Surface Production Operations

1
Surface Production Operations
Hassan Hassanzadeh
EN B204M
hhassanz@ucalgary.ca
Flow in Wellbores and
Gathering Systems
Learning objectives
Perform fluid flow calculations in pipes and
2
Perform fluid flow calculations in pipes and
wellbores
Line sizing for oil and gas pipelines
Two-phase flow calculations
Single-Phase Liquid Flow
1. Single-phase liquid flow exists in an oil well only when the
wellhead pressure is above the bubble-point pressure!
2. Water disposal or production wells

+ + = =
D g
L u f
u
g
z
g
g
p p p
c
F
c c
2
2
2 1
2
2
1

P = pressure drop, lb /ft

2
2
3

P = pressure drop, lb
f
/ft
2
p
1
= pressure at point 1, lb
f
/ft
2
p
2
= pressure at point 2, lb
f
/ft
2
g = gravitational acceleration, 32.17 ft/s
2
g
c
= unit conversion factor, 32.17 lbm-ft/lb
f
-s
2
= fluid density lb
m
/ft
3
z = elevation increase, ft
u = fluid velocity, ft/s
f
M
=Moody friction factor
f
F
= Fanning friction factor (f
M
=4f
F
)
L = tubing length, ft
D = tubing inner diameter, ft
z
1

Lcos=z
Single-Phase Liquid Flow (cont.)
L
DA g
q f
g
g
p p p
c
M
c

+ = =
2
2
2 1
2
cos


L
D g
u f
g
g
p p p
c
M
c

+ = =
2
cos
2
2 1

which can be written in flow rate as
where
q = liquid flow rate, ft
3
/sec
A = inner cross-sectional area, ft
2
4
A = inner cross-sectional area, ft
when changed to U.S. field units, becomes
5
2
5
2 1
10 15 . 1 cos 433 . 0
d
L q f
L p p p
o M
o

+ = =
where
p
1
= inlet pressure, psi
p
2
= outlet pressure, psi

o
= oil specific gravity, water = 1.0
q = oil flow rate, bbl/day
d = pipe inner diameter, in.
f
M
=Moody friction factor
0.433=62.4/144
1.15x10
-5
=(5.615/24/3600)
2
x
62.4/(2x32.17)x12
5
/144
q = fluid flow rate, bbl/day
= fluid density lb
m
/ft
3
d = tubing inner diameter, in.

Single-Phase Liquid Flow (cont.)

d
q
N

48 . 1
Re
=
The Fanning friction factor ( f
F
) can be evaluated based on Reynolds
number and relative roughness.
Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial force to viscous force.
5
For turbulent flow where N
Re
> 2,100, the Fanning friction factor can be estimated
using empirical correlations such as following one:
d = tubing inner diameter, in.
= fluid viscosity, cp
d
Re
16
N
f
F
=
d / =
For laminar flow where N
Re
< 2,000, the Fanning friction factor Fanning friction factor is inversely
proportional to the Reynolds number, i.e.:
Chens (1979) correlation
where

|
|

\
|
+ =
8981 . 0
Re
1098 . 1
Re
149 . 7
8257 . 2
log
0452 . 5
7065 . 3
log 4
1
N N
f
F

is the absolute relative pipe roughness
1.48=(1000/62.4)(1/39.37)/(24*3600*6.2898)/(/4)/(1/39.37)
2
/0.001
DarcyWiesbach friction factor
6
DarcyWeisbach friction factor is 4 times larger than the Fanning friction factor, so
attention must be paid to recognize which one of these is meant in any "friction
factor chart or equation being used.
Allowable working pressure for
pipes
It is desirable to operate a pipe at a high pressure in order to achieve higher
throughputs. This is, however, limited by the maximum stress the pipe can
handle. The maximum allowable working pressure is given by (ANSI, 1976)
( )
( )Y c t d
SE c t
P

=
2
2
0
max
7
( )Y c t d 2
0
t = pipe thickness, in.
c = sum of mechanical allowances, corrosion, erosion
S = allowable stress (minimum yield strength for the pipe material)
E = longitudinal weld joint factor (equal to 1 for seamless and 0.8 for
fusion-welded, spiral-welded, and 0.6 for butt-welded)
Y= Temperature de-rating factor, 0.4 up to 900 F, 0.5 for 950 F, and 0.7
for 1000 F.
d
0
= pipe outer diameter, in.
Allowable flow velocity in pipes

C
v
e
=
High velocities in pipes can cause pipe erosion problems, especially for gases
that may have a flow velocity exceeding 70 ft/sec. The velocity at which
erosion begins to occur is dependent upon the presence of solid particles and
their shape. The following equation can be used as a simple approach:
Where
8
ZRT p
C
ZRT pM
C
v
g
e
/ 97 . 28 /
= =
Where
v
e
= erosional velocity, ft/sec
= fluid density, lb/ft
3
C = a constant ranging between 75 and 150, in most cases C is taken to be 100
( )
5 . 0
2
435 . 1012

=
ZT
p
d q
g
sc e

where (q
e
)
sc
is in MSCFD, d is in inches, p is in psia, and T is in R
Recalling gas density relation:
Equivalent diameter and Reynolds number
in field units for flow of gases in pipes

vD
N =
Re

= =
perimeter wetted
flow of area
4 4
h e
R d
For cross-sections other than circular, an equivalent diameter, d
e
, defined as four
times of the hydraulic radius, R
h
, is used instead of d
For a flow conduit with a square cross-section (axa): d
e
=a
For flow through a casing-tubing annulus: d =d -d
9

perimeter wetted
For flow through a casing-tubing annulus: d
e
=d
ci
-d
to
(note that 1cp = 6.7197x10
-4
lbmass/ft-sec)
In field units, flow rat is commonly expressed in MSCFD, p in psia, T in
o
R, viscosity in
cp.
[ ] [ ]
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )( ) d
q
T
p
d
q
T
p
cp
d
d
q
cp
d
d
B q
vd
N
sc g
sc
sc
sc g
sc
sc
sc
g
gsc
g
g sc
g

39 . 710
732 . 10 3600 24 12 1000
144 4 97 . 28 1488
10 7197 . 6
12
12 4
3600 24
1000
10 7197 . 6
12
12 4
3600 24
1000
4
2
4
2
Re
=

=

|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|

=

|

\
|
|
|
|
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
|

\
|

= =

Horizontal gas flow in pipes

=
D g
u f
dl
dp
c
F
2
2
Assuming horizontal, steady-state, adiabatic, and isothermal flow of gas with
negligible kinetic energy change
Substituting for = pM/ZRT and
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
2
4
D pT
ZTp
q u
sc
sc
sc

10

=
|
|

\
|
|

\
|

= dl
D g RT
MTp f q
dp
Z
p
D T p
p T Z q
ZRT
pM
D g
f
dl
dp
c sc
sc F sc
sc
sc sc
c
F
5 2 2
2 2
4 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
32 16 2

Here, we assumed T is constant (isothermal flow). Otherwise, an average
temperature is commonly used instead of T. Two types of averages used are
arithmetic average T
av
=(T
1
+T
2
)/2 and the log-mean temperature given by:
( )
2 1
2 1
/ ln T T
T T
T
av

=
Horizontal gas flow in pipes (cont.)
( ) ( ) [ ]
( )( )( ) ( ) ( )
TL Z f
d p p
p
T
q
sc
sc

5 2
1
2
2
2
2
5
2
2
187.8576
144 12 / 1 17 . 32 732 . 10
24 3600 / 1000

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
( ) ( )( ) ( )
TL Z f
D p p
p
g RT
q
D
TL Z f q
g RT
p p p
av g F sc
c sc
sc
av g F sc
c sc
sc

5 2
2
2
1
2
2
2
5
2
2 2
2 2
1
2
2
187.8576
97 . 28 32
2

|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=

Assuming an average gas compressibility factor and integrating gives:

Any consistent system of units can be used.
When g
c
= 32.17 lb-ft/ lb
f
-sec
2
, q
sc
in MSCFD, p in psia, T in
o
R, d in inches,
L in ft, and R = 10.732 psia ft
3
/lbmole, the equation becomes:
11
( ) ( ) [ ]
TL Z f p
av g F sc
sc

2
187.8576
|

\
|

\
( )
( )
TL Z f
d p p
p
T
q
TL Z f
d p p
p
T
q
av g sc
sc
sc
av g F sc
sc
sc

5 2
2
2
1
5 2
2
2
1
634 . 5
2.8177

|
|

\
|
=

|
|

\
|
=
Thus
This equation is called Weymouth Equation Weymouth Equation, is the general equation for
steady-state isothermal flow of gas through a horizontal pipe.
Note that f
F
is Fanning friction factor
Note that f is Moody friction factor
( )
TL Z f
d p p
p
T
q
av g sc
sc
sc

5 2
2
2
1
C

|
|

\
|
=
d
Weymouth Equation Weymouth Equation
( )
TL Z
d p p
p
T
q
av g sc
sc
sc

3 / 16 2
2
2
1
5027 . 1 3

|
|

\
|
=
3 / 1 3 / 1 3 / 1
008 . 0 032 . 0
4
1 032 . 0
d d
f
d
f
F
= = =
Weymouth Weymouth equation proposes the following relationship for the moody friction
factor as a function of pipe diameter d in inches:
Panhandle A Equation Panhandle A Equation
This equation assumes that f is a function of Reynolds number as follows:
where, q
sc
in MSCFD, p in psia, T in
o
R, d in inches, and L in ft.
12
1461 . 0 1461 . 0 1461 . 0
Re
0192 . 0
Re
0768 . 0
4
1
Re
0768 . 0
= = =
F
f f Substituting for f
F
in
( )
TL Z f
D p p
p
T
q
av g F sc
sc
sc

5 2
2
2
1
2.8177

|
|

\
|
=
( )
( )
5 . 0
5 . 2
07305 . 0
5 . 0
2
2
2
1
5 . 0
20
0192 . 0
8177 . 2
g g
sc g
av sc
sc
sc
D
D
q
TL Z
p p
p
T
q

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
=
07881 . 0
61821 . 2
46060 . 0
53940 . 0
2
2
2
1
07881 . 1
1
6491 . 32
g g av sc
sc
sc
D
TL Z
p p
p
T
q

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
=
The Panhandle A Equation is most applicable to large diameter pipelines, at high
flow rate
where, q
sc
in MSCFD, p in
psia, T in
o
R, d in inches,
and L in ft.
03922 . 0 . 0 03922 . 0
Re
000898 . 0
Re
00359 . 0
= =
F
f f
Panhandle B Equation Panhandle B Equation
This equation also assumes that f is a function of Reynolds number as follows:
Substituting for f
F
in
( )
TL Z f
d p p
p
T
q
av g F sc
sc
sc

5 2
2
2
1
2.8177

|
|

\
|
=
020 . 0
530 . 2
49 . 0
51 . 0
2
2
2
1
02 . 1
1
364 . 109
g g av sc
sc
sc
d
TL Z
p p
p
T
q

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
=
The Panhandle B Equation is most applicable to large diameter pipelines, at high
values of Reynolds number
Clinedinst Clinedinst Equation Equation
13
Clinedinst Clinedinst Equation Equation

= =
r r pc r pc pc r
dp Z p p dp p Z p p dp Z p ) / ( ) / ( ) / (
2

= dl
D g RT
MTp f q
dp
Z
p
c sc
sc F sc
5 2 2
2 2
32

L
d g RT
MTp f q
dp Z p dp Z p p
c sc
sc F sc
p p
r r r r pc
r r
5 2 2
2 2
0 0
2
32
) / ( ) / (
1 2

5 . 0
0 0
5 . 0
5 1 2
) / ( ) / ( 3.985

=

r r
p p
r r r r
F av g sc
sc pc
sc
dp Z p dp Z p
Lf T
d
p
T p
q

where, q
sc
in MSCFD, p in psia, T in
o
R, d in inches, and L in ft.
This equation takes into account the non-ideal behaviour of gas
General pipeline gas flow equation
are
14
Average pressure in a gas pipeline
( )
TLx Z f
d p p
p
T
q
av g F
x
sc
sc
sc

5 2 2
1
2.8177

|
|

\
|
=
( )
( ) x TL Z f
d p p
p
T
q
av g F
x
sc
sc
sc

|
|

\
|
=
1
2.8177
5 2
2
2

= dl
D g RT
MTp f q
dp
Z
p
c sc
sc F sc
5 2 2
2 2
32

x
L-x
L
Integrating once over l form 0 to L
x
Integrating once over l form L
x
to L
15
( ) x TL Z f p
av g F sc

\
1
Equating these two equations gives:
( )
( )
( )
x
p p
x
p p
x x
2 2
1
2
2
2
1

This suggests that

( ) [ ]
5 . 0
2
2
2
1
2
1
p p x p p
x
=
( ) ( ) [ ]
|
|

\
|
+
+ = = =

2 1
2
2
1
0
5 . 0
2
2
2
1
2
1
0
3
2
p p
p
p dx p p x p dx x p p
L L
x av
Rearranging and multiplying both numerator and denominator by (p
1
-p
2
):
|
|

\
|

=
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
+
+ =
2
2
2
1
3
2
3
1
2 1
2 1
2 1
2
2
1
3
2
3
2
p p
p p
p p
p p
p p
p
p p
av
Pipeline efficiency and transmission factor
The pipeline equations developed so far assume 100 100%% efficient efficient conditions. In
practice, even for single-phase gas flow, some water or condensate may be
present, which accumulate in low spots in the line over long periods of time.
Some solids, such as pipe pipe--scale scale and and drilling drilling mud mud, may also be present. To
account for the reduction in pipeline capacity due to the presence of theses
materials, an efficiency factor E is generally used as a multiplying factor.
A pipeline with E>0.9 is usually considered clean.
16
Type of gas Liquid content (Gal/MMSCF) E
Dry gas 0.1 0.92
Casing-head gas 7.2 0.77
Gas and condensate 800 0.60
For high liquid contents two-phase flow conditions exist. Pipeline efficiency
can no longer represent the complex flow behaviour, and different equations
that account for two-phase flow must be used.
The The factor factor ((11/f /f
MM
))
00..55
is is known known as as the the transmission transmission factor factor. .
Single-phase vertical gas flow

4
,
29
, cos , 0
2
2
2
= = = = + +
P T D
T ZP q
v
ZRT
P
dL dz
D g
dL v f
dz
g
g dP
sc i
sc sc
g
i c
M
c

The effect of kinetic energy change is negligible because the variation in

tubing diameter is insignificant in most gas wells. With no shaft work device
installed along the tubing string, the first law of thermodynamics yields the
following mechanical balance equation:
17
, 0
8
cos
29
2
2 5 2
2 2
=

\
|
+ + dL
P
ZT
T D g
P Q f
g
g
P
dP ZRT
sc i c
sc sc M
c g

( ) 2 / s Exp P P
hf wf
=
( ) s Exp P P
dL
g
g
P
dP T R Z
hf wf
c g
2 2
, 0 cos
29
=
=
)
`

ZT
L
s
g
cos 0375 . 0
= In field units (q
sc
in MSCFD)
ZT R g
gL
s
c
g
cos 58
=
Static bottom-hole pressure (q=0)

z
29x2
29x2/(144xR)
Average ZT Method
( )
( ) [ ]
cos
1 10 67 . 6
5
2 2
2 4
2 2
sc M
hf wf
d
T Z Q s Exp f
s Exp P P

+ =

( )
( ) [ ]

cos
1 8
, 0
8
cos
29
2 5 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 5 2
2 2
sc i c
sc sc M
hf wf
sc i c
sc sc M
c g
T D g
T Z P Q s Exp f
s Exp P P
dL
P
T Z
T D g
P Q f
g
g
P
dP T R Z

+ =
=

+ +
L
s
g
cos 0375 . 0
=
In field units (q
sc
in MSCFD, p in psia, d in inches, and L in ft)
ZT R g
gL
s
c
g
cos 58
=
8(1000/24/3600)
2
(12)
5
(14.7/520)
2
/32=6.67X10
-4
18
( )
cos
5
i
hf wf
d
s Exp P P + =
ZT
s =
The DarcyWiesbach (Moody) friction factor f
M
can be found in the
conventional manner for a given tubing diameter, wall roughness, and
Reynolds number. However, if one assumes fully turbulent flow, which is the
case for most gas wells, then a simple empirical relation may be used for
typical tubing strings (Katz and Lee 1990):
0.244 0.164
0.01750 0.01603
for 4.277 in., for 4.277 in.
M i M i
i i
f d f d
d d
= = >
( )
2
1
Guo (2001):
1.74 2log 2 /
M
i
f
d

=

Cullender and Smith Method
, 0
8
cos
29
2
2 5 2
2 2
=

\
|
+ + dL
P
ZT
T D g
P Q f
g
g
P
dP ZRT
sc i c
sc sc M
c g

R
L
dP
T D g
P Q f
P
ZT
g
g
ZT
P
g
p
p
sc i c
sc sc M
c
wf
hf

29
8
cos
2 5 2
2 2
2
=
+
|

\
|

wf
p
P
ZT

This Equation can be rearranged as:

In field units (q
sc
in MMSCFD)
p
wf

I
19
2
2
5
18.75
0.001cos 0.6666
hf
g
p
M sc
i
ZT
dP L
f Q ZT
D P

=
| |
+
|
\

L dP I
g
p
hf
75 . 18 =

In the form of numerical integration:

or
( )( ) ( )( )
L
I I p p I I p p
dP I
g
mf wf mf wf hf mf hf mf
p
p
wf
hf
75 . 18
2 2
=
+
+
+
=

where p
mf
is the pressure at the mid-depth. The I
hf
, I
mf
, and I
wf
are integrant Is
evaluated at p
hf
, p
mf
, and p
wf
,respectively.
28.97/R/144/0.001
Cullender and Smith method (cont.)
( )( )
2
75 . 18
2
L I I p p
g hf mf hf mf

=
+
( )( )
2
75 . 18
2
L I I p p
g mf wf mf wf

=
+
( )( ) ( )( )
L
I I p p I I p p
dP I
g
mf wf mf wf hf mf hf mf
p
p
wf
hf
75 . 18
2 2
=
+
+
+
=

Assuming the first and second terms in the right-hand side each represents
half of the integration, that is,
and
20
2 2
=
2 2
=
( )
hf mf
g
hf mf
I I
L
p p
+
+ =
75 . 18
and
The following expressions are obtained:
and
( )
mf wf
g
mf wf
I I
L
p p
+
+ =
75 . 18
Because I
mf
is a function of pressure p
mf
itself, an iterative process is required
to find p
mf
. Once p
mf
is computed, p
wf
can be obtained.
Gas flow through an annulus

2
and
2
5
2 2
1
2
1
2

= =

=
D g
q L f K
p
D
q K
u
D g
u L f
p
c
sc F
f
sc
c
F
f

1 sc
q K
u =
Although gas wells are generally produced through tubing, some wells may be
produced through the casing-tubing annulus. For flow in a pipe, we have:
For the case of annular flow, where the outside diameter of the tubing is d
to
and the
inside diameter of the casing is d
ci
, the velocity is related to diameter as follows:
21
2 2
1
to ci
sc
d d
q K
u

=
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
to ci to ci
sc
to ci to ci c
sc F
to ci c
sc F
f
d d d d
q K
d d d d g
q L f K
D d d g
q L f K
p

=

=

=
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2 2
1
2 2
2 2
1
2 2
Thus, the friction term becomes:
Thus, for the case of annular flow, d
5
in the vertical flow equations must be
replaced by:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3 2
2 2
to ci to ci to ci to ci
d d d d d d d d + =
where K
1
and K
2
are proportionality constants
Gas flow over hilly terrain
Transmission lines often deviate considerably from the horizontal depending on
field topography.
In some cases, gas wells may also exhibit sections of different slope, such as
the directionally drilled wells from offshore platforms.
z
22
z
inlet
outlet
Three approaches are available to obtain gas flow profile over hilly terrain
1. Static correction
2. Flow correction
3. General method
Static Correction
( ) 2 / exp
'
s p p
o o
=
ZT
z
s
g

=
0375 . 0
To account for the differences in elevation between the inlet and outlet, the
simplest way is to modify the outlet pressure for the pressure exerted by a
static gas column.
If p
i
is the inlet pressure, and p
o
the outlet pressure, then, the outlet pressure
must be corrected as follows:
where s is given by
23
Note that z is positive for uphill flow positive for uphill flow and negative for downhill flow negative for downhill flow
z
inlet
outlet
The flowline shown is equivalent to a
horizontal flow line with an upstream
inlet pressure of p
i
, and a
downstream pressure of equal to
p
0
exp(s/2) . This correction can be
incorporated in to any horizontal flow
correlation to find the flow rate.
( )
TL Z
d e p p
p
T
q
av g
s
o i
sc
sc
sc

3 / 16 2 2
5027 . 1 3

|
|

\
|
=
Flow Correction
A more rigorous correction for the flow profile accounts for inclined flow in different
sections of the pipe line.
[ ]
[ ]
s d
T Z L q e f
e p
d
T Z q e f
e p p
i
g sc
s
M
s
hf
i
sc
s
M
s
hf wf
5
2 5
2
5
2 2
2 4
2 2
1 10 5272 . 2
cos
1 10 67 . 6

+ =

+ =

ZT
z
ZT
L
s
g g

= =
0375 . 0 cos 0375 . 0
Rearranging this equation, and replacing the pressure with the inlet and
q
sc
is in MSCFD, d in inch, and L in ft.
24
( )
( ) ( )
( )
[ ]
( )
5 . 0
5 2 2
5 . 0
5 2 2
5 . 0
5
63538 . 5
1
73 . 14 / 10 5272 . 2
520 /
|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|

T Z L f
d e p p
p
T
T Z L e f
s d e p p
p
T
q
e g M
i
s
o i
sc
sc
g
s
M
i
s
o i
sc
sc
sc

[ ] 0 , 1
1
1
1

=
s e
s
L
e L
N
i
s
i
i
s
e
i
i
j
j
Rearranging this equation, and replacing the pressure with the inlet and
outlet pressures p
i
and p
o
:
Where is the effective length for each single section of a flow line
[ ]
L
s
e
L
s
e
1
=
For the general case of non-uniform slope the
profile is divided into a number of sections, the
effective length is then:
Temperature profile in flowing gas systems
Horizontal pipelines Horizontal pipelines
Assuming steady-state (Papay (1970):
( )
[ ]
( )
( )
( )
m k C
c z c z C
C C C
x C C C
C
x C C
x C C
C C C C C C C C T
x T
pV V pL V
C C
C C
s
2
1 1 1
3 2 2
3 1
2
5 4
/
2 1
/
1 3 2 2 5 1 2 4
/
) 1 (
5 )) ( /( ) ( /
3 2
3 2
=
+ =
+
+
+
+

+
+ +
=
Factors affecting the gas temperature in a pipeline are Heat exchange with the
surroundings, Joule-Thomson effect, velocity and elevation changes, phase
change, and friction.
25
( ) [ ]
( )( )
( )
L
v v
c c
L
p p z z
C
T
m
D k
L gh v
L
v v
Q
L
z z
c z c z
L
p p
C
L c c z z C
m k C
dV pV dL pL
V V
o V V
dV pV V dL pL V
pV pL V V
1 2
2
2 1 1 2
5
1 1
1 2 2 1
1 1
2 1
4
1 2 3
2
/ 1
/ ) )( (
/

=
+

+ +

=
=
=

z
V
and z
L
are vapour and liquid mole fractions, respectively, (ft
2
-F/lb
f
)
Joule-Thomson coefficient, p = pressure lb
f
/ft
2
, L (ft) pipeline length, v (ft/s)
velocity, cp (Btu/lb-F) specific heat, m(lb/s) mass flow rate, Q (Btu/lb)
phase transition heat, k (Btu/ft-sec-F) thermal conductivity, g (32.17 ft/s
2
)
gravitational acceleration, h(ft) elevation, D
o
(ft) pipe outside diameter, T
s
(F), temperature of the soil or surrounding
Temperature profile in flowing gas systems (cont.)
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
pV
velocity
Kx
pV
gravity
Kx
pV
Kx dL Kx
s s
mc
k
K
L
x v v
e
KL
v v
v
KLc
v v
e
KLc
gh
e
KL
p p
e T T T x T
=

+
|

\
|

+ =

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 1 4 4 3 4 4 2 1
4 4 4 3 4 4 4 2 1
4 4 3 4 4 2 1
1 2 1 2
1
1 2
Thomson Joule
2 1
fer heat trans Soil
1
1 1 1

( ) ( )
Kx
e T T T x T

+ =
In the pervious equation, it was assumed that pressure, flow rate, and phase-
transition are linear functions of distance from the inlet. This equation is, therefore,
accurate for short line segments. For the case where phase changes can be
neglected (single-phase flow), we have:
26
( ) ( )
Kx
s s
e T T T x T

+ =
1
Ignoring JT effect, velocity and elevation changes
Flowing temperature in wells (Ramey, 1962) Flowing temperature in wells (Ramey, 1962)
( ) ( ) [ ]
Kx
T
e K x G T x T

= 1
1
1
x = distance from the bottom hole or point of fluid entry, ft
T = Temperature in F
T
1
= temperature at point of fluid entry
G
T
=geothermal gradient F/ft
Gas gathering and transport
Natural gas produced from several wells in a given area is collected and brought
to the field separation and processing facilities via a system of pipes known as
gathering system. Processed or partially processed gas is then sent to the trunk
lines that transport gas to consumers. Gas is often distributed via pipelines grids.
Well centre Radial
well head
header
27
Trunk line
wellhead
header
central
gathering
station
flowline
Series Pipelines
Consider three pipelines A, B and C, connected in series as shown below:
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
3 / 16
2
2
2
2
1
5027 . 1 3
A
A av g
sc
sc ABC
d
TL Z
T
p q
p p

|
|

\
|
+ +
|
|

\
|
=
3 / 16 3 / 16 3 / 16
2
2
4
2
1
5027 . 1 3
C
C
B
C
A
C
sc
sc ABC
av g
d
L
d
L
d
L
T
p q
T Z p p
1
2 3 4
A
B C
B
C A
28
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
3 / 16
2
2
3
2
2
5027 . 1 3
B
B av g
sc
sc ABC
d
TL Z
T
p q
p p

|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
=
3 / 16
2
2
4
2
3
5027 . 1 3
C
C av g
sc
sc ABC
d
TL Z
T
p q
p p

( )
|
|

\
|
+ +

|
|

\
|
=
3 / 16
2
3 / 16
2
3 / 16
1
2
4
2
1
5027 . 1 3
d
L
d
L
d
L
T Z
p p
p
T
q
C B A
av g
sc
sc
ABC

Capacity of an equivalent single-diameter (d) pipeline is expressed as:

( )
TL Z
d p p
p
T
q
av g sc
sc

3 / 16 2
4
2
1
5027 . 1 3

|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
+ +
=
3 / 16 3 / 16 3 / 16
3 / 16
C
C
B
B
A
A
ABC
d
L
d
L
d
L
d
L
q
q
Series Pipelines (cont.)
( )
5
2
2
2
2
1
5 2
2
2
1
635382 . 5
635382 . 5
A
A A
av g
sc
sc
A
A
av g sc
sc
d
L f
T Z
T
p q
p p
fL
d
T Z
p p
p
T
q

|
|

\
|
=

|
|

\
|
=
2
L f p q
| |
Series pipelines
q
A
= q
B
= q
c
= q
t
p
A
p
B
pc
p
t
= p
A
+ p
B
+ p
C
Equivalent length
1
2 3 4
A
B C
B
C A
29
5
2
3
2
2
635382 . 5
B
B B
av g
sc
sc
d
L f
T Z
T
p q
p p
|
|

\
|
=
5
2
2
4
2
3
635382 . 5
C
C C
av g
sc
sc
d
L f
T Z
T
p q
p p
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
+ +
|
|

\
|
=
5 5 5
2
2
4
2
1
635382 . 5
C
C C
B
B B
A
A A
av g
sc
sc
d
L f
d
L f
d
L f
T Z
T
p q
p p
( )
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
+

|
|

\
|
=
A C
C A
C
A B
B A
B A
A
A
av g
sc
sc
f d
f d
L
f d
f d
L L
d
f
T Z
p p
p
T
q
5
5
5
5
5
2
4
2
1
635382 . 5

( )
e
A
A
av g
sc
sc
L
d
f
T Z
p p
p
T
q
5
2
4
2
1
635382 . 5

|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
+
|
|

\
|
+ =
A C
C A
C
A B
B A
B A e
f d
f d
L
f d
f d
L L L
5
5
5
5
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=
A C
C A
C eC
A B
B A
B eB
f d
f d
L L
f d
f d
L L
5
5
5
5
,
Parallel Pipelines
( )
TL Z
d p p
p
T
q
av g
A
sc
sc
A

3 / 16 2
2
2
1
5027 . 1 3

|
|

\
|
=
( )
TL Z
d p p
p
T
q
av g
B
sc
sc
B

3 / 16 2
2
2
1
5027 . 1 3

|
|

\
|
=
Consider three pipelines A, B and C, connected in parallel as shown below:
p
1
p
2
( )
| |
A
B
C
30
( )
( )
2 2
1 2
16/3 16/3 16/3
31.5027
sc
ABC A B C A B C
sc g av
p p
T
q q q q d d d
p Z TL

| |
= + + = + +
|
\
( )
3 / 16
3 / 16 3 / 16 3 / 16
d
d d d
q
q
C B A
ABC
+ +
=
( )
TL Z
d p p
p
T
q
av g
C
sc
sc
C

3 / 16 2
2
2
1
5027 . 1 3

|
|

\
|
=
Capacity of an equivalent single-diameter (d) pipeline is expressed as:
( )
TL Z
d p p
p
T
q
av g sc
sc

3 / 16 2
4
2
1
5027 . 1 3

|
|

\
|
=
Parallel Pipelines (cont.)
( )
A A
A
av g sc
sc
A
L f
d
T Z
p p
p
T
q
5
2
2
2
1
635382 . 5

|
|

\
|
=
( )
B B
B
av g sc
sc
B
L f
d
T Z
p p
p
T
q
5
2
2
2
1
635382 . 5

|
|

\
|
=
q
A
+ q
B
+ q
c
= q
t
p
A
= p
B
= pc
Equivalent length
p
1
p
2
A
B
C
31
( )
e e
e
av g sc
sc
t
L f
d
T Z
p p
p
T
q
5
2
2
2
1
635382 . 5

|
|

\
|
=
( )
C C
C
av g sc
sc
C
L f
d
T Z
p p
p
T
q
5
2
2
2
1
635382 . 5

|
|

\
|
=
2
5
5
5
5
5
5
5 5 5 5
1

+ +
= + + =
C C
e
e
C
B B
e
e
B
A A
e
e
A
e
C C
C
B B
B
A A
A
e e
e
L f
f
d
d
L f
f
d
d
L f
f
d
d
L
L f
d
L f
d
L f
d
L f
d
Looped Pipelines
Consider a three-segment looped gas pipeline depicted below:
( )
( )
3 / 16 3 / 16
2
3
2
1
5027 . 1 3
B A
A av g sc
sc
B A C
d d
TL Z
p p
p
T
q q q +

|
|

\
|
= + =

( )
2
2
3 / 16 3 / 16
2
3
2
1
5027 . 1 3
|
|

\
|
+
=
sc
sc C
B A
A av g
T
p q
d d
TL Z
p p

p
1
p
2
q
A
q
B
q
C
p
3
L
LC
32
2
3 / 16
2
2
2
3
5027 . 1 3
|
|

\
|
=
sc
sc C
C
C av g
T
p q
d
TL Z
p p

( )
( )
( )
|
|
|

\
|
+
+

|
|

\
|
=
|
|
|

\
|
+
+
|
|

\
|
=
3 / 16 2
3 / 16 3 / 16
2
2
2
1
3 / 16 2
3 / 16 3 / 16
2
2
2
2
1
5027 . 1 3
5027 . 1 3
C
C
B A
A
av g
sc
sc
C
C
C
B A
A
sc
sc C
av g
d
L
d d
L
T Z
p p
p
T
q
d
L
d d
L
T
p q
T Z p p

A av g sc
TL Z p
\

Applying the Weymouth Weymouth equation to the third segment (with diameter d
C
) yields
Adding these equations gives:
( )
\
+
sc
B A
d d
Looped Pipelines (cont.)
( )
|
|

\
|

=
3 / 16
2
2
2
1
5027 . 1 3
d
L
T Z
p p
p
T
q
av g
sc
sc
S

Capacity of a single-diameter (d) pipeline is expressed as

Single
Looped
p
1
p
2
q
A
q
B
q
C
p
3
L
LC
33
( )
3 / 16
2
3 / 16 3 / 16
3 / 16
/ /
/
C C B A A
S
L
d L d d L
d L
q
q
+ +
=
( )
( )
|
|
|

\
|
+
+

|
|

\
|
=
3 / 16 2
3 / 16 3 / 16
2
2
2
1
5027 . 1 3
C
C
B A
A
av g
sc
sc
L
d
L
d d
L
T Z
p p
p
T
q

Looped Pipelines (cont.)

%

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

i
n

R
a
t
e
34
Katz et al.
%

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

i
n

R
a
t
e
% Line Parallel
Blowdown and Purge
|
|

\
|
=
u
d
av
p
p
T Z t d V 1 02428 . 0
2
There are instances when it is necessary to blow down and purge a gas line.
For subcritical flow (p
u
/p
d
>0.2) (Izawa,1966)
For subcritical flow (p
u
/p
d
<0.2) (Izawa,1966)
35
T
t p d
V
av
2
4524 . 0
=
V = Gas volume, MSCF
d = pipe inner diameter, in.
p
av
= average pressure, psig
t = time, min.
T = Temperature, R
p
u
, p
d
= upstream and downstream pressures, respectively, psig
Pressure Testing
i
p
L d
t
2
min
0 . 3
=
Pressure testing of a pipeline is commonly done for the detection of leaks.
The following relationship has been given for estimating the minimum
value of this testing time necessary (Campbell, 1984):
where
36
i
p
where
t
min
=minimum required shut-in time for the line, hr
d =pipe diameter, inch
L= length of the pipe section that is being tested for leaks, miles
p
i
= initial test pressure, psig.
d
t p
p
i
949
max
=
A flow line that has been shut-in for at least t
min
hours is considered to
have no leaks if if the the pressure pressure loss loss is is less less than than the the pp
max max
(psi) given
below:
Optimum Pipe Diameter
Compression costs Compression costs
The following equation can be obtained for the annual compression costs the annual compression costs:
Where
C
comp
: compression cost in $/year per foot of pipe length
q : gas flow rate, ft
3
/sec
37
q : gas flow rate, ft
3
/sec
: the gas density, lbm/ft
3
: gas viscosity, cp
C
e
: cost of electrical energy, $/kwh
H
y
: hours of operation per year
d : pipe diameter, in.
E : compressor efficiency, fraction
B* : a constant independent of pipe diameter d, accounting for all other energy
looses in the flowing system
L
fp
: frictional loss due to pipe fittings and bends, expressed as equivalent
fractional loss in a straight pipe
Optimum Pipe Diameter (cont.)
For most types of pipe, the purchase cost per foot of pipe is related to the
pipe diameter as follows:
C
pipe
= C
p
d
n
Where
C
pipe
: purchase cost of new pipe of diameter d inches per foot of pipe length, $/ft
C
p
: a constant equal to the purchase price per foot for a 1-in. diameter pipe, $/ft
d: pipe diameter, in.
Fixed Costs for Piping System Fixed Costs for Piping System
38
d: pipe diameter, in.
Where
R
p
: ratio of total costs for fittings and installation to the purchase cost for new pipe
C
Fp
: annual fixed charges, including maintenance, expressed as a fraction of the
initial cost for a completely installed pipe
The annual cost for an installed piping system can be expressed as (Peters
and Timmerhaus, 1980):
C
pipe
= (l+R
p
)C
p
d
n
C
Fp
Optimum Pipe Diameter (cont.)
The total annual cost C
T
for the compressor and piping system can be obtained by
Differentiating with respect to diameter d, setting the resultant expression to
zero, and solving for d gives the optimum pipe diameter, d
op
in inches, as
follows:
Optimum OptimumEconomic Economic Pipe Pipe Diameter Diameter
39
op
follows:
The value of n for steel pipes is about 1.0 for d < 1 in., and about 1.5 for
d 1 in. Thus, for the commonly used greater than 1-in. diameter pipes,
( Peters and Timmerhaus,1980):
Optimum Pipe Diameter (cont.)
Assuming typical numeric values for the terms involved.
Using:
C
e
= $0.055/kwh, L
fP
= 0.35, H
y
= 8,760 hrs/year, R
p
=1.4, Cp: $0.45/ft for 1 - in
diameter pipe, E = 0.50, C
Fp
=0.20, and neglecting the viscosity term which is
close to unity for most cases for the small exponent involved, Peters and
Timmerhaus (1980) presented the following equation for the optimum pipe
diameter:
40
diameter:
where m : mass flow rate, lb
m
/hr
: fluid density, lbm/ft
3
This equation is quite good for short pipe lengths and where the pressure
drop in the pipe length is not large.
Multiphase Flow Regimes
In addition to oil, almost all oil wells
produce a certain amount of water, gas,
and sometimes sand. These wells are
called multiphase-oil wells.
41
Fundamentals Of Gas Solids/Liquids Separation
Muller Environmental Design , Inc.
Liquid Holdup
In multiphase flow, the amount of the pipe occupied by a phase is
often different from its proportion of the total volumetric flow rate.
The liquid holdup is defined as:
where
V
V
y
L
L
=
42
y
L
= liquid holdup, fraction
V
L
= volume of liquid phase in the pipe segment, ft
3
V = volume of the pipe segment, ft
3
Liquid holdup depends on flow regime, fluid properties, and pipe size
and configuration. Its value can be quantitatively determined only
through experimental measurements.
Tubing Performance Models
Homogeneous Homogeneous models models treat multiphase as a homogeneous mixture and
do not consider the effects of liquid liquid holdup holdup (no (no--slip slip assumption) assumption)..
Therefore, these models are less accurate and are usually calibrated with
local operating conditions in field applications. The major advantage of
these models comes from their mechanistic nature. They can handle gas-
oil-water three-phase and gas-oil-water-sand four-phase systems. It is
easy to code these mechanistic models in computer programs.
43
easy to code these mechanistic models in computer programs.
Separated Separated--flow flow models models are more realistic than the homogeneous-flow
models. They are usually given in the form of empirical correlations. The
effects of liquid holdup holdup (slip) (slip) and flow regime are considered. The major
disadvantage of the separated flow models is that it is difficult to code
them in computer programs because most correlations are presented in
graphic form.
where
Homogeneous-Flow Models
144
h k
p

|
|

\
|
+ =

Poettmann and Carpenter (1952), Cicchitti (1960),

Dukler et al. (1964), Guo and Ghalambor (2005)
5 10
2 2
2
10 4137 . 7 D
M q f
k
o F

=
Poettmann Poettmann and Carpenter and Carpenter
where
p= pressure increment, psi/ft
= average mixture density (specific weight), lb/ft
3
=(
1
+
2
)/2
h= depth increment, ft
f
2F
= Fanning friction factor for two-phase flow
q
o
= oil production rate, STB/day
M = total mass associated with 1 stb of oil, lb
mass
/STB
D = tubing inner diameter, ft

1
= mixture density at top of tubing segment, lb/ft
3

2
= mixture density at bottom of segment, lb/ft
3
44

Iterations are required to solve for pressure.

PoettmannCarpenter Model
( )
( ) ( )
|

\
|
|

\
|
|
|

\
|
+ +
+ +
= =
0 . 1 420
7 . 14
615 . 5
17 . 50
Z T
p
R GOR B WOR B
GOR WOR
V
M
s w o
g air w o
m

2048 . 1
00091 . 0
0125 . 0
10
10
18

=
t
API
g s
p
R
The mixture density at a given point can be calculated based on mass flow rate
and volume flow rate:
M = total mass associated with 1 stb of oil,
lb
mass
/STB

o
= oil specific gravity, 1 for freshwater
45
00091 . 0
10 18

t
2 . 1
5 . 0
25 . 1 00012 . 0 9759 . 0

+
|
|

\
|
+ = t R B
o
g
s o

o
WOR = producing wateroil ratio, bbl/STB

w
= water-specific gravity, 1 for freshwater
GOR = producing gasoil ratio, SCF/STB

air
= density of air, lb
m
=ft
3

g
= gas-specific gravity, 1 for air
B
o
= formation volume factor of oil, bbl/STB
B
w
= formation volume factor of water, bbl/STB
Rs= solution gasoil ratio, SCF/STB
p = in situ pressure, psia
T = in situ temperature,
o
R
z = gas compressibility factor at p and T.
t = in situ temperature in
o
F.
( )
( )
D
Mq
v D
f
o
v D
F
5
log 5 . 2 442 . 1
2
10 4737 . 1
10

=
=

PoettmannCarpenter Model (cont.)

Because the PoettmannCarpenter model takes a finite-
difference form, this model is accurate for only short-depth
incremental h. For deep wells, this model should be used in
a piecewise manner to get accurate results (i.e., the tubing
string should be broken into small segments and the model
46
string should be broken into small segments and the model
is applied to each segment).
GuoGhalambor model (2005)
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 1 1
2
2
2
00678 . 0
07 . 4
61 . 5 61 . 5
07 . 4
4 . 62 350 350 0765 . 0
cos
144
tan
144
tan
144
144
ln
2
2 1
144
A
q T
c
q T
q q q
b
q T
q q q q
a
L e d a
N
M p
N
M p
N
bM N
c
b
M
N M p
N M p bM
p p b
g av
g av
s w o
g av
s s w w o o g g
hf
hf
hf
=
+ +
=
+ + +
=
+ =

|
|

\
|
+
|

\
| +
+

+ +
+ +
+

where
A = cross-sectional area of conduit, ft
2
D
H
= hydraulic diameter, ft
f
M
= DarcyWiesbach friction factor (Moody factor)=4 f
F
g = gravitational acceleration, 32:17 ft/s
2
47
Iterations are required
to solve for pressure
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
cos
cos
cos
2
61 . 5 61 . 5
00166 . 0
00678 . 0
e d
e c
N
e d
ade
M
gD
f
e
q q q
A
d
A
c
H
M
s w o
+
=
+
=
=
+ + =
=

L = conduit length, ft
p = pressure, psia
p
hf
= wellhead flowing pressure, psia

g
= gas production rate, SCF/d
q
o
= oil production rate, bbl/d
q
s
=sand production rate, ft
3
/day
q
w
= water production rate, bbl/d
T
av
= average temperature,
o
R

g
= specific gravity of gas, air = 1

o
= specific gravity of produced oil, water = 1

s
= specific gravity of produced solid, water = 1

w
= specific gravity of produced water, water = 1
Separated-Flow Models
Lockhart and Martinelli correlation (1949), the Duns and Ros correlation (1963),
and the Hagedorn Hagedorn and and Brown Brown method method (1965).
Hagedorn HagedornBrown model Brown model
z g
u
D
M f
dz
dP
c
m t F

+ =
2 10 413 . 7
144
2
5 10
2

M
t
= M = total mass associated with 1 STB of oil, lbm/STB
48
M
t
= M = total mass associated with 1 STB of oil, lbm/STB
=in situ average density, lbm/ft
3
u
m
= u
SL
+ u
sg
, mixture velocity, ft/s

L
= liquid density, lb
m
=ft
3

G
= in situ gas density, lb
m
=ft
3
u
SL
= superficial velocity of liquid phase, ft/s
u
SG
= superficial velocity of gas phase, ft/s
D = pipe inner diameter , ft
( )
G L L L
y y + = 1
The superficial superficial velocity velocity of a given phase is defined as the volumetric
flow rate of the phase divided by the pipe cross-sectional area for flow.
Liquid Holdup Calculations
vL
4
4
Liquid velocity number, N :
1.938
Gas velocity number, :
1.938
Pipe dimeter number, :
L
L
vL SL
vG
vG SG
D
N u
N
N u
N

=
=
where
D = conduit inner diameter, ft
= liquidgas interfacial tension, dyne/cm

L
= liquid viscosity, cp

G
= gas viscosity, cp
49
3
1
4
120.872D
Liquid viscosity number :
0.15726
L
L
D
L
L L
N
N
N

=
=

G
= gas viscosity, cp
( )
( ) [ ] 3 log
12195 . 0 54785 . 0 55100 . 0 15841 . 0 69851 . 2
10
1
4
1
3
1
2
1 1
+ =
+ + =
=
L
Y
L
N X
X X X X Y
CN
Liquid Holdup Calculations (cont.)
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
( ) [ ]
( )
1 01 . 0 for
3 . 116174 6 . 22253 25 . 1232 82176 . 4 91163 . 0 , 01 . 0 for
, , 3 log
6 log 401 . 0 6 log 29598 . 0 6 log 63295 . 0 6 log 61777 . 0 10307 . 0
38 . 0
3
4
3
3
3
2
3 3
14 . 2
38 . 0
3
1 . 0 575 . 0
1 . 0
2 1
4
2
3
2
2
2 2
L vG
D
L vG
D a vG
L vL
L
L
N N
X
X X X X
N
N N
X
N p N
CN p N
X N X
X X X X
y
= =
+ + = > =
= + =
+ + + + + + =

50
( )
,
10 2 . 2
1 01 . 0 for
1
2
Re
14 . 2
3
L L
y
G
y
L
t
L
L
D
D
m
N
y
y
N
X

=
|
|

\
|
=
= =

where m
t
is mass flow rate in lbm/day
p
a
= atmospheric pressure
p is the pressure at location where pressure gradient is to be calculated
where is in lbm/day, v in ft/s, viscosity in cp, and D in ft.
For single phase flow:
1488
Re
vD

=
Bubble-Flow Regime
|
|

\
|
= = <
D
u
L
u
u
L
m
B
m
SG
G B G
2
2218 . 0 071 . 1 and , where
The modified Hagedorn Hagedorn and and Brown Brown method method uses the Griffith correlation for the
bubble-flow regime. The bubble-flow regime has been observed to exist when
which is valid for L
B
0.13
u in ft/s and D in ft.
When the L
B
value is less than 0.13, L
B
= 0.13 should be used.
51
L
L
s
sG
s
m
s
m
L
D
m
N
u
u
u
u
u
u
y

2
Re
2
10 2 . 2
, 4 1 1
2
1
1

|
|

\
|
+ + = =
where m
L
is mass flow rate of liquid only in lbm/STB. The liquid holdup in Griffith
correlation is given by the following expression:
L L
L F
y D
m f
dz
dP

2 5 10
2
10 413 . 7
144

+ =
where u
s
= 0.8 ft/s.
Flow Regime Maps
52
Flow regime map for vertical flow Flow regime map for air-water system in
horizontal pipe
Approximate methods for two- phase flow systems
Flow streams with a GLR greater than
10000 SCF/STB may be assumed to
be single-phase gas. This is
commonly the case for retrograde and
wet gas reservoirs. The small liquid
content of the gas can be accounted
for by modifying the properties that
are affected by the presence of liquid.
These properties include MW, gravity,
and compressibility factor. If the two-
53
o o g
o g g
w
M R
R
/ 132800
458

+
+
=
and compressibility factor. If the two-
phase Z-factor is essentially the same
as the single-phase Z- factor, the
mixture exists as a single-phase.
9 . 5
6084
03 . 1
29 . 44

=
API
M
o
o
o

Pressure traverse for multiphase flow

For flow conditions that cannot be approximated as single-phase gas, it is
necessary to use more complex procedures.
Pressure traverse curves for horizontal gas Pressure traverse curves for horizontal gas--liquid flow liquid flow
Developed using Eaton et al.s correlation give a satisfactory results except for
low rates and low LGR. These curves were prepared for water, they can be
used for oil, provided the free-gas/oil ratio is used for the G/L parameter as
follows:
54
follows:
1. Select the applicable curve for the given flowline size, flow rate, and GLR.
2. On the pressure axis, locate the known pressure, go vertically down to the
applicable GLR, and read off the length on the length axis.
3. Correct this length for the pipeline length by: adding the pipeline length to
the length determined in Step 2, if the known pressure is the outlet
pressure; or subtracting the pipeline length from the length in Step 2, if the
known pressure is the inlet pressure.
4. The unknown pressure is the pressure corresponding to the corrected
length determined in step 3.
1
2
3
6
55
4
5
56
57
Pressure traverse curves for vertical
gas-liquid flow
1. Select the applicable curve for the given tubing size, flow
rate, and GLR.
2. On the pressure axis, locate the known pressure, go
vertically down to the applicable GLR, and read off the
length on the length axis.
3. Correct this length by: adding the well depth to the
58
3. Correct this length by: adding the well depth to the
length determined in Step 2, if the known pressure is the
surface pressure; or subtracting the pipeline length
from the length in Step 2, if the known pressure is the
inlet pressure.
4. The unknown pressure is the pressure corresponding to
the corrected length determined in step 3.
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
Handling Directional Wells
For directional wells with deviations from the vertical less than 15 15- -20 20 degree degree, the
true vertical depth can be used to ascertain the pressure traverse. This
approximation, however, is invalid for deviation exceeding 20 degree, because a
directional well has aa greater greater length length than than aa vertical vertical well well for the same depth,
resulting in a greater frictional loss. Also, liquid liquid hold hold up up differs and may be
greater for inclined than for vertical flow.
An approximate answer can be obtained using the vertical and horizontal flow
curves as follows:
67
Flow over inclined or hilly terrain
Flanigan (1958) presented a method for inclined flow.
where H
F
: elevation component of the total pressure
drop, and fraction
And v
g
is given by:
68