E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP = Horsepower

AC/DC Formulas
To Find Amps when Horsepower is Known Amps when Kilowatts is known Amps when kVA is known Kilowatts Kilovolt-Amps Horsepower (output) Direct Current AC / 1phase 115v or 120v AC / 1phase 208,230, or 240v AC 3 phase All Voltages

HP x 746 E x Eff kW x 1000 E

HP x 746 HP x 746 HP x 746 E x Eff X PF E x Eff x PF 1.73 x E x Eff x PF kW x 1000 kW x 1000 kW x 1000 E x PF E x PF 1.73 x E x PF kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000 kVA x 1000 E E 1.73 x E IxE I x E x PF I x E x PF I x E x 1.73 PF 1000 1000 1000 1000 IxE IxE I x E x 1.73 1000 1000 1000 I x E x Eff I x E x Eff x PF I x E x Eff x PF I x E x Eff x 1.73 x PF 746 746 746 746

Three Phase Values

For 208 volts x 1.732, use 360 For 230 volts x 1.732, use 398 For 240 volts x 1.732, use 416 For 440 volts x 1.732, use 762 For 460 volts x 1.732, use 797 For 480 Volts x 1.732, use 831 E = Voltage / I = Amps /W = Watts / PF = Power Factor / Eff = Efficiency / HP = Horsepower

AC Efficiency and Power Factor Formulas

To Find Efficiency Power Factor Single Phase 746 x HP E x I x PF Input Watts VxA Three Phase 746 x HP E x I x PF x 1.732 Input Watts E x I x 1.732

Power - DC Circuits

Watts = E xI Amps = W / E

Ohm's Law / Power Formulas

P = watts I = amps R = ohms E = Volts

Voltage Drop Formulas

Single Phase VD = (2 or 3 wire) CM= VD= Three Phase
2 x K x I x L K = ohms per mil foot CM 2K x L x I (Copper = 12.9 at 75) VD (Alum = 21.2 at 75) 1.73 x K x I x L Note: K value changes with temperature. See Code chapter 9, CM Table 8 L = Length of conductor in feet 1.73 x K x L x I VD I = Current in conductor (amperes) CM = Circular mil area of conductor

CM=

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2007, Electricians Toolbox Etc...

motor formulas:-

Calculating Motor Speed: A squirrel cage induction motor is a constant speed device. It cannot operate for any length of time at speeds below those shown on the nameplate without danger of burning out. To Calculate the speed of a induction motor, apply this formula: Srpm = 120 x F P Srpm = synchronous revolutions per minute. 120 = constant F = supply frequency (in cycles/sec) P = number of motor winding poles Example: What is the synchronous of a motor having 4 poles connected to a 60 hz power supply? Srpm = 120 x F P Srpm = 120 x 60 4 Srpm = 7200 4 Srpm = 1800 rpm

Calculating Braking Torque: Full-load motor torque is calculated to determine the required braking torque of a motor. To Determine braking torque of a motor, apply this formula: T = 5252 x HP rpm T = full-load motor torque (in lb-ft) 5252 = constant (33,000 divided by 3.14 x 2 = 5252) HP = motor horsepower rpm = speed of motor shaft Example: What is the braking torque of a 60 HP, 240V motor rotating at 1725 rpm? T = 5252 x HP rpm T = 5252 x 60

1725 T = 315,120 1725 T = 182.7 lb-ft

Calculating Work: Work is applying a force over a distance. Force is any cause that changes the position, motion, direction, or shape of an object. Work is done when a force overcomes a resistance. Resistance is any force that tends to hinder the movement of an object.If an applied force does not cause motion the no work is produced. To calculate the amount of work produced, apply this formula: W=FxD W = work (in lb-ft) F = force (in lb) D = distance (in ft) Example: How much work is required to carry a 25 lb bag of groceries vertically from street level to the 4th floor of a building 30' above street level? W=FxD W = 25 x 30 W = 750 -lb

Calculating Torque: Torque is the force that produces rotation. It causes an object to rotate. Torque consist of a force acting on distance. Torque, like work, is measured is pound-feet (lb-ft). However, torque, unlike work, may exist even though no movement occurs. To calculate torque, apply this formula: T=FxD T = torque (in lb-ft) F = force (in lb) D = distance (in ft) Example: What is the torque produced by a 60 lb force pushing on a 3' lever arm?

T=FxD T = 60 x 3 T = 180 lb ft

Calculating Full-load Torque: Full-load torque is the torque to produce the rated power at full speed of the motor. The amount of torque a motor produces at rated power and full speed can be found by using a horsepower-to-torque conversion chart. When using the conversion chart, place a straight edge along the two known quantities and read the unknown quantity on the third line. To calculate motor full-load torque, apply this formula: T = HP x 5252 rpm T = torque (in lb-ft) HP = horsepower 5252 = constant rpm = revolutions per minute Example: What is the FLT (Full-load torque) of a 30HP motor operating at 1725 rpm? T = HP x 5252 rpm T = 30 x 5252 1725 T = 157,560 1725 T = 91.34 lb-ft

Calculating Horsepower: Electrical power is rated in horsepower or watts. A horsepower is a unit of power equal to 746 watts or 33,0000 lb-ft per minute (550 lb-ft per second). A watt is a unit of measure equal to the power produced by a current of 1 amp across the potential difference of 1 volt. It is 1/746 of 1 horsepower. The watt is the base unit of electrical power. Motor power is rated in horsepower and watts. Horsepower is used to measure the energy produced by an electric motor while doing work. To calculate the horsepower of a motor when current and efficiency, and voltage are known, apply this formula:

HP = V x I x Eff 746 HP = horsepower V = voltage I = curent (amps) Eff. = efficiency Example: What is the horsepower of a 230v motor pulling 4 amps and having 82% efficiency? HP = V x I x Eff 746 HP = 230 x 4 x .82 746 HP = 754.4 746 HP = 1 Hp Eff = efficiency / HP = horsepower / V = volts / A = amps / PF = power factor Horsepower Formulas Example To Find Use Formula Given Find Solution HP = 240V x 20A x 85% HP = I X E X Eff. HP 240V, 20A, 85% Eff. HP 746 746 HP=5.5 I = 10HP x 746 I = HP x 746 10HP, 240V, I I 240V x 90% x 88% E X Eff x PF 90% Eff., 88% PF I = 39 A To calculate the horsepower of a motor when the speed and torque are known, apply this formula: HP = rpm x T(torque) 5252(constant) Example: What is the horsepower of a 1725 rpm motor with a FLT 3.1 lb-ft? HP = rpm x T 5252 HP = 1725 x 3.1 5252 HP = 5347.5

5252 HP = 1 hp

Calculating Synchronous Speed: AC motors are considered constant speed motors. This is because the synchronous speed of an induction motor is based on the supply frequency and the number of poles in the motor winding. Motor are designed for 60 hz use have synchronous speeds of 3600, 1800, 1200, 900, 720, 600, 514, and 450 rpm. To calculate synchronous speed of an induction motor, apply this formula: rpmsyn = 120 x f Np rpmsyn = synchronous speed (in rpm) f = supply frequency in (cycles/sec) Np = number of motor poles Example: What is the synchronous speed of a four pole motor operating at 50 hz.? rpmsyn = 120 x f Np rpmsyn = 120 x 50 4 rpmsyn = 6000 4 rpmsyn = 1500 rpm

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Transformer formulasL: To better understand the following formulas review the rule of transposition in equations. A multiplier may be removed from one side of an equation by making it a division on the other side, or a division may be removed from one side of an equation by making it a multiplier on the other side.

1. Voltage and Current: Primary (p) secondary (s)

Power(p) = power (s) or Ep x Ip = Es x Is

A. Ep = Es x Is B. Ip = Es x Is

Ip C. Is =

Ep

Ep x Ip Ep x Ip D. Es = Es Is

2.

Voltage and Turns in Coil:

Voltage (p) x Turns (s) = Voltage (s) x Turns (p) or Ep x Ts = Es x Ip

A. Ep = C. Tp =

Es x Ip Es x Tp B. Ts = Ts Ep Ep x Ts Ep x Ts D. Es = Es Tp

3. Amperes and Turns in Coil:

Amperes (p) x Turns (p) = Amperes (s) x Turns (s) or Ip x Tp = Is x Ts

A. Ip = C. Ts =

Is x Ts Is x Ts B. Tp = Tp Ip Ip x Tp Ip x Tp D. Is = Is Ts

For more Transformer Information Check out Useful Information.

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Here is a list of basic definitions , but some can be easily misconstrued. Accent Lighting Cold Cathode Lamps Hot Cathode Lamps Mercury Lamps Ambient Temperature Cove Lighting Illumination Metal Halide Lamps Andonizing Diffuser Incandescent FilamentReflector Asymmetric Foot-candle Infrared Lamp Refractor Ballast Footlambert Kilowatt Hour Symmetric Candlepower H.I.D. Lamps Louver Troffer Coefficient of High Pressure Sodium Lumen Tungsten-Halogen

Utilization

Definitions (in alphabetical order):

Accent Lighting - Directional lighting to emphasize a particular object or draw attention to a part of the field of view. Ambient Temperature - Temperature surrounding a lamp, luminaire,etc. Andonizing - Any electrolytic or chemical process by which a protective or decorative film is released on a metal surface. Asymmetric - Unequal distribution about one or more axes. Ballast - An auxiliary electrical device for fluorescent and other discharge light sources. Candlepower (or Candela) - Basic unit for measuring luminous intensity from a light source in a given direction. Coefficient of Utilization - The amount of light (lumens) delivered in a workplane as a percent of the rated lumens of the lamp.

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Cold Cathode Lamp - An electric-discharge lamp whose mode of operation is that of a glow discharge (Neon Lights). Cove Lighting - Distributes light over the ceiling and upper wall. Diffuser - A device to redirect or scatter the light from a source. Footcandle (fc) - The unit of illumination when the foot is taken as the unit of length. It is the illumination on a surface one square foot in area on which there is a uniformly distributed flux of one lumen. Footlambert (fl) - A unit of luminance (photometric brightness) equal to one candela per square foot. High Intensity Discharge Lamps (H.I.D.) - A general group of lamps consisting of mercury, metal halide, high pressure sodium, and low pressure sodium lamps. High-pressure Sodium Lamps - A sodium vapor in which the partial pressure of the vapor during operation is the order of 0.1 atmospheres.

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Hot Cathode Lamp - An electrical discharge lamp whose mode of operation is that of an arc discharge. Illumination - The density of the light flow incident on a surface. Infrared Lamp - An electrical device that emits infrared rays - invisible rays just beyond red in the visible spectrum. Incandescent Filament Lamp - A lamp in which light is produced by a filament heated to incandescence by an electrical current. Kilowatt Hour (KWH) - The work performed by one kilowatt of electric power in one hour. The unit on which the price of electrical energy is based. Louver - A series of baffles used to shield a source from view at certain angles or to absorb unwanted light. Lumen - The derived SI unit for luminous flux; unit measure of light.

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Mercury Lamps - An electric discharge lamp in which the major portion of the radiation is produced by the excitation of mercury atoms. Metal Halide Lamps - A discharge lamp in which the light is produced by the radiation from the mixture of metallic vapor and the products of disassociation. Reflector - A device used to redirect the light flow from a source by bouncing it off the surface. Refractor - A device used to redirect the light flow from a source, primarily by bending the wave light. Symmetric - Equal distribution about one or more axes. Troffer - A recessed lighting unit, installed with the opening flush with the ceiling. Tungsten-Halogen Lamp - A gas filled tungsten incandescent lamp containing proportion of halogens.

Here is a list of basic definitions , but some can be easily misconstrued.

Accessible Grounded Listed Service Drop

Ambient Temperature Bonding Jumper Continuos Load Demand Factor Dustproof Dusttight Duty Explosionproof Feeder Ground

Grounded, Effectively Grounded Conductor Grounding Conductor Grounding, Equipment Grounding Electrode Ground-Fault Interrupter Ground-Fault Protection In Sight From Interrupting Rating Labeled

Location Noninductive Circuit Nonlinear Load Overcurrent Overload Panelboard Plenum Rainproof Raintight Separately Derived System

Service Conductors Service-Entrance Service Equipment Service Lateral Service Point Switchboard Switch Voltage Drop Watertight Weatherproof

Added: ammeter ampacity ampere continuity megger megaohm megohmmeter ohm ohmmeter

Definitions:(in alphabetical order)

Accessible - (As applied to wiring methods) Capable of being removed or exposed without damaging the building structure or finish, or not permanently closed in by the structure or finish of the building. Accessible - (as applied to equipment) Admitting close approach: not guarded by locked doors, elevation, or other effective means. (see Accessible, Readily) Accessible, Readily - (Readily Accessible) Capable of being reached quickly for operation, renewal, or inspections, without requiring those to whom ready access is requisite to climb over or remove obstacles or to resort to portable ladders,chairs,etc. Ambient Temperature - The temperature of the air, water, or surrounding earth. Conductor ampacity is corrected for changes in ambient temperature including temperatures below 86F. The cooling effect can increase the current carrying capacity of the conductor. (Review Section 310-10 of the Electrical Code for more understanding) Ammeter - An electric meter used to measure current, calibrated in amperes. Ampacity - The current-carrying capacity of conductors or equipment, expressed in amperes. Ampere - The basic SI unit measuring the quantity of electricity. Bonding Jumper - A bare or insulated conductor used to ensure the required electrical conductivity between metal parts required to be electrically connected. Frequently used from a bonding bushing to the service equipment enclosure to provide a path around concentric knockouts in an enclosure wall: also used to bond one raceway to another.

Continuity - The state of being whole, unbroken. Continuos Load - A load where the maximum current is expected to continue for three hours or more. Rating of the branch circuit protection device shall not be less tan 125% of the continuos load. Demand Factor - For an electrical system or feeder circuit, this is a ratio of the amount of connected load (in kva or amperes) that will be operating at the same time to the total amount of connected load on the circuit. An 80% demand factor, for instance, indicates that only 80% of the connected load on a circuit will ever be operating at the same time. Conductor capacity can be based on that amount of load. Dustproof - Constructed or protected so that dust will not interfere with its successful operation. Dusttight - Constructed so that dust will not enter the enclosing case under specified test conditions. Duty, continuos - A service requirement that demands operation at a substantially constant load for an indefinitely long time. Duty, intermittent - A service requirement that demands operation for alternate intervals of load and no load, load and rest, or load, no load, and rest. Duty, periodic - A type of intermittent duty in which the load conditions regularly reoccur. Duty, short time - A requirement of service that demands operations at a substantially constant load for a short and definitely specified time. Duty, varying - A requirement of of service that demands operation at loads, and for intervals of time, both of which may be subject to wide variation. Explosionproof - Designed and constructed to withstand and internal explosion without creating an external explosion or fire. Feeder - A circuit, such as conductors in conduit or a busway run, which carries a large block of power from the service equipment to a sub-feeder panel or a branch circuit panel or to some point at which the block power is broken into smaller circuits. Ground - A large conducting body (as the earth) used as a common return for an electric circuit and as an arbitrary zero of potential.

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Grounded, effectively - Intentionally connected to earth through a ground connection or connections of sufficiently low impedance and having sufficient current-carrying capacity to prevent the buildup of voltages that may result in undue hazards to connect equipment or to persons. Grounded Conductor - A system or circuit conductor that is intentionally grounded, usually gray or white in color. Grounding Conductor - A conductor used to connect metal equipment enclosures and/or the system grounded conductor to a grounding electrode, such as the ground wire run to the water pipe at a service; also may be a bare or insulated conductor used to ground motor frames, panel boxes, and other metal equipment enclosures used throughout electrical systems. In most conduit systems, the conduit is used as the ground conductor. Grounding Equipment Conductor - The conductor used to connect the noncurrentcarrying metal parts of equipment, raceways, and other enclosures to the system grounded conductor, the grounding electrode conductor, or both, of the circuit at the service equipment or at the source of a separately derived system. Grounding Electrode - The conductor used to connect the grounding electrode to the equipment grounding conductor, to the grounded conductor, or to both, of the circuit at the service equipment or at the source of a separately derived system. Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter - A device intended for the protection of personal that functions to de-energize a circuit or portion thereof within an established period of time when a current to ground exceeds some predetermined value that is less than required to operate the overcurrent protection device of the supply circuit. Ground Fault Protection of Equipment - A system intended to provide protection of equipment from damaging line to ground fault currents by operating to cause a disconnecting means to open all ungrounded conductors of the faulted circuit. This protection is provided at current levels less than those required to protect conductors from damage through the operations of a supply circuit overcurrent device. In Sight From - (within sight from, within sight) Where this Code specifies that one equipment shall be "in sight from", "within sight from" or m"within sight", etc. of another equipment, the specified equipment is to be visible and not more that 50 distant from the other Interrupter Rating - The highest current at rated voltage that a device is intended to interrupt under standard test conditions. Labeled - Items to which a label, trademark, or other identifying mark of nationally recognized testing labs has been attached to indentify the items as having been tested and meeting appropriate standards.

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Listed - Equipment or materials included in a list published by an organization acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction and concerned with product evaluation, that maintains periodic inspection of production of listed equipment or materials, and whose listing states either that the equipment or material meets appropriate designated standards or has been tested and found suitable for use in specified manner. Location, damp - A location subject to moderate amount of moisture such as some basements, barns, cold storage, warehouse and the like. Location, dry - A location not normally subject to dampness or wetness: a location classified as dry may be temporarily subject to dampness or wetness, as in case of a building under construction. Location, wet - A location subject to saturation with water or other liquids. Megger - A test instrument fpr measuring the insulation resistance of conductors and other electrical equipment; specifically, a megaohm (million ohms) meter; this is a regiestered trade mark of the James Biddle Co. Megaohm - A unit of electrical resistamce equal to one million ohms. Megaohmmeter - An instrument for measuring extremely high resistance. Noninductive Circuit - A circuit in which the magnetic effect of the current flowing has been reduced by one several methods to a minimum or to zero. Nonlinear Load - A load where the wave shape of the steady state current does not follow the wave shape of the applied voltage. Ohm - The derived SI unit for electrical resistance or impedance; one ohm equals one volt per am-pere. Ohmmeter - an instrument for measuring resistance in ohms. Take a look at this diagram to see how an ohmeter is used to check a small control transformer. The ohmmeter's pointer deflection is controlled by the amount of battery current passing through the moving coil. Before measuring the resistance of an unknown resistor or electrical circuit, the ohmmeter must first be calibrated. If the value of resistance to be measured can be estimated within reasonable limits, a range selected that will give approximately halfscale deflection when the resistance is inserted between the probes. If the resistance is unknown, the selector switch is set on the highest scale. Whatever range is selected, the meter must be calibrated to read zero before the unknown resistance is measured.

Overcurrent - Any current in excess of the rated current of equipment or the ampacity of a conductor. It may result from overload, short circuit or ground fault. Overload - Load greater than the load for which the system or mechanism was intended. A fault, such as a short circuit or ground fault, is not an overload. Panelboard - A single panel or group of panel units designed for assembly in the form of a single panel: includes buses and may come with or without switches and/or automatic overcurrent protective devices for the control of light, heat, or power circuits of individual as well as aggregate capacity. It is designed to be placed in a cabinet or cutout box that is in or against a wall or partition and is accessible only from the front. Plenum - Chamber or space forming a part of an air conditioning system Rainproof - So constructed, projected, or treated as to prevent rain from interfering with the successful operation of the apparatus under specified test conditions. Raintight - So constructed or protected that exposure to a beating rain will not result in the entrance of water. Separately Derived System - A premises wiring system whose power is derived from a battery, a solar photovoltaic system, or from a generator, transformer, or converter windings, and that has no direct electrical connection, including solidly connected grounded circuit conductor, to supply conductors originating in another system.

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Service Drop - Run of cables from the power company's aerial power lines to the point of connection to a customer's premises. Service Conductors - The supply conductors that extend from the street main or transformers to the service equipment of the premises being supplied Service Entrance Conductors - (Overhead) The service conductors between the terminals of the service equipment and a point usually outside the building, clear of building walls, where joined by tap or splice to the service drop. Service Entrance Conductors - (Underground) The service conductors between the terminals of the service equipment and the point of connection to the service lateral. Service Equipment - The necessary equipment, usually consisting of a circuit breaker or switch and fuses and their accessories, located near the point entrance of supply conductors to a building and intended to constitute the main control and cutoff means for the supply to the building.

Service Lateral - The underground service conductors between the street main, including any risers at a pole or other structure or from transformers, and the first point of connection to the service-entrance conductors in a terminal box, meter, or other enclosure with adequate space, inside or outside the building wall. Where there is no terminal box, meter, or other enclosure with adequate space, the point of connection is the entrance point of the service conductors into the building. Service Point - The point of connection between the facilities of the serving utility and the premises wiring. Switchboard - A large single panel, frame, or assembly of panels having switches, overcurrent, and other protective devices, buses, and usually instruments mounted on the face or back or both. Switchboards are generally accessible from the rear and from the front and are not intended to be installed in cabinets. Switch, general use - A switch intended for use in general distribution and branch circuits. It is rated in amperes and is capable of interrupting its rated voltage. Switch, general-use snap - A type of general-use switch so constructed that it can be installed in flush device boxes or on outlet covers, or otherwise used in conjunction with wiring systems recognized by the National Electric Code. Switch, isolating - A switch intended for isolating an electrical circuit from the source of power. It has no interrupting rating and is intended to be operated only after the circuit has been opened by some other means. Switch, knife - A switch in which the circuit is closed by a moving blade engaging contact clips. Switch, motor-circuit - A switch, rated in horsepower, capable of interrupting the maximum operating overload current of a motor of the same horsepower rating as the switch at the rated voltage. Switch, transfer - A transfer switch is an automatic or nonautomatic device for transferring one or more load conductor connections from one power source to another. Switch-Leg - That part of a circuit run from a lighting outlet box where a luminaire or lampholder is installed down to an outlet box that contains the wall switch that turns the light or other load on or off: it is a control leg of the branch circuit. Voltage Drop - The loss of voltage between the input to a device and the output from a device due to the internal impedance or resistance of the device. In all electrical systems, the conductors should be sized so that the voltage drop never exceeds 3% for power, heating, and lighting loads or combinations of these. Furthermore, the maximum total voltage drop for conductors for feeders and branch circuits combined should never exceed 5%.

Watertight - So constructed that water/moisture will not enter the enclosure under specified test conditions. Weatherproof - So constructed or protected that exposure to the weather will not interfere with successful operation. Here is a list of Motor Characteristics Direct-Current Motors Shunt-Wound Motors Series-Wound DC Motors Compound-Wound Motors Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors Wound Rotor Induction Motors Single Phase Induction Motor Synchronous Motors

Motor Characteristics:
Direct-Current Motors - DC motors are divided into three classes, designated according to the method of connecting the armature and the field windings as shunt-series and compound wound. Shunt-Wound Motors - This type of motor runs practically constant speed, regardless of the load. It is the type generally used in commercial practice and is usually recommended where starting conditions are not usually severs. Speed of the shunt-wound motors may be regulated in two ways: first, by inserting resistance in series with the armature, thus decreasing speed: and second, by inserting resistance in the field circuit, the speed will vary with each change in load: in the latter, the speeds is practically constant for any setting of the controller. This latter is the most generally used for adjustable-speed service, as in the case of machine tools. Series-Wound DC Motors - This type of motor speed varies automatically with the load, increasing as the load decreases. Use of series motor is generally limited to case where a heavy power demand is necessary to bring the machine up to speed, as in the case of certain elevator and hoist installations, for steelcars, etc. Series-wound motors should never be used where the motor cab be started without load, since they will race to a dangerous degree. Compound-Wound DC Motors - A combination of the shunt wound and series wound types combines the characteristics of both. Characteristics may be varied by varying the combination of the two windings. These motors are generally used where severe starting conditions are met and constant speed is required at the same time.

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Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors - The most simple and reliable of all electric motors. Essentially a constant speed machine, which is adaptable for users under all but the most severe starting conditions. Requires little attention as there are no commutator or slip rings, yet operates with good efficiency. Wound-Rotor (Slip Ring) Induction motor - Used for constant speed-service requiring a heavier starting torque than is obtainable with squirrel cage type. Because of its lower starting current, this type is frequently used instead of the squirrel-cage type in larger sizes. These motors are also used for varying-speed-service. Speed varies with this load, so that they should not be used where constant speed at each adjustment is required, as for machine tools. Single Phase Induction Motors - This motor is used mostly in small sizes, where polyphase current is not available. Characteristics are not as good as the polyphase motor and for size larger that 10 HP, the line disturbance is likely to be objectionable. These motors are commonly used for light starting and for running loads up to 1/3 HP Capacitor and repulsion types provide greater torque and are built in sizes up to 10 HP. Synchronous Motors - Run at constant speed fixed by frequency of the system. Require direct current for excitation and have low starting torque. For large motor-generators sets, frequency changes, air compressors and similar apparatus which permits starting under a light load, for which they are generally used. These motors are used with considerable advantage, particularly on large power systems, because of their inherent ability to improve the power factor of the system.