 kg. However, their size and weight varies considerably upon location, depth and nutrition of

the soil, watering and drainage conditions, rainfall, temperature, pH and soil fertility. Depending upon

the indication of the tips budding from the soil, the edible bamboo shoots are harvested just at the

point of attachment of the rhizome. If they are allowed to grow well above the surface, they become

tough and woody and lose their delicate taste and aroma.

The shooting period of bamboo varies from species to species. Broadly, the temperate climate

bamboos are runners, which shoot in the spring, while the tropical and sub-tropical varieties are

clumpers, which shoot in the late summer and fall. Growing well in their own fashion, no transparent

above-ground growth is noticed in the first few growing years and then in one brief season they are

seen to explode abruptly with growth. It is during this period that, the plant puts its utmost energy into

the root system, and in the following summer and fall, the species produces and stores sugars in their

rhizomes that produce the roots, insists on top growth, and bear new rhizomes. The leaves/sheaths

covering the shoots are black, brown, yellow or purple, in some species and are covered with tiny

hairs.

Bamboo shoots look like coiled springs and have an acerbic flavour. They are normally sheltered in

specialized coverings called culm sheaths that are often multi-coloured. The white meat, that is

revealed, once the culm sheath is peeled off, turns yellowish when cooked, and is very sweet if

cooked on the day of harvest. However, shoots of some species are known to contain cyanogenic

glycosides, called taxiphyllin, [2-(b-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl) acetonitrile] and are

therefore very bitter and need to be leached or boiled for 8-10 minutes before consumption (Young,

1954).
3.2. Chemical qualities of bamboo shoots

Bamboo shoots are low in fat and cholesterol content, but high in potassium, carbohydrate and dietary

fibres. Many nutritious and active materials such as vitamins, amino acids, and anti-oxidants like

flavones, phenols and steroids are present in the bamboo shoots. Bamboo shoots are valuable in

pharmaceutical and food processing industries and can be processed into beverages, medicines,

additives or health foods. In attendance, however, hardly any product has created their way into the

markets. Table 1 presents the chemical composition of commonly edible bamboo shoots. The table

shows that the water, protein, carbohydrate, mineral and hydrocyanic acid contents of bamboo shoots

vary from 85.98-92.37%, 1.98-3.29%, 3.89-9.94%, 0.89-1.14% and 0.032-0.13%, respectively

(NMBA, India). Bamboo shoot is a good source of potassium, phosphorus, zinc, copper, iron and

manganese; Vitamin E (α-Tocopherol), Vitamin C, B6, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and dietary fibers

like hemicelluloses, cellulose, pectin, lignin (Park & John, 2009). It has been reported that bamboo

shoots can significantly decrease serum total and serum LDL cholesterol in rats and total liver lipids

including liver cholesterol by 16.1 mg/dl. With 17 different types of amino acids, it contains over 10

kinds of mineral elements- Cr, Zn, Mn, Mg, Ni,Co, Cu etc; Lysine, of amino acids, called one limited

amino acid is helpful for growth and development of children; Germaclinium, reported in the shoots

are known to carry anti-aging properties. Many nutritious and active materials-such as vitamins,

amino acids, and anti-oxidants such as flavones, phenols and steroids can be extracted from the

bamboo shoots. Table 2 shows a detailed nutrient analysis of processed bamboo shoots (Choudhury,

Sahu & Sharma, 2010)

3.3. Sensory qualities of bamboo shoots

Bamboo shoots are soft and crispy and develop an acrid flavor, if not harvested as soon as they come

out of the ground (Sue, 1995). They contain a potentially toxic glycoside of α-
hydroxynitrile, called taxiphyllin. (Anonymous, 2004) which is turned on by the

hydrolytic enzyme: β-glycosidase, upon disruption of the plant cell (Ermans,

Mbulamoko, Delange & Ahluwalia, 1980; Nahrstedt, 1993). Taxiphyllin further breaks down to form

cyanohydrins and sugar, which rapidly decomposes into hydrocyanic acid and an aldehyde or a

ketone (Moller and Seigler, 1999). The quantity of cyanides in bamboo shoots however varies

depending upon genetic and environmental factors , location of cultivation, season and soil type

(Ermans et al., 1980; JECFA, 1993), parts of the shoot and time of and from harvest (Anonymous,

2004). In D. giganteus, it varies up to 894 mg/kg (Ferreira, Yotsuyanagi and Carvalho, 1995), in M.

bambusoides, 0.14 mg/g, in B. pallida, 0.04 mg/g, respectively. The new shoots are almost free from

acridity and are brilliant for human consumption. Homogentisic acid is, however, also responsible for

the pungent taste of the shoots (Bhargava, Kumbhare, Srivastava and Sahai, 1996). But the taste also

depends on the total sugar content, total amino acid content like aspartic acid (Asp), glutamic acid

(Glu), glycine (Gly) and tannin contents; while the amino acids increase the deliciousness of bamboo

shoots, tannins decrease the same by increasing the offensive taste (Xia-Bo, 2006).

3.4. Bamboo shoots and medicines

With different flavones and glycosides in bamboo, they have excellent anti-microbial qualities, and

can be extracted to make capsules and tablets. In the traditional system of Indian medicine, the

silicious concretions found in the shoots are called banslochan; and in the Indo-Persian and Tibettan

system of medicine, it is called tabashir or tawashir; commonly in English, it is called bamboo

manna. Earlier obtained from M. bambusoides, it is known for its unique healing properties, but is

very hard to get.

B. arundinacea is described as the best source of bamboo manna (Puri, 2003). Shoots of B.

arundinacia/ B. bambos contain choline, betain, nuclease, urease, cyanogens, glucosides and are used
in the treatment of diarrhoea, thread worm and cough; shoots and dried pith of D. strictus contain

silicious matter and have tonic and astringent action. The juice of pressed bamboo shoots possesses

protease activity that helps in digestion of proteins. Boiled bamboo shoots are used as appetizers and

the decoction of shoots are used for cleaning wounds and maggot infected sores, ulcers etc; mixed

with palm-jaggery, it is known to induce parturition and abortion (RFRI, 2008). In Java, sap from

inside the shoots of B. vulgaris is used for curing jaundice (Burkill, 1935). Bamboo is filled with

antimicrobial qualities and its shoots are used in preparation of steroidal drugs (Sarangthem, 2003).

Bamboo is traditionally used as a medicine (anti-oxidant, anti-free-radical, anti-aging and anti-cancer

activity) in south-east Asia. In Japan, the antimicrobial property of crushed bamboo shoot sheath/bark

prevents bacterial growth and is known to be used as a natural food preservative. In China, the green

shoots of P. glauca were roasted to produce fresh bamboo juice in treating infections. Bamboo salt

tablets, prepared by sealing salt in bamboo shoots followed by baking in specially designed furnaces

is used in Korea, which is a natural detoxifying agent, known to absorb highly therapeutic trace

elements including Cu, Zn and Fe.

4. Conventional Bamboo Shoot based Products

Bamboo shoots being rich in carbohydrate, protein and mineral, and xpected as part of a healthy diet.

Whether as an accompanying vegetable or as the main ingredient, bamboo shoots make a brilliant

totaling to many salads, stir-fries and soups. There are various ways of preparing bamboo shoot items.

In Indonesia, bamboo shoots are added with thick coconut milk and spices to make gulei rebung,

sometimes also mixed with other vegetables, called sayur ladeh (Tamang, 2000) or fried and mixed

with other vegetables to make lun-pia. In Phillipinese cuisine, they are called labong and are taken

with coconut milk and chillies Ginataang Labong. Ethnic people living in Nepal and Bhutan prepare

and consume a variety of domesticated and wild bamboo shoots (Sharma, 1989). In Nepal, the shoots
are fermented with turmeric and oil and cooked with potatoes to prepare an item called alu tama. In

Bhutanese cuisine, Tchang a millet beer is served in bamboo mugs to preserve its flavor. Tama, a

non-fermented bamboo shoot curry is very familiar in Sikkim and this unique and classic Sikkimese

curry is made from some varieties of young bamboo shoots commonly grown in the Sikkim

Himalayas. In certain other parts of the country, they are taken as fries, cooked with oil and spices in

open pans.

Delicacies in Indian cuisines include ushoi among the Manipuris & the Apa Tanis of Arunachal. In

Manipur, the fresh bamboo shoots or often the fermented form, locally called soibum, prepared with

dry fish or soidon, is prepared by procuring bamboo shoots for 2-3 months in specialized fermentation

tanks-made from bamboo planks lined with banana leaves or in roasted earthen pots (Jeyaram,

Talukdar & Singh, 2005). In Assam, they are commonly called khorisa by the local tribes and are

used to prepare khorisa tenga. In Sambalpur, India, the young shoots are grated and fermented to

prepare kardi or amil- a sour vegetable soup; and the shoots that have turned a little fibrous are

fermentated, dried, ground into powder and used as a garnish called hendua, which is quiet a

preferred liquor among the tribal people. The edible Bamboo species in the Western Ghats of India is

D. strictus and B. bambos. From pickles, snacks and other fried stuff to curries, juice of fermented

shoots stored for about 50-60 days is used for seasoning vegetables (Sharma, 2008). The shelf life of

the product is about one year, without the spoilage of color, flavor, consistency and texture.

5. Opportunities of Bamboo Shoot Processing

Bamboo shoot is one of the common food items in many countries and its popularity is growing day-

by-day, as main or supplementary foodstuff. A thriving economy exists around bamboo and bamboo

shoot based food item in the international market in terms of food security and nutrition. There exists

great opportunity especially in an organized food processing sector to take up plantation, harvesting,
processing and marketing of bamboo and bamboo shoots- based food products. Bamboo shoots can be

dried, marinated, or sautéed to prepare various food items. Although fresh shoots (of D.giganteus) are

healthier and nutritionally richer, (Nirmala, Sharma & David, 2008) the younger shoots, later

fortified, can be utilized for various small scale cottage industries by processing them into a wide

range of long-standing products. It should, however, be noted that, in selecting an appropriate process

technology for the bamboo shoots, it is important to examine energy, environment as well as cost

issues. Different technologies may be appropriate at different geographical locations and local socio-

economic conditions.

5.1. Production of dried bamboo shoots

Bamboo shoot is a high moisture food product containing about 90% water. Therefore, during

storage, it is important to reduce their moisture content or water activity to a lower value to increase

shelf life, but without impairing their physical, chemical, nutritional and sensory qualities. Many

attempts have been made to reduce the moisture content of bamboo shoots using drying technology,

which is a common and well acknowledged food preservation technology preferred worldwide. Very

little work is available on bamboo shoot drying. Nevertheless, reported that there is a 95.1% decrease

in moisture content of dried bamboo shoots (Muchtadi & Adawaiya 1996). However, with a vision to

exploring the scopes of future R&D works on bamboo shoots, a comparative study of various bamboo

shoot drying methods along with their advantages and disadvantages has been extensively visualized,

compared and reported by Satya et al., 2009. Muchtadi and Adawiyah (1996) reported that drying of

bamboo shoots in a cabinet dryer at 60oC for 7-8 hourrs significantly reduced 67.5% starch and 88.9%

ascorbic acid. Wongsakpairod (2000) compared superheated steam with low temperature and high

temperature hot air drying and suggested that color of dried bamboo shoots using superheated steam

(120-160oC) is darker than color obtained from hot air oven at same drying temperature. The author

reported that the best color of bamboo shoots was obtained by low temperature drying at 70 oC. Li,Qui
and Yang, (2002) showed that vacuum freeze drying is quite expensive compared to other methods

owing to involvement of higher operating costs, higher energy consumption and comparatively lower

production yield. Xu, Zhang, Tu, Sun, Zhou & Mujumdar, (2005) reported that vacuum freeze drying

followed by hot air flow drying was effective for improving the quality of dehydrated bamboo shoot

slices. Quality attributes of end-products using hybrid technologies, such as solar-assisted heat pump

dryer with thermal energy storage, microwave assisted vacuum drying may be attempted, although

these technologies are more cost effective for drying of the bamboo shoots. A detailed comparison of

various nutrients of dried and fresh bamboo shoots was reported by Muchtadi & Adawiyah (1996).

The study indicates that the dietary fibers, protein, ascorbic acid, starch and moisture content in g per

100g of dried and fresh bamboo shoots are 4.6, 21.6, 0.2, 9.2, 4.6 and 92.6, 27.8, 2.1, 28.3, 92.6,

respectively.

5.3. Production of bamboo shoot based powder

Dried food powders today are considered as convenient foods and have long storage life at ordinary

temperature. The key advantages of using dried bamboo shoot powder is its low moisture content (3 -

4%) which may allow its use directly into various dry food items, preparing bamboo shoot based

chutney and salad dressing. A major research may be designed to produce the powder which should

have consistency of texture, flavor and color, and can be easily blended with other dry ingredients.

Other advantages of using dried bamboo shoot based powder may include free-flowing, ease of

handling and weighing, reduced storage space, ease of cleaning and sanitary aspects. In order to

prepare a non-hygroscopic, anti-caking, and free flowing bamboo shoot based powder, the scaled,

sliced, and cleaned shoots may be undergone fermentation process. The fermented shoots may be

dried under superheated steam dryer which eliminates hydrocyanic acid component in the bamboo

part apart from its reduction in moisture content. The dried flakes may be conditioned and grinded at

a temperature controlled room. During grinding, the mill may be fitted with different stationary sieves
through which powder can be passed and powders of various particle sizes can be obtained. During

the process, powder quality attributes such as wettability, dispersability, flow ability, hygroscopicity,

and degree of caking may be taken into consideration.

5.4. Ready-to-Eat (RTE) snack foods

RTE Snack /fried foods have become a significant food item of modern people. Several varieties of

RTE products are available in the market. Surprisingly, the most widely consumed snacks are made

primarily with cereals/grains due to their good expansion properties, except that, they tend to be low

in proteins and some other nutrients. Hence, there is an increasing demand for more nutritious and

low calorie food in the market.

During deep frying the fats/oils used for frying range from unhydrogenated fully refined fats/oils to

specially hydrogenated products. The cooking of foods by submerging them in deep fats/oils at high

temperatures develops rancidity of the oil on long standing in open air and the process is positively

catalyzed by heat which is applied for cooking. Again, deep fat frying at medium or low temperature

for longer hours, significantly increases oil absorption, leaving the food oily and bland and at times

even microbiologically incompetent. Therefore, this depressingly impacts the flavor and color of the

food. To the contrary, with health conscious consumers stressing more on reduced consumption of

dietary oils and fats, it is now necessary to develop process technologies for the production of a

suitable snack food with low fats and high protein and carbohydrate content.

Therefore, keeping in mind the fry life, product form, mouth feel, ease of handling, cost for the frying

oil used and dry, non-greasy appearance (crispy from outside and moist from inside), taste, color,

flavor etc of the fried food, a process that can be followed for the production of bamboo shoot based

snack foods includes; shoot scaling, cleaning and slicing, boiling and fermentation, grinding and
conditioning of the shoot flakes for production of the powder, reconstitution of the shoot powder

using water and extrusion of the batter using an appropriate screw extruder, followed by drying. With

bamboo rich in anti-oxidants, other additives can be added depending on the sensory attributes of the

end product.

5.5. Production of fermented food items

Various fermented bamboo shoot products are consumed by people all over the world today. Ethnic

people living in sub-Himalayan regions, Nepal and Bhutan prepare and consume a variety of

domesticated and wild bamboo shoots and their fermented products for centuries (Sharma, 1989;

Tamang, 2001). A contemporary fermented bamboo shoot product is the hot and mouth-watering

bamboo shoot pickle or chutney; in which the shoot is grated and minced finely and left for a few

days for fermentation, squeezed hard and then sautéed in a pan with different spices, until the total

mass turns brown. Appropriate amount of sugar is added and then cooled at room temperature and

stored under refrigeration. Various bamboo shoot based fermented products available in various

countries are listed in Table 3.

Nutrient analysis of fermented bamboo shoots have been discussed in details by various scientists,

(Nirmala, Sharma and David, 2008) it has been shown that, in spite of decrease of some constituents

in fermented shoots, compared to the fresh shoots, the fiber content (4.18 g / 100 g of fresh weight)

and the cellulose content (1.8 g / 100g fresh weight in fermented shoots and 1.589 g / 100g in fresh

shoots) showed an increase. The antimicrobial activity of fermented bamboo shoot is also highly

appreciated (Thapa, 2002; Dewan, 2002). Table 4 shows a detailed nutrient component comparison of

fermented shoots and fresh shoots of D. giganteus.

5.6. Waste utilization

Bamboo, a potential ‘power plant’, with a number of desirable fuel characteristics-low ash content

(Duke and Atchley, 1986; Ferreira, Moraes, de Mantovani and Paschaolino,1992; Dransfield and

Widjaja 1995; Kumbhare and Bhargava, 2007) of 4.5-6.5% (NMBA) and a good alkali index. The

waste bamboo generated from processing operations are used for heating, cooking, generating

thermal/ mechanical or electrical power and as bio-fuel for transportation activities, replacing petrol

and diesel, through the process called ‘biomass gasification’. Bamboo can substitute for the use of

fossil-fuel thereby lowering the operating cost and the activated bamboo charcoal obtained from this

thermo-chemical process is similar to other ligno-cellulosic material (NMBA) and has a very high

adsorption capacity and the gas obtained from this process, can be used to make bamboo vinegars,

that are used in paint and sugar industry. The output efficiency of bamboo charcoal is 20% (BDA).

The gasification of waste bamboo thus offers exciting prospects for value addition and utilization of

bamboo resources through generation of power and thermal energy, especially in off-grid and remote

locations and also for industries and utility areas.

6. Challenges of Bamboo Shoot Processing

In spite of its vital role in improving the socio-economic and cultural status of people, bamboo

resource is receiving less attention. Due to increase in population, raised attention towards

urbanization and industrialization accompanied by drastic climatic change; the potential of this

natural resource is declining day-by-day. Research relating to bamboo and bamboo-based products

are lacking in the international scenario. Therefore, to establish a successful and sustainable bamboo

shoot based industry, the followings steps may be adopted.

• To identify various edible species of bamboo in different regions in the world.

• To formulate and recommend region-specific package of practices for sustainable

production of bamboo.
 • To identify techniques suitable for production through consumption of the bamboo shoots.

• To explore the mechanism for efficient dissemination of emerging techniques for

sustainable utilizations of bamboo shoots.

Focus also should be directed for plant and plant management, post harvest management, processing

and value addition, and by-product utilization of bamboo and bamboo shoot based products for

sustainable development of bamboo and bamboo-based products venture.

6.1. Sustainability of bamboo shoots:

Bamboo is an enormously sturdy plant that grows without the assistance of fertilizers, pesticides or

any chemicals and the shoots are naturally pest resistant. They need plenty of water and a well

drained system, to grow optimally. During the dry season, bamboo clumps lie dormant, and only

when it begins to rain that the shoot sprouts spread from their bases. The time for the first harvest of

shoots is about two and a half years after planting, if seedlings are used. In case of rooted node

cuttings used as planting material, the harvestable shoot is obtained within two years. The common

multiplication method for bamboo shoots is by rhizome sowing, culm cutting and seedling cultivation.

Bamboo does not require replanting after harvesting and the flexible and fibrous roots produce the

shoots so long as the energy supply of the plant is not fatigued and the plant does not die. However,

the size and weight of the new shoots depend considerably upon the location, depth and nutrition of

the soil, watering and drainage conditions, rainfall, temperature and soil fertility. Bamboo normally

prefers neutral to slightly acidic soil. Cold tolerance is a limiting factor in the growth of certain

bamboo shoot species. Apart from the application of fertilizers, cultivated shoots are generally

developed by earthing up the base of the plant with pig manure, which promotes rapid growth and

branching of the shoots, even making them less bitter. As soon as the tips appear, they are cut, while

still tender, sweet, and non-woody. If allowed to grow well above the surface, they lose their delicate
flavor.

An emblem of the bamboo plant is that, it flowers (called ‘gregarious bamboo flowering’) and dies

and then, it takes a long time for it to seed again. Not known definitely what triggers this incurable

flowering, but whenever a bamboo plant flowers, it is in a peril of dying and even an individual plant

that has suspended growth of its new shoots and foliages, for the ‘special’ production of flowers, may

die. The flowering of some bamboos is sporadic; others seem to be triggered by environmental

conditions such as drought or stress. But, when the bamboo flowers; famine, death and destruction

will soon follow.

6.4. Rat control

Bamboo flowering is followed by the enormous production of seeds/fruits, leading to the

overpopulation of rats and rodents that grow shelter in the grass-bushes and feed upon the protein-rich

seeds, known to affect fertility, causing higher reproduction. The growing rat populations after

grueling the existing store, tarnish the farmer’s granary, subsequently causing a famine. Rats also

pose serious health problems, bringing in bubonic plague, leptospirosis and other gastrointestinal

problems like cholera and typhoid.

Usual method adopted for rat control is through the use of ‘poisons’, like zinc phosphide. And at the

same time, the granaries should also be highly designed. However, the use of rat-proof containers is

also a good solution for controlling of rat populations. Pre and post-harvest control of rats can be

carried on in two different ways: through population control of rats and habitat management along

with good organization and continuous monitoring. Rats prefer overgrown and dense surroundings to

clean and free fields. Therefore, in order to control rats, it is necessary that a clean habitat be

maintained- the field should be properly sanitized, with weeds removed and plants grown at distances
apart. Synchronized planting with intercropping is desirable. There are various ways of scheming rat

population- by the use of fences made of sharp, barbed iron/steel wires, farming of plant trap crops

and use of poisonous fumigating chemicals. Sulphur fumes can be dumped into the rat holes to attack

the rat population. However, owls released into the respective fields area also gives a good rat control.

Tribal farmers in the North-Eastern India practice jhum - shifting cultivation method to fight rats.

6.3. Management of bamboo leaves

Bamboo leaves are rich in flavones and glycosides and the leaf paste and decoctions are used to treat

various infections and internal maladies. Culinary uses include making ‘ulanzi’- a sweet wine

prepared by fermenting bamboo leaves during the rainy season or a soft Chinese liquor- ‘Zhúyèqīng

jiǔ’. Bamboo leaves are also used as wrappers for zongzi, a steamed dumpling typical of southern

China, which usually contains glutinous rice and other ingredients. Bamboo leaves, stem and shoots

are foremost in energy production and bamboo energy being free from green house gasses and

radioactive emission, acts as a atmospheric pollution abater, producing 35% more oxygen than other

trees. One hectare of bamboo sequesters 62 tonnes of CO2 per year (Janssen, 1995). While the dry

and fallen leaves are used as bio-fuel, the green leaves are used as fodder. Leaves of Dendrocalamus

sp. are used as fodder for various animals, especially for ruminants in countries like India, Nepal,

Taiwan, Thailand and Vietnam etc., bamboo leaves are a good food source of the endangered Giant

Panda of China.

6.3. Quality control

Bamboo shoots, after harvest, are usually stored at normal temperature or under refrigeration at 8°C

and sold unpackaged into local markets, but processing of the same is seen to impact the quality

parameters of the end-product. The pre-condition for maintenance of the quality parameters of the
processed bamboo shoots have been studied by various scientists. In order to control the physical and

sensory qualities of the processed shoots, the shoots should be packed at low temperature to prevent

excessive moisture loss (Hua, 1987) and maintain a decreased respiration rate (< 4.08 mmol CO 2 kg-

1hour-1 at 20°C) (Liu, 1992). The respiration rate of P. pubescens was shown to increase initially, after

cutting, but gradually decreased during storage at 4°C (Lu & Xu, 2004). Effect of vacuum cooling

and hydro cooling followed by vacuum drying was studied; which was found to boost the shelf life

and protect the freshness value of the shoots (Cheng, 2006). Effect of fungicide on polythene film

packed bamboo shoots increased their shelf life to 62 days at 0°C (Wang & He, 1989). Discoloration

due to standing (Oshima, 1931) and microbial deterioration on post harvest storage of bamboo shoots

was shown by Liao (1989). Nutritional qualities of the processed shoots was considered; it was found

that, processing did not influence the non-protein nitrogen and crude fiber content of the bamboo

shoots and the carbohydrate content of the shoots was increased at processing (Kumbhare &

Bhargava, 2007). Various conditions for removal of HCN has been defined; mentioned that, the

optimum cooking conditions critical for the removal of initial HCN yield 97% removal at 98-102°C

for 148-180 minutes (Ferriera et al., 1995; Satya, Singhal, Prabhu, Bal & Sudhakar, 2009b). In order

to explore a bamboo shoot based processing unit, various bamboo shoot based products consumed

worldwide should be identified and attempts should be diverted towards the standardization of their

process technologies. Different quality control standards should be recommended by the WHO and

PFA, in order to control the quality standards of the bamboo shoot based food items.

6.4. HCN and bitterness in bamboo shoots

Cyanogenic glycosides are nitrogeneous phytoanticipins (Zagrobelny, Bak, Rassmusen & Jorgensen,

2004) and are used by various plants as effective defensive mechanism against predators (Thomsen &

Brimer, 1997; Jones, 1998; Francisco & Pinotti, 2000). A mechanism responsible for the formation of
HCN has been formulated by Miller & Conn (1980), and it has been found that in most of the species

it is the degradation of the cyanogenic glycosides (Conn, 1979) that produces HCN; and the enzyme

responsible for this are found out to be β-cyanoalanine synthase (EC 4.4.1.9)which is

found in a number of plant species (Blumenthal, Hendrickson, Abrol & Conn, 1968;

Floss, Hadwiger & Conn, 1965), apart from Rhodanese (thiosulphate-cyanide sulphur transferase EC

2.8.1.1) and Formamide hydrolyase (EC 4.2.1.66). The steps that catalyses the reaction through β-

cyanoalanine synthase is as below (Miller et al., 1980):

HSCH2CHNH2CO2H + HCN → NCCH2CHNH2CO2H + H2S

Cystein β-cyanoalanine

S2O32- + CN- - →SO32- + SCN-

HCN + H2O → HCONH2

Amount of HCN in bamboo shoots varies from 0.1 to 0.8% (Poulton, 1983; Tripathi, 1998;

Anonymous, 2004). Out of which, up to 0.16% of the total cyanide is contained in the tip, reducing to

0.01% in the base (Haque & Bradbury, 2002), with highest in leaves of young plants, but dropping

rapidly after pollination (Biehl, 1984). However, subsequent processing helps in fighting the cyanide

concentration, though incomplete cooking result in glycoside hydrolysis and higher release of HCN

(Towill, Drury, Whitefield, Lewis, Golyan, & Hammons, 1978) but the total amount of HCN in the

shoots can be eliminated/detoxified by boiling/cooking for two hours (Anonymous, 2004). Table 5

shows the HCN content of edible bamboo shoot species.

Cyanogenic glycosides were assessed by various authors and organizations (Simeonova & Fishbein,

2004; Gettler & Baine, 1938; Satya et al., 2009; NMBA,2009; JECFA, 1993; Speijers, 1993; FSANZ,

2004; ATSDR, 2006; EPA, 1990) and subsequent detoxification and potential toxicity of
cyanoglycosides resulting in acute cyanide poisoning in human, bird, fish, wildlife and livestock has

been documented (Conn, 1979a,b; Oke 1979, 1980; Ballantyne 1987; Wilson, 1983; Yamamoto,

Yamamoto, Hattori & Samori, 1982 etc). The intermediate degradation of cyanogenic glycosides and

their products – the cyanohydrins – was only addressed in some of the reviews and articles (WHO,

1993; EFSA 2004; Majak, 1992; Brimer and Rosling, 1993; Hernandez, Lundquist, Oliviera, Christia,

Rodriguez & Rosling, 1995). Functionally, taxiphyllin in presence of β-glucosidase

breaks down to form HCN and an aldehyde or ketone. The HCN, so formed,

inhibits cytochrome oxidase which then stops the oxidative phosphorylation and

utilization of intracellular oxygen ceases and there is a cardiac arrest in the human body (Conn,

1979).

Cyanide content, naturally, is reported to decrease substantially following harvesting (Nirmala, David

& Sharma, 2007). Different indigenous methods of reducing acidity/bitterness from fresh bamboo

shoots has been reported and some of them include chopping of tender shoots into small pieces,

partial drying of fresh shoots, boiling in water/salt water and draining or keeping shoots in hot water

for 10 - 15 minutes or in water for a week at ambient temperature, etc. Adi women of Arunachal

Pradesh used banana leaves for semi-fermentation of shoots and kept them pressed under stones near

water stream for 3 - 4 months to reduce bitterness (Bhardwaj, Singh, Wangchu and Sureja, 2005; Bal,

Naik and Satya, 2009). Similarly, Singh et al., (2007) reported unique traditional processing of

bamboo shoot fermentation to reduce the cyanide percentage. Ferreira, (1995) reported the optimum

cooking conditions that resulted in 97% reduction of HCN were 98 - 102 oC for 148 - 180 minutes.

Subsequently, Tripathi (1998) mentioned that HCN can be removed by steaming. Bhargava,

Kumbhare, Srivastava & Sahai, (1996) reported removal of the same during cooking by changing

water several times or by pre-soaking the shoots for a long time by subsequent changing in 2% salt

solution. Recently, Wongsakpairod (2000) reported that superheated steam drying removes HCN
from bamboo shoot as Taxiphyllin decomposes at around 116oC. However, homogentisic acid is also

responsible for the disagreeable pungent taste of shoot (Bhargava et al., 1996). Recently, Satya et al.,

(2009b) has reported cyanide content in four Indian bamboo species namely D. strictus, B. tulda, B.

vulgaris and B. balcoa.

6.6. Process upgradation for bamboo shoot processing

Different processing methods such as fermentation, roasting, boiling, blanching, canning, pickling etc.

have been reported as bamboo shoot are consumed in the form of fermented-sliced, crushed-

fermented moist, crushed-fermented dry, fermented whole shoot, roasted whole shoot and boiled

whole shoot etc. Major research work on this aspect has been carried out during the past 2-3 years

only (Kumbhare & Bhargava, 2007; Nirmala et al., 2008). These studies seem to be insufficient to

draw any significant conclusion, but certainly provide guidelines for in depth scientific work on this

important aspect of food quality.

In spite of the fact that, bamboo shoots have been an integral part of the diet of the tribal community,

scientific validation of traditional processing methods in terms of food quality and safety has not yet

been attempted. The integration of traditional processes with scientific validation would help in

developing a suitable system for storage and preservation of this perishable commodity also opening

up scopes for rural entrepreneurship. In addition, processing techniques to take care of the food safety

aspect would enhance the export potential of this wonderful product. Preservation methods such as

boiling, canning, drying, fermentation etc. have to be standardized for eliminating toxic content while

keeping the nutritional properties intact. In fact R&D work on developing suitable processing

methods for converting the non-edible species into edible ones would open up newer avenues for

tapping the huge potential of this natural product. In this context, efficacy of the discarded toxic

extract as bio-pesticide needs to be explored. The use of hybrid technologies, such as solar-assisted
heat pump dryer, solar dryer with thermal energy storage, microwave assisted drying may be more

cost effective to get the desired quality products.

R&D projects should be undertaken to develop a sustainable livelihood of farmers through the

utilization and application of this under-estimated natural resource. Farmers should be imparted

trainings on various planting techniques, soil fertility requirements, post-plantation care, pests and

diseases control and good harvesting and post harvesting practices. The concerned government along

with the co-operatives and NGOs should instigate extension activities and undertake efforts to devise

and support equipment and machineries for intensive cultivation and processing of the shoots, by

improving the local and traditional processing skills, thereby expanding an organized market for these

edibles and thus bringing in higher incentives to the local farmers and small-scale traders.

7. Conclusion

Bamboo shoots are amenable to simple processing technologies to produce high value added

products, but owing to lack of proper research, it is being unlikely to ensure ecological and economic

security of people through bamboo based food industry. Bamboo is a plant species that incorporates

several economic, ecological and social benefits in the day to day life of human beings. Therefore,

organized cultivation for bamboo shoot may be recommended. This requires the use of a different

package of practice which normally holds better management of soil, water and light conditions.

Modern food processing techniques are, however, likely to support newer avenues for the bamboo

shoot based food processing industry. Plantation of desirable and advantageous species have begun to

be established, the preferred species for such plantations being D. asper, B. balcooa and D.

hamiltonii. Standardized cultivation practices at various locations are being taken up at selected

institutions. Attempts may be diverted to involve the community in growing and processing of

bamboo shoots for producing bamboo shoot based value-added food products and thereby harmonize
the development of rural sector.

Acknowledgement:

The authors are thankful to the University Grants Commissions (UGC), New Delhi for providing

financial support to carry out the research work.

References:

Anonnymous (2004). Cyanogenic glycosides in cassava and bamboo shoots, a human health risk

assessment. Technical report series no. 28. Food Standards Australia New Zealand.

ATSDR (2006). Toxicological profile for cyanide. (http://www.atsdt.cde.gov/ toxprofiles/tp8.html).

Bal, L. M., Naik, S. N., & Satya, S. (2009). Scientific validation of indigenous knowledge system for

bamboo shoot processing and utilization. In: Abstract proceedings of national seminar on

bamboo plantation, management and its utilization, Jodhpur, IndiA. pp. 70.

Ballantyne, B. (1987) Toxicology of cyanides. In: Ballantyne B, Marrs TC, eds. Clinical and

experimental toxicology of cyanides. Wright, Bristol, IOP Publishing, 41–126.

Bamboo Development Agency (BDA) (http://mizobamboo.nic.in/mizpolicy.htm)

Bhardwaj, R., Singh, R. K., Wangchu, L., & Sureja, A. K. (2005). Bamboo shoots consumption:

traditional wisdom and cultural invasion. In: Proceeding of national conference on Arunachal

Pradesh: Tradition in transition, linking ecology, economics and ethics. NERIST, India.

Bhargava, A., Kumbhare, V., Srivastava, A., & Sahai, A. (1996). Bamboo parts and seeds for

additional source of nutrition. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 33(2), 145-146.

Bhatt, B.P., Singha, L.B., Singh, K., & Sachan, M.S. (2003). Some commercial edible bamboo

species of North East India: production, indigenous uses, cost-benefit and management

strategies, Science Culture , 17(1), pp. 4 -20.

Biehl, M., (1984). Cyanide toxicosis. Veterinary Professional Topics, University of Illinois, Urbana,

Cooperative Extension Service 10(3), 5-6

Blumenthal., S. G., Hr. Hendrickson., Abrol, Y.P., & Conn, E.E. (1968) Cyanide metabolism in

higher plants III. The biosynthesis of B-cyanoalanine. Journal of Biological Chemistry 243,

5302-5307

Brimer, L. & Rosling, H.A. (1993). Microdiffusion method with solid state detection for

determination of cyanogenic glycosides from cassava in human urine. Food and Chemical

Toxicology 31, 599-603.

Burkill, I. H. (1935). A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Crown Agents

for the Colonies, London, England.

Cahill, A. (1999). Field day to explore edible bamboo shoot market. News Release, Department of

Primary Industries Queensland.

Cheng, H.P., (2006) Vacuum cooling combined with hydrocooling and vacuum drying on bamboo

shoots. Applied Theermal Enginering, 26(17-18), 2168-2175.

Choudhury, D., Sahu, J.K., & Sharma, G. D. (2010) Bamboo Shoot Processing: Food Security and

Nutrition. In Proceedings of two-day national seminar on Sustainable Livelihood

Development through Fruits and Vegetable Processing in the North Eastern India, Assam

University, Silchar. 81 - 86.

Conn, E.E. (1979a). Cyanide and cyanogenic glycosides. In Rosenthal, G.A. & Janzen, D.H. (eds.),

Herbivores: Their interaction with secondary plant metabolites, Academic Press, Inc., New

York-London, 387-412.

Conn., E. E. (1979) Cyanogenic glycosides. In Neuberger, A. & Jukes, T. H., International Review of

Biochemistry, University Park Press, Baltimore, 27(2), 21-43

Conn., E. E. (1979b) Cyanogenic glycosides. In Neuberger, A., & Jukes, T. H., International review

of biochemistry In: Biochemistry and Nutrition, 1A, 27, University Park Press, Baltimore, 2l-

43.

Dewan, S. (2002) Microbiological evaluation of indigenous fermented milk products of the Sikkim
 Himalayas. Ph.D Thesis, North Bengal University, India.

Dransfield, S., & Widjaja, E.A. (1995). Plant resources of South-East Asia, Bamboos, No.7, Prosea

Foundation Boger, Indonesia.

Duke, J.A. & Atchley, A.A. (1986). CRC handbook of proximate analysis tables of higher plants,

CRC Press, Inc. Boca Raton, Florida.

EFSA (European Food Safety Authority), (2004). Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food

Additives, Flavourings, Processing Aids and Materials in Contract with Food (AFC) on

Hydrocyanic acid in Flavourings and other Food Ingredients with Flavouring Properties. The

EFSA Journal 105, 1-28.

EPA (1990). Summary Review of Health Effects Associated with Hydrogen Cyanide, Health Issue

Assessment Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Office of Health and Environment

Assessment, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency

Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA.

Ermans. A.M., Mbulamoko. N.M., Delange. F, & Ahluwalia. R., (1980) Role of cassava in the

etiology of endemic goitre and cretinism. Ottawa, Ontario, International Development

Research Centre, 182.

Ferreira, V.L.P., Moraes, M.A.C., de Mantovani, D.M.B. & Paschoalino, J.E. (1992). Chemical

composition, processing and evaluation of bamboo shoots. Coletanea de Instituto Tecnologia

de Alimentos 22, 177 – 193.

Ferreira, V.L.P., Yotsuyanagi, K. & Carvalho, C.R.L. (1995). Elimination of cyanogenic compounds

from bamboo shoots Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro. Tropical Science, 35, 342 - 346.

Floss, H. G., Hadwiger, L., & Conn, E. E. (1965) Enzymatic formation of B-cyanoalanine from

cyanide. Nature ,208, 1207-1208

Francisco , L . A . & Pinotti , M . H . P . ( 2000 ) Cyanogenic glycosides in plants . Brazilian

Archives of Biology and Technology , 43 , 487 – 492

Gettler. A.O. & Baine., J.O. (1938) The toxicity of cyanide. American Journal of Medical Sciences,

195, 182–198.

Haque, M.R., & Bradbury, J.H. (2002). Total cyanide determination of plants and foods using the

picrate and acid hydrolysis methods. Food Chemistry, 77, 107 – 114.

Hernández, T., Lundquist, P., Oliveira, L., Christiá, R.P., Rodriguez, E. & Rosling, H. (1995). Fate in

humans of dietary intake of cyanogenic glycosides from roots of sweet cassava consumed in

Cuba. Natural Toxins 3, 114-117.

Hore, D.K., (1998). Genetic resources among bamboos of northeastern India. Journal of Economic

Taxonomic Botany 22(1), 173-181.

http://www.bambusc.org.br/wp-content/gallery/WBC2009/WBCVIII-Vol_05.pdf

Hua, X., (1987). Bamboo shoot cultivation and management in Japan. Symposium on Bamboo

Professional Commission of Zhaihiang Forestry Society, 16.

Janssen, J. J.A. (1995). Building with bamboo (2nd ed.). Intermediate Technology Publication

Limited, London. 65

JECFA (1993) Cyanogenic glycosides. In: Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and

naturally occurring toxicants. Geneva, World Health Organization, 39th Meeting of the Joint

FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (WHO Food Additives Series 30).

Available at http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v30je18.htm.

Jeyaram, K., Talukdar, N.C., & Singh, M. R., (2005) Fermented bamboo shoot products of Manipur:

Documentation of Indigenous traditional knowledge, 2nd International Conf. on fermented

foods, Health Status and Well-beings, organized by Swedish South Asian Network on

Fermented Foods (SASNET).

Jones , D . A . ( 1998 ). Why are so many food plants cyanogenic? Phytochemistry, 47 , 155-162.

Kumbhare. V., & Bhargava. A., (2007) Effect of processing on nutritional value of central Indian

bamboo shoots. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 44(1), 29-31.

Lewis, D. (1996). Bamboo shoots: Delicious to eat, easy to sell. Washington Tilth. Autumn. 7-9.

Li, Q., Qiu, H., & Yang, Y. (2002). The developing situation and countern easure of freeze drying

food in China. Journal of Guangxi University (Natural Science Edition), 27, 21-24.

Liao, G.L., (1989). New packaging of fresh bamboo shoots. Bamboo Research. 1, 31–33.

Liu, M.S., (1992). Bamboo shoot. In: Hui, Y.H. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology,

Willey, New York, 3, 177–180.

Lu, S. M., & Xu, G. Y., (2004) Physiological and biochemical changes of fresh-cut bamboo shoot

(Phyllostachys heterocycla var pubescens) during cold storage. J of the Science of Food and

Nutrition, Willey InterScience 84, 772-776

Majak, W. (1992). Metabolism and absorption of toxic glycosides by ruminants. Journal of Range

Manage 45, 67-71.

Miller, J. M., & Conn, E. E. (1980) Metabolism of Hydrogen Cyanide in Higher Plants. Plant

Physiology, 65, 1199-1202.

Moller, B.L. & Seigler, D.S. (1999) Biosynthesis of cyanogenic glycosides, cyanolipids and related

compounds. In B.K. Singh (Ed.), Plant amino acids biochemistry and biotechnology, Marcel

Dekker. 563-609.

Muchtadi, T.R., & Adawiyah, D.R. (1996). Bamboo shoot drying technology. In P.M. Ganapathy,

J.A. Janssen, and C.B. Sastry (Eds.), Engineering and utilization (pp. 239 - 245). In I.V.R.

Rao, and C.B. Sastry (Eds.), Bamboo, people the environment, Vol. 3, INBAR Technical

report No. 8. Proceeding of the Vth international bamboo workshop and the IVth international

bamboo congress, 12 - 22 June 1995. Indonesia.

Nahrstedt, A.F (1993) Cyanogenesis and food plants. In: van Beek TA, Breteler H, eds. Proceedings

of the International Symposium on Phytochemistry and Agriculture, 22–24 April 1992,

Wageningen. Oxford, Oxford University Press, pp. 107– 129.

Nirmala, C., David, E., and Sharma, M.L. (2007). Changes in nutrient components during ageing of
 emerging juvenile bamboo shoots. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 58,

345 - 352.

Nirmala, C., Sharma, M.L., and David, E., (2008). A Comparative Study of Nutrient components of

freshly harvested, fermented and canned bamboo shoots of Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro,

Bamboo Science and Culture, The Journal of the American Bamboo Society, 21(1), 41- 47.

NMBA. (2009). Bamboo shoot composition. National Mission on Bamboo Application, India.

(http://www.bambootech.org/subsubTOP.asp?subsubid=89&subid=29&sname=USAGE)

Oke, O.L. (1979). Some aspects of the role of cyanogenic glycosides in nutrition. World Review on

Nutrition and Dietetics, 33, 70-103.

Oke, O.L. (1980). Toxicity of cyanogenic glycosides. Food Chemistry, 6, 97-109.

Oshima, J. (1931). The culture of Moso-bamboo in Japan. Part I. Journal of American Bamboo

Society. 1, 2–28.

Pan, C. (1995). Market opportunities for fresh and processed Asian vegetables. RIRDC Research

Paper No. 95/14. Canberra, Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, pp.117

Park, E., & Jhon, D., (2009). Effects of bamboo shoot consumption on lipid profiles and bowel

function in healthy young women. Nutrition, 25 (7 – 8), 723 - 728.

Phithakpol, B., Varanyanond,W., Reungmaneepaitoon, S.,Wood, H., (1995). The Traditional

Fermented Foods of Thailand. ASEAN Food Handling Bureau, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Poulton, J.E. (1983). Enzymology of cyanogenesis in Rosaceous stone fruits. In: Β-

glucosidases, biochemistry and molecular biology. Eds. A. Esen. ACS

Symposium Series 533: 170-190. American Chemical Society, Washington

D.C.

Puri, H.S. (2003). Rasayana ayurvedic herbs for longevity and rejuvenation. London: Taylor and

Francis. pp. 71–73.

RFRI. (2008). Bamboo as food and medicine. Report of Rain Forest Research Institute (RFRI).
 Jorhat, India. (www.icfre.gov.in/new/rfri/Bamboo_%20food_%20medicine_221206. pdf)

Sarangthem, K., Singh, T.N., (2003). Microbial bioconversion of metabolites from fermented

succulent bamboo shoots into phytosterols. Current Science 84 (12), 1544–1547.

Satya, S., Singhal, P., Prabhu, V. G., Bal, L. M., & Sudhakar, P. (2009b). Exploring the nutraceutical

potential and food safety aspect of bamboo shoot of some Indian species. VIII World.

Satya,S., Bal, L.M., Singhal, P., & Naik, S.N. (2009). Bamboo shoot processing: food quality and

safety aspect (a review), Trends in Food Science and Technology, in press

Sharma, O.P., (1989). Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Munro, the Himalayan miracle bamboo. In:

Trivedi,M.L., Gill, B.S., Saini, S.S. (Eds.), Plant Science Research in India. Today &

Tomorrow's Printers & Publishers, New Delhi, 189–195.

Sharma, T. K. and Borthakur, S. K., (2008) Indian J. Trad. Knowl. 7, 594–597.

Sharma, Y.M.L. (1987). Inventory and resources of bamboos, In: Recent Research on Bamboos, A.N.

Rao, G. Danarajan and C.B. Sastry (Eds), Chinese Academy of Forestry and International

Development Research Centre. pp. 14 - 27.

Sharma, Y.M.L., (1980). Bamboos in Asia Pacific Region In: Bamboo Research in Asia, G. Lessard

and A. Chouinard (Eds), World Publications, Singapore, pp.99-120

Simeonova. F.P. & Fishbein L. (2004) Hydrogen cyanide and cyanides: Human health aspects.

Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 61. Geneva: World Health

Organization.

Singh, A., Singh, R. K., & Sureja, A. K. (2007). Cultural significance and diversities of ethnic foods

of northeast India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 6(1), 79-94.

Speijers G. (1993) Cyanogenic glycosides. Food Additive Series No. 30. Geneva: JECFA

Sue, T. (1995). Bamboo shoots = good food. Temperate Bamboo Quarterly. II(1 – 2), 8 - 11.

Tai, K. Y. (1985). The management and utilization of shoot-producing bamboos in Taiwan.

[Chinese]. Quarterly Journal of Chinese Forestry, 18(2), 1- 46.

Tamang, J.P. (2005). Food culture of Sikkim. In Sikkim study series, Vol. IV. Gangtok, Department of

Information and Public Relations, Govt. of Sikkim.

Tamang, J.P., (2000). Traditional fermented foods and beverages of the Sikkim Himalayas in India:

indigenous process and product characterization. In: Director, Cftri (Eds.), The Proceedings of

the 1997 International Conference on Traditional Foods, March 6–8, 1997, CFTRI, Mysore,

pp. 99–116.

Tamang, J.P., (2001). Food culture in the Eastern Himalayas. Journal of Himalayan Research and

Cultural Foundation 5 (3–4), 107–118.

Tamang, J.P., Tamang, B., Schillinger, U., Franz, C.M.A.P., Gores, M., & Holzapfel, W.H., (2005).

Identification of predominant lactic acid bacteria isolated from traditional fermented vegetable

products of the Eastern Himalayas. International Journal of Food Microbiology 105 (3), 347–

356.

Thapa, N. (2002) Studies of microbial diversity associated with some fish products of the Eastern

Himalayas. Ph.D. Thesis, North Bengal University, India.

Thomsen , K . & Brimer , L . ( 1997 ) Cyanogenic constituents in woody plants in natural lowland

rainforest in Costa Rica . Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 124 , 273 – 294.

Towill, L.E., J.S. Drury, B.L. Whitefield, E.B. Lewis, E.L. Golyan, & A.S. Hammons. (1978).

Reviews of the Environmental Effects of Pollutants: V. Cyanides. 289-920.

Tripathi, Y. C. (1998). Food and nutrition potential of bamboo. MFP News, 8(1), 10-11.

Upreti, T.C. & Sundriyal, R.C. (2002). Bamboo and cane resources of Arunachal Pradesh: Utilization

pattern and implications for management, Bamboo Science and Culture, 15(1), 20 – 34.

Vaiphei, L.S., (2005) Bamboo's Economic Value to the North-East. The Day After, An International

Illustrated News Magazine of India.

Wang, K.H., & He, Y.F. (1989). Study on physiological characters of bamboo shoots in storage.

Journal of Zhejiang Forestry Science and Technology. 5, 19–25

WHO (1993). Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and natural occurring toxicants.

Report of the 39th meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Experts Committee on Food Additives

(JECFA). Food Additives Series 30, 299-337. World Health Organization, Geneva.

Wilson, J. (1983) Cyanide in human disease: A review of clinical and laboratory evidence.

Fundamental and Applied Toxicology, 3, 397–399.

Wongsakpairod, T. (2000). Bamboo shoot drying using superheated steam. MEng Thesis, King

Mongkut’s University of Technology, Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand.

Xia-Bo. (2006). Studies on Nutrient and Chemical Components of Shoots of Arundinaria oleosa.

Master’s thesis, Nanjing Forestry University, China.

Xu, Y., Zhang, M., Tu, D., Sun, J., Zhou, L., & Mujumdar, A. S. (2005). A two-stage convective air

and vacuum freeze drying technique for bamboo shoots. International Journal of Food

Science and Technology, 40(6), 589-595.

Yamamoto, K., Yamamoto. Y., Hattori. H., Samori. T. (1982) Effects of routes of administration on

the cyanide concentration distribution in the various organs of cyanide-intoxicated rats.

Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine, 137, 73–78.

Young, R.A. (1954). Flavor qualities of some edible oriential bamboos. Economic Botany. 8, 377 -

386.

Zagrobelny , M., Bak , S., Rassmusen , A . V . , & Jørgensen , B.( 2004 ) Cyanogenic glucosides and

plant – insect interactions . Phytochemistry, 65 , 293 – 306

List of Tables

Table 1 Chemical composition of some of the commonly edible bamboo shoot species
Table 2 Nutrient analysis of processed bamboo shoots

Table 3 Different fermented bamboo shoot products available in different countries

Table 4 Nutrient analysis of fermented bamboo shoots compared to fresh shoots of D. giganteu

Table 5 Hydrogen cyanine content of commonly edible bamboo shoot species

Table 1: Chemical compositions of some of the commonly edible bamboo shoot species (NMBA,

India)

Nutrients Bamboo species

B. B. M. D. D. D. B.
 balcoo polymorpha bambusoides strictus hamiltonii giganteu pallida

a s
Water (%) 91.65 91.65 91.22 85.98 92.37 91.19 92.29

Minerals 0.99 0.91 0.98 1.14 1.01 0.89 1.12

(%)
Phosphorus 30.99 15.06 14.28 58.13 27.76 12.57 32.27

(mg/100g)
Calcium 24.01 180.69 47.58 139.5 44.16 26.93 21.17

(mg/100g)
Iron 1.02 1.53 0.879 2.917 1.65 1.06 1.11

(mg/100g)
Hydrocyani 0.071 0.032 0.056 0.13 0.070 0.044 0.106

cacid (%)
Protein (%) 2.74 2.10 3.29 1.98 2.60 2.59 2.31
Niacin 1.40 2.60 6.70 2.10 2.60 6.40 1.40

(mg/100g)
Carbohydra 3.90 4.86 3.93 9.94 4.00 4.78 3.83

te (%)

Table 2 Nutrient analysis of processed bamboo shoots (Choudhury, Sahu & Sharma, 2010)

Constituents Quantity per 100g

Dietary fibers 1.5 g

Lignin 46 mg

Proteins

Animal protein

Plant Proteins 2145 mg

Amino acid
Essential amino acids 751 mg

Non-essential amino acids 1008 mg

Carbohydrates

Cellulose 0.85 g

Monosaccharide 307 mg

Polysaccharides 288 mg

Fatty acids

Saturated fatty acids 0.05 g

Monounsaturated fatty acids 0.007 g

Polyunsaturated fatty acids 0.12 g

Short chain fatty acids 0 mg

Long chain fatty acids 181 mg

Minerals and trace elements

Sodium 268 mg
Potassium
224 mg

Calcium 17 mg

Copper 243 µg

Iron 0.5 mg

Zinc 0.18 mg

Manganese 303 µg

Sulphur 19 µg

Others

Sodium Chloride 68 g

Uric acid 25 mg

Kcal 14

Biological value 58%

Table 3 Different fermented bamboo shoot products available in different countries

Country Items Reference

Indonesia Gulei rebung, Sayur ladeh Satya, Bal, Singhal, and Naik, 2009

Thailand Naw-mai-dong, naw-mai- Dhavises,1972; Phithakpol,

dorng Varanyanond, Reungmaneepaitoon,

Wood, 1995

Philippines Labong, Ginataang Labong, Satya et al., 2009

Dinengdeng na Labong

Nepal & Bhutan Mesu Tamang, 2000; Sharma, 1989

India Khorisa-tenga, Ushoi, Tamang, 2000; Sarangthem

Soibum, Soidon, Iromba, and Singh, 2003; Tamang,

Ekung, Hiring. 2005

Kardi, Amil, Hendua

 Table 4 Nutrient analysis of fermented bamboo shoots compared to fresh shoots of D. giganteu
(Nirmala et al., 2008)

Nutrients Fermented shoots Fresh shoots (g/100g)

(g/100g)

Dietary fibers

Cellulose 1.882 1.589

Lignin 1.398 0.560

Hemicelluloses 0.900 0.495

Proteins 2.170 3.108

Amino Acids 2.005 3.863

Carbohydrates 1.504 5.103

Starch 0.455 0.506

Fats 0.315 0.387

Minerals and Trace Elements

Sodium 3.620 8.220

Potassium 2.70 2.88

Calcium 3.644 6.802

Copper 0.420 0.560

Iron 2.122 2.433

Zinc 0.540 1.086

Manganese 0.340 0.342

Others

Vitamin C 1.090 3.280

5
Vitamin E 0.210 0.690

Ash 0.780 0.890

Moisture 88.83 90.70

37
Table 5 Hydrogen cyanine content of commonly edible bamboo shoot species (in mg/g)

Bamboo species

Region of

the shoot
D. hamiltonii B. pallida B. tulda B. M. bambusoides

balcooa
Tip 2.42 0.27 0.17 2.15 1.81
Middle 0.86 0.17 0.83 1.38 0.68

portion
Base 0.15 0.13 0.28 0.62 0.35

38