jbkh fj

(Teaching of Tamil)
ulh ML

ts
Ma f gla g
lhik xU ght bra
lhik xU bgUFw
lhik kj jikaw bra

jehL
ghl fHf
frhiy, brid - 600 006

 jehL muR
Kj g - 2009

ts Ma FG
tYe

Kidt j. guRuhk
KJiy iuahs
Jit bkha gghL Muh Wtd
yhngil, Jnr - 605 008

nkyhths
Kidt . nfhkehaf
KJfiy jHha (X)
11/83, fh vnl, #hgfhngil
brid - 600 083

yha kW xUizghs
j. jDZnfho
KJiy iuahs
khtl Ma f, g Wtd
fhisah nfh - 630 551,
tfif khtl.

yhaf
nfh. gHntKUf

v. KJUZz

KJiy iuahs
khtl Ma f, g Wtd
Kidgo, beiy khtl

njiy j iuahs
khtl Ma f, g Wtd
U, Utq khtl

Kidt

gh. Uoz_

iuahs
khtl Ma f, g Wtd
brid - 600 005

iy: %.

ts jah: jehL muRfhf Ma f

Muh g aff, brid - 600 006.
60 .v.v. jh mlgLsJ.

Mbr Kiw mnlh:

ii

affUJ...
vbghUs thf brybrh jhwth
EbghU fhg j.
khztf wikfis tsgLJtJ Ra fLghil tsgJ
wj fUJfis nfLzu brtJ vij fWbfht Kidig
VgLJtJbkd f gkhzf gythF. fia fiyl
(Curriculum) vD Kiwahd xGfikl mjny f Wtdf jiyaha
gahF.
fiyl fhyF fhy, lF l, NHYF NH, njitnfg,
fgtnfg kh tiuaWfgLwJ. nja Ma f Muh g
FGk, jnghija f mikbfd nja fiyl 2005I (NCF 2005)
totikJsJ.
1. gF bt bgw fw mDgt mit g mnthL bjhl
gLJj.
2. kdghl brtij jJ bghUJ fgij cWgLJj.
3. ghl fSF mghgL gojj kW br uLj.
4. nj Kiwfis nkY beth tFgiw fw braghLfSl
xUizj.
Kjad jDila tfhL nfhghLfshF. j mogil, murhiz
(iy) v: 82, gf Jiw(1), eh: 05.04.2007 go Ma f
gla gofhd fiylK ghllK jahfgLsd. 2008 - 2009 M
fahLKj eilKiwYs a fiyl_y khzt
Maf fhQ wfis bgWt.
>

bjhlJ mit bgUF w

>

mjtiw bragLJ w

>

j wikfis mJ mtnfg thG w, wnuhL xUJ

thG w

>

midJ ghlgFfY mfgr fw milbgW w

>

Mftkhd braghLf <LgL w

>

M kdghik, a fLof Mat bra wid

nkgL bjhiynehF ghit F w

nkY, fiyl fhQ nehffis bfhLsJ.

>

khzt Maf gwid nkgL, mtf KG

MSikia btbfhzj

iii

>

khzt Mafl ebd, ehL xUikghL, kj nea

gfis tsj

>

tss gUt f, cl eyf, thifw f, kf

bjhif f, RWNH f, kj cik f, rhiy
ghJfh f, mik f nghwtF KaJt mj

nkfl nehff milbgw,, ulhL Ma f gla goF

vL ghlf kW xgJ brKiw gf(Practicum) cUthfgLsd.
t.

KjyhkhL ghlf

ulhkhL ghlf

v
1. fF FHij (Learning Child)

a fKiw
(Indian Education System)
2. fwiy vjhFjY nkgLJjY fwiy vjhFjY nkgLJjY
(Facilitating and Enhancing Learning)
(FacilitatingandEnhancingLearning)
3. jbkh fj

jbkh fj

kiyahsbkh fj

kiyahs bkh fj

bjYFbkh fj

bjYFbkh fj

cUJbkh fj

cUJbkh fj

kHiya guhk kW f
(Early Childhood Care and Education)

kHiya guhk kW f
(Early Childhood Care and Education)

4. Mybkh fj
(Teaching of English)

Mybkh fj
(Teaching of English)

5. fj fj (Teaching of Mathematics)

fj fj (Teaching of Mathematics)

6. ma fj (Teaching of Science)

ma fj (Teaching of Science)

7. r_f ma fj
(Teaching of Social Science)

r_f ma fj
(Teaching of Social Science)

t. KjyhkhL brKiw gf
v
1. FHijia cWnehf kW j
khzhf M

ulhkhL brKiw gf

2. g ghit

fiyf kW gaDgt

3. fij TWj

f fa

4. clf, cl eyf kW
nahf f
5. Ra ts gkid
6. fw fj bghUf

clf, cl eyf kW
nahf f
Ra ts gkid
fw fj bghUf

iv

bra lf

brid gfiyfHf Kdh fa Jiw jiyt Kidt .v.

ghyRuka mtf jiyik, nfhit ghuah gfiyfHf Kdh
bjhiyt f aFe Kidt v. Rthehj is, bfhilfhd mid
bjurh kf gfiyfHf Kdh Jizntj Kidt v. yR, brid
fa nkghL Wtd Kdh nguha . fzg, Lf
fhuhk uha gfiyfHf Kdh Jizntj Kidt . gf#, Jnr
ehafh gfiyfHf fa Jiw jiyt Kidt nf. Rgkh,
brid gfiyfHf jnghija fa Jiw jiyt Kidt o. Fku,
jgu mzhkiy gfiyfHf fa nguha Kidt v.
UZz_ Ma FG jiytf gy mkf fyJiuaho, f gy
MJ njJ fUJfis gFJ bjhFJ vikgL tsfis
cUthf tfhosd.
xbthU ts FG Ma f Muh g aff, khtl
Ma f g Wtdf, fa ff, gfiyfHff, tlhu
ts ika, gf, jdht bjhL Wtdfis rhj fahsfis
nkyhthsfshf xUizghsfshf yhafshf bfhLsJ.
nkY, Utdju nfus gfiyfHf Ma fa f Kjt
Kidt .nf. , brid MjZ f Wtdf fa Mnyhrf
Kidt v. yjh, UZz Kdh khtl bjhlf f mYty nf.
ehuhaz is, brid gfiyfHf cUJbkh Jiw jiyt Kidt
v. ira r A]ir Mnahiu FG jiytfshf bfhL Wghik
ghlfSF ts f cUthfgLsd.
fhiuFo mHfgh gfiyfHf Kdh Mkw cWd Kidt V.v.
_, UZz_ mwflis The School mikig rhj Uk Rkuh
M.bfsjkh, jdht fahsfshd MKjh khajh knAhghuh kW
Kidt ghyh rg (v-ah), ntjh kf kdts fiy kw
cj nguha o.v. mUshdj, Jit bkha gghL Muh Wtd
KJiy iuahs Kidt j. guRuhk Ma fahsfS ts f
cUthfF gfJsd.
fj vD Ma ika fUJ jhnd fw vD khzt
ika fF khs iwa bjhlf fKiw, braft fwiyna
mogilahf bfhLsJ. a ts f xnth aY brafis
bfhL bjhl khztf jhkhfnt fUij mJbfhtjhf flikf
gLsd. khzt Maf, yffis gadgLJj, g khztfl
fw wid nkgLj jkJ tFgiw fjiy tYgLJj, cWnehF
w, tFgiw nkyhik, ghlbghUs, JizfUf kW fw
bghUfis gagLJ w, jiyik g, FHij csaiy mUj
Kja midJ wfis mila ts f tfhL. ts fis
fgj_y g <LghL (Commitment) j m guj MwY (Competence)
bghWzl khzt kdbfhsjf tif fUJfis vLJiuF kh
( Communication) cila eyhaf cUththf.

ts (Source Book) vgJ fgjfhd tsf, Mjhuf Kjad

vbfnf csd vgij fhL tfhona. mUJ fwiy gL
njitahd brfis Mfhnf uo khztfsJ mj, j, gagLJj,
gFj, bjhFj, kl wfis nkgLJtJ jukhd Ma f bgw
ttFgJ tfhLtJ Ma fahsf flikahF. a ts f
TwgLs fUJfis KGikahf cth, Kiwahf goJ gadiltJ
midJ khzt Maf bghWghF.
ts fis brikahf cUthf cja midJ fahsfSF
ffUF Ma fahsfSF ffs khzt MafSF vkJ
cskhj ghuhLf!
aFe,
Ma f Muh g aff,
brid - 600 006.

vi

EiHth
mghj Ma f gWefns! khzt Mafns!
Kjyh ML tsiy bjhlJ ulh Mofhd j ts
jnghJ cf iff jtwJ. ts mik, gWeflK
gbgW khzt MaflK vghfgL braghLf Matiw
f jnghJ eF mUf. UD, nkY ytiw idl
Unwh.
f bragho eh y eilKiwfis bjhlJ g tUnwh.
fia nkgLJ neh mtUJ yFnghJ ekF mit jtwhfgL
wd. rhwhf, xnu xU dhjh l tiuit mogilahfbfhnl nj
UfntL vgJ. ekF mogil ghl lnk. ghll TW w
f milit nrhgjF dhjh l tiuf gytiw cUthf Ko.
vdntjh ts khahf uL dhjh l tiuf bfhLf
gLsd.
njnghjh tsY ghll brhygLs wfis
fUJfis miltjfhd ttiff xnth aY bjhFJ Tw
gLsd. Mdh, it KGikahdit vd brhy KoahJ. tiw
tnwhL gWef jkJ brhj mDgtfis w f fwtiw
Ma khztfSF gWfntL. mtfS jhkhf njo gof ntL.
tnwhL brhjkhf jtiw izJ njf ilju ntL.
ts xU fUJ iy vgjfhf mJ nj nrhfgl TlhJ vgjW.
ghllij xoajhf mJ mikkhdh, mjF ilju Ma khztf
flikgltfshwhf. jnfg mtf cUthfglntL.
j bkhw gF flj Milnghynt j ML ciueil,
br Mat y vLJfhLf jugLsd. yfz, bkhg
Mat a gFf lbgWsd. tiw mogilahfbfhL Ma
khztf gjh tF tiu lbgwjf yafis J bfhL
Ritf jhkhfnt va gilfis cUthf wbgw bra ntL.
ghll cUthaY Kjyh ML tsiy cUthaY
jiyiknaW gaha mku nguha m. fzg mtf mikj mo
jsijbahona ts cUthfgLsJ.
nkY ts midJ khtl Ma f g Wtd
fahsf, muR Ma g Wtd fahsf, muR jbgW
Ma g Wtd fahsf, Ra Ma g Wtd fahsf,
Ma g khztf Mnahf fUJfis bgW (Field Tryout)
bfhStd bfhL jStd j brikgLjgLsJ.
tsiy nkY brGikgLJtJ fahsfsha cf iff
csJ. cf g wf thJf!
Mnah.

vii

ghll
KDiu

jbkh fj

kfis w cflUJ ntWgLJtJ bkh. jhbkh, fUJ

gkhwFa fUahf kLkyhk, gghL milahskhf sFwJ.
vdnt, xUt ggl kjdhf cUtht bkhf Ka gF twJ.
nkY, w ghlfis wghf fWbfhtjF bkh mogilahf mikwJ.
mJl, bkhghl w ghl vgjh, w fUJ ghlfis fgUJ
ntWgL wJ. bkh ghl w ts Kjik nehfkhf fUJ
ghl ghlbghUs Kjik nehfkhf mikwd. Mfnt, bkh
fj, Fghf jhbkh fj TLj w bgWtJ bjhlfiy
MafSF aikahjjhF.

fw isf
ghllij g fF khzt Maf:
Niynfg ngR bghUSnfg bkhia iH gagLJ
w bgUg.
Ijh tFtiu ghlf lbgW yafis g Mj m,
caiy g ghlf lbgW yafis g mfw m
bgUg.
Ijh tFtius j ghlgFfis fFw bgUg.
bkh mogil wfshd nfl, ngRj, goj, vGJj Ma
wfis tsF Kiwfis gWt.
ngR jGF vGJ jGFKs ntWghlJ uil mtFa
Niyf gagLJ w bgUg.
j fgjFa ghl f l jahJ gagLJ Kiwia
gWt.
gf jahJ khztf brhfsa bgUFtjfhd wbgUg.
jiH fgjF JizfUfis cUth gagLJ w bgUg.
j ghliy kL br w bgUg.
khztf jbkh wid kL bra cj gytif dhfis
cUth dhjh l tiu jahg.
khztf j br iHfis dfL, mtiw FtjFa
gfis jahJ iHfis fis w bgUg.

viii

gF - m. jbkh w
m. br
gjh tFtiuYs ghlf mikj Gs br gFfis
ga m bgWj.

mwiu gF
1. ehyoah

2. be sf

bjhliy br

brhfis j
ciueilgLJj
bghU TWj
ea ghuhLj

3. ygfhu
4. bgauhz

kWky ghlf
5. ghuah fijf
6. fk fijf

M. ciueil
Ugjh whL ciueilahaf fis goJ bghUs
tJl, mtf eil wig brhfsaij mJ nghW w
bgWj.
1. kiwkiyaof

brhts bgWj

2. K. tujuhr

ciueil w czj

. yfz
Gs yfz gFfga bjthd mbgWtJl catif
gagLJ wbgWj.
1. id - idKW - vr - bgabur - idbar
2. jid, wid - brid, braghL id
3. dFj
4. tHF - a - jF
5. bjhifiy bjhl - bjhfhiy bjhl
6. bkpW z (zfu dfu <W, kfu <W, yfu sfu <W, tUbkh jfu
efu )
7. m (ctik, vLJfhL ctik, Jbkhj, jFngw)

ix

<. gilghw
khzt Maf bkhw tsgjfhd g mj
1. ngrhwiy tsj
2. fij vGJj
3. Wfij vGJj
F: gF ghlbghUg neuoahd
bkhw dhfns mik.

dhf mikah.

gF - M. j fj
jiy cfS

brKiw

a 1: ghl VghL
-

ghl VghL
ghll
ghl
ghl VghL, ghll, ghl
bjhl
- ghl M
- ghlY MafS

VnjD xU tF ghliy
kL brj

a 2: brhfsa bgUFj
- brh mik, bghU, gaghL
- mj brhfsa, gagLJ
brhfsa
- mogil wfS brhfsa
bgUFjY
- ghlfis fjY brhfsa
bgUFjY
- brh gf
- brh isahLf

brh isahL, brh

gf jahJ elJj

a 3: caiy wf
-

foj vGJj
fLiu vGJj
ngrhw
gilghw (fij, fij vGJj)
fyJiuahliy begLJj

IJ khztf bfhl FGfshf

J Fl jiy fyJiu
ahLj. mij xU khzt xU
izJelJj. thW vyh
khztfSbra thgj.
gh fijia brh fijia
KoF gaf gy fijfis
bjhFj

a 4: iH M Fiw fisjY
- jtW, iH ntWghL
- fw iH l
- iH fhz
- iH tiff
- fhuz fhz
- iH F gf

Fl tif iHfSfhd
iH F gf jahj

a 5: j fj jft bjh Eg
-

bkh gwh Tl
f jG
j bkbghUf
iza
j iza gfiyfHf
glfK j fjY

bkh gwh Tlij

gagL, nfl wid
tsF ghlf jahj
f eGtfjahj
(Power Point Presentation)

a 6: nj kL
-

msL, nj, kL
xbthU wid kL Kiw
dhjh totik
njit ll
bjhl kL

xi

dhjh l tiu jahj

brKiw gf
khzt Ma bkhw tyik bgwtuhf fH xbthU ehS
bkh g jik <LgL bfhsntL. g ehf xbthW
bkhw mileh vd TWksF g bgwntL. gna
kjid KGikbgw brwJ (Practice makes man perfect). mjfhf xnth aY
khzt Maf brantoa gf goaL jugLsd. goa
Yl nkY vtiwbayh nrf aYnkh mtiwbayh nrJ g
aJ bkhw KGikahd milbgw brtJ fahsf flik
ahF.

gF - m
a

brKiw g

1. j bkhw tsj 1. bjhif brhf bjhF jahj.

2. ghl lbgWs VnjD X ciu
eil gFia vG, mYs ma brhf,
kubjhlf, nknfhf Matiw
RLj.
3. Kj tFKj gjh tFtius
ghlgF lbgW ghuah, fk
Mnah fijf VjhtJ xwid vG,
ea ghuhLj.
4. MWKj vlh tFtius ghlgF
lbgWs VnjD xU bris vG,
mUbrhfSF sf jUj.
5. Kj tFKj Ijh tFtius ghl
lbgWs mwiu gF xwid
vG, mjid bghUtz J
vGJj.
6. lhl K.t. ciueil gF XU
gf vG, mj ciueil w vGJj.
7. brhj fgid VjhtJ _W jiy
fij, fij vGJj.
8. kiwkiyaof ciueilgF XU
g vG, mj brhtsij RLj.
9. ghlgF lbgWs ygfhu
gF xid vG ciueilgLJj.

xii

gF - M
1. ghl VghL

1. ghl VghL, ghll, ghl f

l,ghlfj FMat
ilnas bjhlid xgilghf
vGJj.
2. Kj tFKj Ijh tFtius
ghlf VnjD xU iy kL
brj.

2. brhfsa bgUFj

1. XbuGJ xUbkh brhfis bjhFJ

bghUbsG tha mikj.
2. xUbghU Fj gybrhf, gybghU
Fj xUbrh bjhF jahj.
3. brh isahLfis bjhFj.
4. bjhif brhfis bjhFJ bjGJj.
5. kubjhlf, izbrhf bjhF
jahj.

3. caiy wf

1. iwa rKjha bgf iy,

kfbjhif bgUf, m bgUf,
RWNH nfL nghw jiyfis
khzt FGfSF bfhLJ
fyJiuahl brj.fyJiuahoa
bria g brj.
2. mYtyf foj, cwKiw foj vGj
brj.
3. Fl jiy bfhLJ fLiu vGj
brj.(3)
4. Fl jiy bfhLJ ngr brj,
nga bria g brj.(2)
5. fij bjhlfij T, mjid Kof
brj. thW TW fijfis
bjhFf brj. (3)

4. iH M
Fiw fisjY

1.khztfl fhzgL xikahf

iHfis flJ goaLj.
2. tha iHfis goaLj.
xiii

3. ttot VgL iHfis goaL,

F Kiwfis RLj.
4. x iHfis goaL mtiw F
Kiwfis RLj.
5. j fj jft
bjh Eg

1. bkh gwh Tlij ghitL,mj

mik Kiwia lbgWs fU
fis gaghil bjhFj.
2. bkh gwh Tlt ff
ghlbghU xwid jahj.
3. Ijh tF VjhtJ xU ghlgFia
ff f eGtf
(Power Point Presentation) jahj.
4. jbkh f gaghL goa
jahj.

6. nj kL

1. Ijh tFF myFnj elJtjF

njitahd dhjh l tiu
dhjhS jahj.
2. Ijh tF ciueil wid nrhf
cj wta dhfis bjhFj.
3. Ijh tFKj vlh tFtius
dhjhx iwFiwfis M
brj.
4. nfl, ngRj wfis kLtjfhd
Kiwfis goaLj.
5. wj nj gfis sFj.

xiv

bghUslf
a

jiy

gf

gF - m
1.

j bkhw tsj

gF - M
1.

ghl VghL

38

2.

brhfsa bgUFj

47

3.

caiy wf

64

4.

iH M Fiw fisjY

91

5.

j fj jft bjh Eg

108

6.

nj kL

138
izf

1.

dhjh l tiuf

161

2.

kh dhjhf

163

3.

mfkL brKiw g

167

4.

ghit f

168

xv

gF - m
1. j bkhw tsj
mKf
ey Ma xUt, j khztfSF vthW wghf ffntL vd
bjUjh kL nghjhJ. mt, jh fF Jiw ey yik cilatuhf
Uj ntL. j fgt bkh fj Kiwfis mjtuhf Ug
njhL, bkhia MSw iftu bgwtuhf Uj ntL. mbghGJjh
khztf br iHfis mJ Uj Ko; khztfSF Kkhahf
fH Ko. jid fUbfhnl a khzt Maf jbkh
jf wid tsJbfhs br, ciueil Matiw J ga
gLj, yfz gFfis Jbfhs, gilghw bgw
tfhLjf jugLsd. tiw KGikahf gagL khzt Maf
jbkh jf wid tsJ bfhsntL.

goiyf
1. br
m) brhfis j
M) bghU mj
) ciueilgLJj
<) ea ghuhLj
2. ciueil
m) kiwkiyaof
M) K. tujuhrdh
3. yfz
m) idKW, id vr
M) jid, wid
) brid, braghL id
<) dFj
c) tHF
C) bjhifiy bjhl
v) bjhfhiy bjhl
V) bkpW z
I) m
4. gilghw
m) ngrhw
M) fij vGJj
) Wfij vGJj
1

1. br
jbkh br wlK caiy bfhljdh bkhghl
fj brSF Kjl mfgLwJ. br csJ czia
btgLJ thyhf eakhd fUid eakhd brhfsh eagl ciuF
wDilajhf sFtJ. fhjYzfS uzfS VffS
jfS bgUjfS kzfS btgL. RUfbrh
sfitF br eil, Mj j brfJ. xbthUtlK cw
lF czfis jobaG cUbfhLJ ega isF tfis
njl brya gagL. gafis fUbfhnl g, f
ghlf br ghl lbgWwJ.

m) brhfis j
xUbrhik, bghUbj, vGJ fd, z f Kja gy
fhuzfSfhf bryfz TLbrhfshf vGjgLwd. ciueilia
l br brhnr Fahf fhzgL. jid fhQ khztf,
mjid fodkhf czJ br gogij btWghf idwd. thW
vGJtJ jbkhw cauhw vgij J jbkhnf ca w
TW vgjid khztfSF vLJ TwntL. brYs brhfis
f mbrhf vthW zjd vd sfkhf TWtJ jbkh
Ma Kj flikahF. jF yfz m g njit. tU
Kiw, sFKiwf va vLJfhLfis T brhfis J
fhLnghJ bkh fw khztfSF MtnjhW. fijf vGJ
z, brhz aghsd. eikaahknyna eh thnw crJ
tUnwh. J vGJ tot ghFnghJ ahjJnghy njhWwJ;
iuthf crFnghJ ngRnghJ zfis nfL kHyh.
UD, FHijfSF ghl fFnghJ xbthU brhiy ma
brtjF mUbrhbghU TWtjF zj brhfis J
fhLnwh. j fj jid xU goiyahfbfhL ffntL.
iyba, l brhfis fL khzt kULLt.
jhWtJ, zjJ, cybfyh, eaj,
Kjyh Mo jhWtJ,
aizj, gilbaLj, gyt, nrao, nrto Kja brhfis F
Kiwfis e} ghf Ijid gagL g bgUf.
mtiw ulh MoY idTJ gagLjntL.
, bkpW zf zfu, dfu <Wf; kfu <W; yfu sfu <Wf
vthW wd vgij ffUf. yfz gF bkpW
z vD jiy nkY thf fhzyh.
jhd bfhLF jifik khdjh
Fw foj bthGfK - bjbwd
gbghU a ij _W
eid ahF fW.

( fLf -23)

fLf btgh kfu xW tbyGJfSF dkhf JsJ.

ffuF dkhf , Mf, jfuF dkhf Mf kfubthW JsJ.
2

jhd bfhLF
ahF fW
bfhLF jifik
xGfK bjbwd

=
=
=
=

jhd
bfhLF
fW
ahF
jifik
bfhLF
bjbwd
xGfK

thnw w. eh ngRnghJ dfiy czuyh. ghl gojh vd

brhtjF ghl brh jUwh vd brhtjF cs ntWghil eF
czuyh. ghl brh jUwh vd brhYnghJ, ghl brh jUwh
vD cr tUwjyth? iuthf ngRnghJ eikaahk aghf
br
nf
brh
znj ngRnwh. mtl
brW ghl
nfnl; mtU ghl
brhdh;


bfh
d njD
idkh
nwh. jhdbfh
bfhLj khil giy oJ
ghfyhkh? tiw brh ghUf, jid,
k bwhw J bwhg
tik dkh g khF. ( e. 219)
vd e} gh TW.
njhw j bfLj fhu
_W bkh_ lJ khF (e. 154)
go kfu bfl a br. thW ztij fhu z
bag.
(v.fh.) ku + nt = kunt ( bflJ)
bghU a = bghU + a vd U brhf zJsd. iybkh
<whd , tUbkh Kjyhd l zJ vd khW.
jid,
ysnt Wik wl kt
mtnwh Lw tt dhbk
nk d z
ilt a
MF Ut ahD bkg.

(e. 227)

yfhu, sfhu uL iybkhpWfS td tUbkhahf tUnghJ, ntWik

Kiwna wfhu, lfhufsh; mt wfhu, lfhufSlnd cwtdth;
UtfQ bkd t dfhu, zfhufsh; ild t agh.
(v.fh.)

f + Fiw
brh + ea
brh + bjhl
f + jhiH
bghU + bjhl
K + Fiw
kU + ah
bghU + ea

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

fFiw
brhda
brhbwhl
fwhiH
bghUblhl
KFiw
kUah
bghUza

( > )
( > )
( > )
( > )
( > )
( > )
( > )
( > )

ygfhu lbgWs tU tfis J fhngh.

<ifth bfhoadh <uhwh lfitah
U Htkf <bulh lfitah (ygfhu)
3

U tfY vQ zf lbgWsd.
lfitah, <bulh lfitah vgd.

mit <uhwh

<uhwhlfitah = uL + MW + ML + mfit + M vd,

<bulhlfitah = uL + vL + ML + mfit + M vd
brhfis fyh.
c tUnghJ, uL > < vd .
jid,

xw ufu khf
ul bdhW nuf tUnk (e. 189) vd e} TW.

< + MW = <uhW ( clnk ctJ xWj ang

ang)
<uhW + ML = <uhwhL ( ct cFw bknlhL )
<uhwhL + mfit = <uhlfit (ct
bknlhL)
ct cFw bknlhL
<uhwhlfit + M = <uhwhlfitah ( < I t a
a)
<bulhlfitah vD brhbwhlU thnw zjJ.
guL, g_W, gdhF, bjhW, <uhu, _thu,
ehyhu, Iahu, gdhu, vgdhu MatWfhd z
fis e} ghfis gagL jf.
<) fhlFnr toYbt Ugh flhdh, j ura ahf
tia tUkhW J fhzyh.
fhlF = fh + jF (dyK
dyK wd zsK lz
MF jef M fhny - e. 237)
nrtoY

= nr + mo + + c
= nr + mo = nrto ( VK Uik
Uik)
= mo + = mo (,
, <, It a)
= mo + c = moY (clnk
clnk ctJ ...)

thW br zj brhfis fhQnjhW mtiw jjnyhL,

vthW zjJ vd fljh, bris vjhf J bghUsayh. e
bkh kufis bghndngh ngh gagLJtJ bkhia ngQjyhF.

M)bghU mj
xbthU tFY Mufzfhd brhfis khzt fW bghUsJ
gagL tUwd. vJiz MLf gwhY bkhYs midJ
brhfis fWl ayhJ; fwhY ca l gagLJtJ mJ;
mjD mJ id bfhs. bkh y Mu brhfisna eh Ug
Ug gagLJtjh mit mj brhfsh Lwd; v bghU
sFwd. y brhfis nfoUngh; y brhfis goUngh; Mdh,
mtiw vF gagLUfkhnlh. V y brhfis Jtiu foU
f khnlh; nfoUf khnlh. mfuh KGtij goUjhY m
lbgwhj brhfS Ufyh; jhf brhf cUthfgoUfyh; myJ
4

bghJ brhyhf yhk Jiw rhj brhfshf Ufyh. Mfnt, brhfSF

ca bghUis mJbfhtjdhY. mbrhf ifahsgLs l neh
bghU mJbfhtjdhY bghU bj VgL. jF mfuh bgJ
cj. mfuhahdJ, xU brhYFa nebghUis KjY, ifahsgL l
neh tUbghUis dU TW. mfuh xU brhYF gybghU
TwgoUFnghJ, lneh bghU bfhtnj bghUjkhf mik.
f, j vD mj brhfSF fHf jHfuh, kJiu
jHfuh, ah jfhy j mfuh Mad vbdd
bghUfis TWwd vd flf.
nflh F jifath nfshU
ntg bkhtjh brh.
(Fw: 643)
Fwgh lbgWs F, ntg Ma U brhf khztfSF
mUbrhfshf mik; Ubrhf vD brhiy nf
goUg. Mdh, mbrhfhd bghU neh vD msnyna khzt
bghUsUg. nkY, neh vD bghU 227,734, 736, 949, 1014, 1102
Ma FwfY tSt ifahLsh. Mdh, Fw bghU
bghUjiy. F vD brh mgona mfuh fhzgLwjh vd
ghjh mgobahU brh fhzgliy. , if, j, j,
, Kf vDbrhfns fhzgLwd. vthW bghUstJ
vD kaf khzt kd vG. mthbwGbghGJ, mbrh
ntbrhiy fhzntL. F vgj ntbrh vgjhF.
vD brhF fHf jHfuh, fL; neh; d; Jg;bandt;
fLif; gW; mU; berj gil vd gybghU TWwJ.
jid bghU Tdh vjid vLJbfhtJ vD kaf xbthUtU
FS tUtJ aif. vLJbfhl Fw bjj brhfSfhd bghUis
bfhL bghUjkhd bghUis bj brantL. Fw nflh, nfsh,
bkh, brh Ma brhfisbfhL Fw nfl, ngRjiy TWwJ
vgjid ma KowJ. Mfnt, fUJF bghUbghUjkhd brhfshf
fL, fLif, gW Mad csd. vD brh nebghU fL
vgjhF. nflhiu fLgJ, ngatJ gW VgLJtJ brh
myth! mzh, j ngrh Tldiu fonghlh. vdnt, Fw,
vD brhYF brhyh ftGJ fonghLj vd bghU
bfhsntL. nj brhyhia 570 MtJ FwY UtSt
ifahLsh. MF, vbghU ifahLsh vd fhf.
ntg vD brh nt vD brhiy moahf bfhlJ. nt =
Mir; wj Mkf; cj; Fku; k; kkj; rSF ntj vd fHf
jHfuh bghU TWwJ; nt = vgjF Ug; a vd bghUTWwJ.
Mfnt, Fw nfshU Ugo brhtnj brh vd bghU bfhs
ntL. thnw Fw lbgWs bkh vD brhFa
bghUfis flf.khzt Maf, br tUbrhfSF jhkj
brhbghUis V Twhk, ghLbghU tU brhbghUsJ fUij
sfntL.
5

thW mUbrhf bghUsj d, ghlYfhd bghUis mJ

ciufntL.
nflh F jifath - j ngid
jtagLJ tyikf brhyhw cilatuh,

nfltiu

nfshU - Jtiu j ngid nfshjtU myJ j fUJF khWghL

cilatU,
ntg bkhtjh - UkhW TWtnj
brh - thW TW brhfisna brhf vd TwntL. wiu
ftuhj brhf btWbrhf vd bfhsntL vd tSt brhtik
id TWwh.
ms gHd(J) mufhg thaH
bts gl bjdbt - dj
ifwfh ghbghLF fit ciljnuh
eiynt nfhnfhij ehL.
br Kbjhshu nru ehL tsij vLawJ.
ms gHdJ - nrW ta cs
muF Mg - muF wbkhj Mg (brjhkiu)
thaH - kyUf
d bts glJ vd bt - mjid fl th gwit Tl
g bfhlnjhbtd m,
j ifwfh ghbghLF - jj FRfis wFF ml bfhS
fit ciljnuh - ngbuh vGwnjh
eiynt nfhnfhij ehL - eid nt a nru kd thG ehL.
ytf aif fid fL, mjJ jf fUij V TWtJ
br ku. mnjngh, brY nruehL tsij eifRitl iy
f thG gwitfJ V T nru kd uij vLawh.
ehbl, mF ft gaK, gift mrK UF. Mdh, nru eho
mjifa mriy bagij mHFw vLawh yt. taf
UF brthgiy fL gbfhlnjh btd kafKW gwitf
ngbuhia vG jj FRfis wFF milJ bfhwd.
mbthfis ju, kf mrgL vG xf nru eho iy vd yt
TWwh. nru eho aif tsij M wig ghl bjbwd
sFwJ.

) ciueilgLJj
xU br bghUisbayh bjhFJ ciueilahf vGJtJ
ciueilgLJj MF. jhbkh g Cf bgWtjF iueil
gLJj g ga jU. midJ tFfSF gid Maf
nkbfhsyh. ciueilgLJtjdh khztf eikf gy bgWt.
jdh, khztF bris fUJzJ goF gHf VgL. nkY,
br ijJs ma fUJfis bghUfis Egkh m Mw
6

bgWt. mj fUJfis wjKiw btgLJ Mwiy, br

bghUis wgl siuF wid bgWt.
ciueilgLJtjFK bris gKiw goJ, mj fU
bghUis bjJbfhsntL. d, mbr lbgWs
milbkhf, mUbrhf KjatFa EbghUis mfuh Jiz
bfhL mj ntL. br KGikF bghUsj, jknf ca
eil va brhfsh MbwhGfhd eil j thaf vGJtJ w.
br KGbghUis ciueil vGjntL. bryhj ntW
bghUis vGl TlhJ. br neTWf lbgU mtiw
mgona ciueilgLJtJ cnuhlKilajhf UF.
eyh brnfik ehnlhW ewhF
myh brnfik Mfhnj - eyhnf!
fhK fah sjeh
nghK vdh ngh?
(ebd)
mUbrhbghUsj: nfik - e; ehnlhW - ehnjhW; myh myh ngija; eyh- egila bgnz! -d; f - RitF
f; sj - bfhGJ; vdh ngh? - vdth nghF?
ciu: egf bgnz! brhtij nfghahf; fhahdJ Kdh fah
gjF Rit eF; bfhGJ Kdh vd gaid jU? (rUfh gadW
nghF) mJnghy, eytfnshL bfhS e ehnjhW ewh tsJ
(tsiwah tsJ) ey gaid eF; myh ngijauhd atfnshL
bfhS e mjF khwhf njJ (njiwah njJ) ehS gadW
nghtnjhL nfoidna isF.
Mfnt, eig Tlh eig blhJ MuhJ ebfhs
ntL; meng ehS tsiwah tsJ thGfhy KGikF t
Jizah tU vgij fUjhf bfhsntL.

<) ea ghuhLj
br, ghl, fijfis RitJ WtjF Mjfw yiknahL
bkhahtK UjntL. brSF fUJ, cz, fgid, mHa
tot Ma ehF aikahjd. Mdh, ehF xU br xUnf
miktJ mJ. y brf bghURit ntWy XireaK kWy
fgid tsK Dy meaK bgW wWtij fhnwh.
meafis Ritfis gF cJzuyh. br njid nghwJ;
njidlhy mj Ritia TwayhJ. mJnghy bris Ritjh
y mj KUFzia bgwayhJ.
gh eabkyh - ahD
gfu tnyndh?
M ghRitia - eh
msJ fhoLnkh?

(fk: ghu gofhlhD)

brh ea
brhf vgit fUJfis czJtjFa FpLfshF. brh
fis bfhnl yt, j fgid wdh fijfis gilwd.
ciueil ifahS brhfSF br ifahS brhfSF ntWik
7

iy. vD, mbrhfis ifahS Kiwjh ntWghL csJ. brhf

jknf ca xeaij td bkd vGJfSnfg czl nrJ
xF jikbgWsd. br brhf mikbghGJ lF
VwthW NiyF VwthW czF VwthW RitF VwthW
mikJ bris wf brwd. yt gy brfis goJ
Ritnghnf brhtsK eaK maaY. brhf xnwhblhW
izJ clhF brbrh gij Efu fngh kbt isg.
(v.L.) mtDjh,
knjj fdh kKf klthj
gnjj bkhdh MaJ ghuho
fnlJ brntbs irngh fhjyh
bfhnlJ Hikah nfhtybd ghkndh! (y. fh fhl)
x ea
gh btgJ XJfh czjF VJth guJ gl Xir. ghliy cuf
goF nghJ, gho Ys xf aFwd. mj af VgL xGnf
xea vdgLtJ. jid, Gbk bkhah GaJ Ety vgh
bjhfha. Xirf ghlny nfF Miria L. tHa xF
fijF aikahJ ntlbgW X cWghF. xfSF _W
jikf cL. xW, x fhy ms; mjdh mik l FWf
ntWghL. uL, x jik; tikahf bkikahf xF
ntWghL. _W, xF Kiw; vLJ gLJ eJ xFbghGJ
clhF xaGj ntWghL. j _W TWfS gntW msY tifY
nrJ clhF x ntWghLfis eh xea vd tHFnwh. irfiy
J mogilahf csJ; ghL fiy J njitahd msF Eg khf
gagLjgLwJ. Mfnt, xeaij brhfsh sfKoahJ vgJ,
mjid yfsh kLnk czu Ko vgJ bj. xea UJjh
br ahKiw mikwJ. bfhkiy vD Fwhy Fwt ghliy
goJ gho ghUf, Xirea Ritid brzU.
bfhkiy vdisa brkiy mnk
bfhGeDF fhkiy gHkiy mnk
vYy ijkiy vijkiy mnk
kakiy vDila jikakiy mnk
brhya rhkiy khkiy mnk
njhkiy ehdhL ntkiy mnk
brdf KHbfhl kdf ML
Tl kiybaf brtkiy mnk.
- Tl uhrg fuha
bghU ea
bghUyh ghL btW gj vdyh. fUJ ts brj fijfns
fhybkyh iyJ thG. fUJ tsK cikjh fijF X caj
juij eFwJ. fP TW cik eh cy fhQ cikia nghw
jW; mt TW cik vgoUf ntL vgij ciugJ.

(v.L) ntu nt ntnfh gy

rhu ehl bria ahFk
ahu~ j ndhnu rhu
WnfhL bgUgH aht
cjt J fhknkh bgnj.

(FWbjhif)

cz
cz vgJ KY cs clhF fahF. gK
JgK f Kakhd czf.
xU bghU eKila njitia
iwntWtj thyhf ekF Vwjhf U, mbghGJ g cz
VgLwJ. mthnw xU bghU eKila njitfSF Vwjhf yhkU
gJl if isgjh, mbghGJ Jg cz clhwJ. cz
bagJ, fij khj czjthnw fP gilgnjhL gonghiu czu
brtJ.
(v.L) JUgj kfis - l
Je clwig
Ugfil vwh - Inah!
tF moik vwh.
JbghWg iy - j!
vjH bfhLth,
fiu itHjh - mz
ifia vLnth.
(ghrh rgj)
ghlf k thyhf ghu cz Joig fhnwh.
fgid
fgid bagJ yf neuhf xU bghUis mDgfhj fhyY mj
bghUis idF bfhLtJ mbghUlJ L mDgtij VW
xUtif Mw. Mdh, fgid jJtkhdJ mF vlhJ; brhfsh
czj KoahjJ. UD, fP jh mDgjtiw eik mDgf
brwh. jF Jizahtnj fgid. fgid Mw yaF
fUykhf aikahjjhf csJ. fgid gghdJ gilghw
<LgL xbthU fiyPDF aikahjJ. fgidia gil
fgid, ia fgid, fUJ sf fgidbad _tifgLJt
wdhths.
gil fgidahtJ, fP xUt j gl fl gy g
TWfis vj fLghL jhdhf njbjLJ mtiw bjhLJ
abjhU toid gilgJ.
xU bghU, fUJ myJ cz bjhlila czth xWiks
fhfis izJ gJ ia fgid. mjhtJ, w cy fhQ f
mf ml lF czia LwJ vwhY, bgUghY
csDgtnk mjifa czia sbjH brwJ. thW fgid
ahwiy LtjF cs ciwJ lF csDgtnk L nfhyhf
mikwJ.
9

fUJ sf fgidahdJ, aif fhfis fQw fP, jh

fltiw mgona TwhJ, mfhfsh j cs sbjG
czfis koY gjhF.
bghJthf fgid kd tsF cWJizahf mikwJ vgJ
csayh fUJ. kd cu mj fgid ahw csJ vW,
mjifa eYzit jUtJ fij vgJ MgFnuh fUJ. W ta
FHij fgid brtij nghynt fP fgid brwh; ghfis
gilwh. fgidW el vW RuJ bfhoUjhjh, fij
fis eF Ritfyh; mDgfyh.
(v.L) fhd gwit fyfbyD nkhirY
fhW kufil fhL irY
MW nuhir mU bahY
y bgUflby neuKnk jhirF
Xy ilna F irY
khDl bgf tsUbkhU fhjdh
CDUf ghLt CLnj thY
Vw gho irY beoF
bfhbwhoah FFbtd bfhR irY
Rz oghj RitFj gfY
giz klth gHFgy ghoY
tlL bgf tisfuf jhbkhf
bfho irLnkh TlKj ghoY
nt FHnyhL iz Kjyhkj
thY ifY thF gfU
ehoY fhoY ehbsyh ebwhF
ghoY beir gbfhLnj ghna....
(F ghL)
, xU ghliy vLJbfhL m lbgWs eafis fhngh.
MW bts ehis tunjW njF - kiy
ahsd <H d NHDnj
neW W bfh R fhwoFnj - nf
gL brh jtis TLFnj
nrW eL nriw FiHJ VwilFnj - kiH
njo xUnfho thdgho MLnj
nghW Ukh mHfF Vwkh giz - nr
gs Mogho J bfhnthnk!
brh ea

(KTl gS)

ghl tHF brhf lbgUD brhf bghU bghUj

Kl awgLsd. kiH tUtj mFia mHFw vLsJ
aifia vtsF Egkh mUjh, jifa ghl cUthUF
vgjF ghl rhwhf mikwJ. kiHfhd FpLf mHFw mLf
gLsd. kiyahs ehL_iyY <H ehL_iyY xnuneu D
tjh cWahf ehis kiH tU vD eif jUwJ. jdo gilnyna
Dbfyh DF kiH vD brhyh kfilna tHWnghY.
ey kiH bgjh, giz is Kj isriy mHfF fhif
ahfyhbkd J ktij ghl mHFw vLawJ. kiH F brh
10

fshf d, fhW, jtis rj, eL j tisia milj, thdghof

MLj Matiw T brh eaij btgLJwh. MWbts, ehis
tu, kiyahs d <Hd, neW W, bfh R, fhwoFnj, nrW
eL, Mo gho Ma brhf brth mikJsd. nkY, nf,
brhjtis, TLFnj, giz, nr Kja tHF brhfS
lbgWsjh, J kfns ghLtJ ngh mtf bkhny ghLtjhf csJ.
bghU ea
kiH tUtjfhd mFf mLfgL, kiH tjh vbdd gaf
VgL vgjid brhnyhakh, kiHdh VgL k btgLj
gLwJ.
x ea
gS ghL rj eafJ vgij brhbghUjK xea bghUjK
fhLwd. td, bkd, ild, cd Ma ehfz vGJf
xfS xwDbfhW nghoL xgJ ghlYF xeaij TLwJ.
1) nkhid ea
MW - ahs; neW-; nrW-nriw; nghW-giz-- gs Ma
brhf nkhid tJsjh ghliy id bfhtJ vjhf csJ.
2) vJif ea
MW - neW - nrW - nghW Ma brhf monjhW KjbyGJ
msbthJ ulh vGJ xtUtjh vJif eaf ghlyhf J sFwJ.
3) ia ea
Dnj - moFnj- TLFnj - MLnj - bfhnthnk vd monjhW Vfhu
xbgW tUtjh, ia eaf ghlyhf J csJ.
m ea - a e
csij csthnw kiHaFfSl ghlgLsjh, a e
mahf ghl mikwJ.
ghl tbyGJf bkbyGJf ilbaGJf midJ
fyJ, vJif, nkhid, ia Ma bjhil eaf wjikJ brh eaK Xir
eaK mikJ gonghF ghLnthF nfnghF ngg eFtij
RitJ kGnghJ kthrid kzfkGwJ.

2. ciueil
bjhlf iy KjtF vGJfis FF ttotf mKf
khwd. mjid bjhlJ brhfS WW bjhlfS mKfkhwd.
tF gagLJ brhfS bjhlfS bgUghY khztj thif
mJ gagLJ bjhlfshfnt UF.
MW, VHh tFfSF Ma FG vGJ ciueilna ghlfshf
mik. mjdh, brhfS bjhlfS gogoahf caJ brYiy
mikUF. vlh tFKj ciueilaha gy vGa fLiu gFf
ciueil gF mikUF. mit mtut bkhwDnfw eil
wig bgUF. mt fhzgL brhku bjhlku gaik
ku bkhik eilwig czu Jizbr.
11

mjifa ciueil ghl t, Ma g khzhf Fl

bkh Fnfhfis miljntL.
ghl gFia nfL mj ika fUij mj.
ma brhbwhlfis mj.
a brhf bghUis mj.
ku bjhlfis mj.
nknfhfis mj.
tha tiffis mj.
g khzhf ciueilt bkhwid bgw, Ugjh who
ciueil fLiuf vG w bgw gyU kiwkiyaof, lhl K.
tujuhrdh Ma Utiu g, mtj ciueil wig vLJ fhlhf
<L fhzyh.

m) kiwkiyaof
kiwkiyaof ehfgodijaLj fhlgho vD C 1876M
ML (18.07.1876) wjh. tUF bgnwhl bga ntjhry.
j yik Fj ehuhazrh isl j fwh. irtjhj
rl khUj vd fbgw nrhkRju ehafl irtjhj fwh.
brid jhj if vD irtjhj j Jizahauhf
gahdh. mjd brid Jt f .nfh. Naehuhaz
rhahUl (gkh fiyP) jHhauhf gahdh. b g h J i y
fHf xW VgL rhntWghoyhk bghJkfSF flgW clhF
brhbghf Mdh. Phdrhfu vD fj xiw bjhl eldh.
1916M MLKj tUF jj gW clhW. j kf
yhifaikahUl ngbfhoUFbghGJ, j tlbkh brhfS
w mabkh brhfS fygjh j ik FiwtJl j brhf
ehsil kiwJnghL vd T jj afij njhWjh.
mJKj Phd rhfu mfl MW. Rth ntjhry kiwkiyaof Mdh.
jj afij njhWj bgah, jkJ vGgijjh ta
1950M ML (15.9.1950) aifbadh.
Jt f gahWbghGnj godghiy Muh, Kiy
ghlhuh fis vG btlh. fLiu vGJw, miu bfhJ,
jid fLiuf Ma mtUila w f gonghiu <gd. rhFjy ehlf
bkhbga rhFjy ehlf Muh tuJ tlbkh yikF jf
rhWfsh.
gHj bfhifna irtrka, rh ntWik ngh irtU, jH
kj nghwit tj Muh fshF. nfhyhgh fojf, kf
whL c thif, bghUJ cz bghUjh cz, bjhiy
czj, nahf iu nghwit tuJ w gilfshF.
kiwkiyaofshiug U..f., kiwkiy xU bgU mRl, j
KuR, irtth, mtj j yik tlbkh yik, My yik,
Muh ngR vGJ bjhL bjdhil f brjd. bjdhnl
mofsh wJ. mofns bjdhL, bjdhnl mof vd FLsh.
12

kiwkiyaof ciueil fUJ y gFf:

gF-1
fna mah brt vgJg miu bfhJ vD , mah
brtijna milantLbkD mth ebkyhlJ aifahf
UjhY, KJ cs K x gh_oa gts wK, gh
kiwj k JyfK, Til fj s xngh eik _o bfho
UF mahik vD U mfgltfsh eh mit HJ mah
brtij mila Kayhk, iy mJnghF bghUfisna iyahf
iHgl idJ, mtiw bgWtY mtiw EftYnk ekJ fhyij
fJ tUnwh.
1. g ika fUJ fna mah brt.
2. K x, gts w, k Jyf, s x - nghw
ctikf lbgWsd.
3. mth, kh, Jyf, Tilfj, Efj - vd mUbrhf ga
gLjgLsd.
4. Til fj s xngh vD mHa ctik gagLj
gLsJ.
5. mah brt, mahik vD U - vD mHa bjhlf
gagLjgLsd.
gF -2
fhL ga tUzid Wtfhd brj vD UJ,
fhdf fid fhdfy ntbwF fhz ayhJ. vjid
tothd iyf! vjid wkhd kyf! vjid Ritahd fhf! vjid
ghd gHf! vjid tifahd kuf brof bfhof! mkk! iwt
gil gntW tifahd ajF mik mHF xUF bghJa mlf
Ga jik vd TWnt! vthW fhLnt! fhdff mlJaj
njhwij fhif csK cz nkYaJ brwd! a
Jik fUij ftGwd!
1. g ika fUJ: fhdfJ f (m) fhL ga tUzid.
2. fhdf, f, bghJa, ml, Ga Ma mUbrhf l
bgWsd.
3. fhoYs kuf, iyf, fhf, gHf, brof, bfhof Mait
tUfgLsd.
4. fho mHa jik TwgLsJ.
5. fhdfJ f fhQnjhW fhQnjhW aig cLgQtJ
tfgLsJ.
6. Kj xU bjhlU ulhtJ xU l bjhlUkhf mikJ a
brhf mf mikJ, alnd KoUgJ kiwkiyaofSnf
ca wghd eilahF.
13

gF - 3
btsjh mJnghtJ btbeUgh btJnghtJ murfsh
ifgwgLtJ bfhLf bfhLf FiwJnghtJ ftfhf eik
mRgJ ghJfhgjF Fj tUjij jUtJkhd brt ekh
vneuK UgjfjbwgJ jdh J sFwjnwh? thW
brhYjiybfhL eh brtij ntlhk tWikgL j kQy
tUna fhyff ntLbkW f idj TlhJ. ekJ kQyf
thif J elgjF, w cf Jgij nghF <if mwfis
brtjF aikahJ ntlgL bghUis nrJ, Muthu yhkY,
vyh jdnf vW vzhkY jdF wF gtifah ey gaf
isgo mjid gagLJj ntLbkgnj vdJ fUjhF.
1. gF ikafUJ ahJ?
2. vJ UgjfjW?
3. bghUis vthW gagLjntL?
4. g mikJs mUbrhf ahit?
Xuila LfKj Mwila kf <whd gynfho cfS
kf wna wjJ vgJ vyhF bjj cikanwh!
Vbd MwhtjhdgFj kf wbaLj cfF
ngusdjh mikjhnghy Vid WfF mikaiy.
- kiwkiyaof

M) K. tujuhrdh
K. tujuhrdh tl MfhL khtlYs Ug 1912M ML
Karh mtfSF mkhfQ mikahUF kfdhf wjh.
Ug caiyg goig Kojh. gdhwh ta tlha
mYtyf vGjuhf gnawh. <isneh fhuzkhf mgUJ
ydh.
Ug KUifa Kjahl j gW 1935 th nj
Kj khztuhf nj bgwh. Ug jHhauhf gahw
bjhldh. r. M. yFkzrh Kjah tiu girag f
gwhauhf gnaf brjh. 1947 brid gfiyfHf thyhf
Kidt gl bgwh. jJiw KjKjyhf v.o. gl bgwt tnu
ahth.
1961M ML, brid gfiyfHf jJiw jiyt
bghWngwh. d kJiu gfiyfHf Jizntjuhdh. jHf
tuyhW FG, cyf jHhuh Wtd Mat jiytuhf bghW
tjh.
mbkf gfiyfHf x o.. glbgw jHP lhl K.t.
xUtnu ahth. kJiu gfiyfHf Jizntjuhf UFbghGJ beril
nehah jhfgL 10.10.1974 mW yf thit jh.
14

K.t., KjKj FHij ghLf vD vGdh. mjid

bjhlJ WtfSFa Wfijf vGdh. girag f
gahWbghGJ bkhtuyhW, bkh, ya ku, ya w nghw
fis btlh. 1945 bttj UFw bjiu jeho f
mfkhf gidahd fS xwhF.
tbuGa df fnsh fhankh, bgw kd, m, ky,
brjhkiu, be xU K, fJL nghwd Fljfdth. fh
mz, mP bgdhh, fP jhT nghw thif tuyhW fis
vGsh. tuJ Xtbr, bfhFnj thif, eiz brt nghw
f brkhj eil mikJsit.

K.t. fUJ y gFf:

gF-1
bkh X ma fiy vgJg bkh tuyhW vD ,
bkh vgJ kf gilJ fhF mabjhU fiy. bkhna kf
mit tsJ caJ ma fUahfcsJ. bgw jh Kjntif j
FHijl ngRj. mt Kj mil bga k, FHij ngir
nfgnyna MF. FHij kd tsnahL xJ tstJ bkh tsna
MF. kd vgJbgUghY bkhah mikjJ. kd tsF Vgnt
ngRnth bkh ts bgW F. kf midtU bkhF Mauhf
csd. khztuhf csd. bkhia tsgtU kfns; bkhah
tsgtU kfns.
1. g ika fUJ bkh xU fiy vgjhF.
2. ma, ntif - nghw mUbrhf gagLjgLsd.
3. kdts bkh ts xiwbahW rhJsd vw
fUJ sfgLwJ.
4. kfsh bkh bkhah kfS tswd vw fUJ
cWgLjgLsJ.
gF -2
jF vD ,
j! aifUJ eh xU bga ghl fWbfhs ntL. thif
gF xiw kL nghWwt cUgoahtiy. cliy kL ngh cu
khf itUgtD mwh. mtDila cs mtDF gifah mtid a
t brY bfLJ mwJ. csij kL ikahf ngh fhghW
wtD ileLnt mygLwh. mtDila cs mikia bfLJ
mygLwJ. clY ntL, csK ntL vW uil cukhf
ikahf fhgnj flikahF. ku thdsht cau ntoajhf Ufyh; Mdh
jh nt%a kiz kwJ thH KoahJ. thid wfJ isfis
cajhk thH KoahJ.
1. g ikafUJ cliy csij ngQj.
2. cu, my, thdsht - nghw mUbrhf gagLjgLsd.
15

3. cliy csij xUnf ngzntL vw fUJ tWj

gLwJ.
4. ku thdsht cau ntoajhf Ufyh; Mdh, jh nt%a
kiz kwJ thH KoahJ; thid wfJ isfis
cajhk thH KoahJ - vw eaf brhbwhl gagLj
gLsJ.
5. cl cuF ku ntU, kd tsF kuisf tsU
jik xL fhlgLsJ.
gF - 3
jifF vGa fojUJ,
jhf gHFnghJ bgUghnyh ewhf gHf Ko. m xW w
iy; wik iy. a khzt xGfhf elJbfht. a Ma
ghLgL fWbfhLg. a ahgh ey ruF gh. a ntiyfh ewhf
ciHgh. a ghfhu ey gh jUth. a e ikahf sF.
m xU w iy. j Jikia v eifahLtJngh My
xU gHbkh UgJ cdF eF bj. a Jilg ewhf bgUF
vD mj gHbkh ntoifahf UjhY fUJ cilaJjh. mjF khwhf,
vts gHik Md nghY w Fwhk xL thifjh ey thif.
kiwaJ bghKyh a bghUngh bjhlf kLnk ey x RwJ.
cikahd bghdh bragl bghU xU ehS mgo MfhJ myth? gHf
gHf, njanja mJ FwhJ xR myth? mJngh thG thifna eyt
f Fnfhshf UfntL.
1. g fUJ ahJ?
2. g gagLjgLs gHbkh czJ fUij sFf.
3. ey thif jikfshf FlgLtd ahit?
4. eytf Fnfhshf TwgLtJ ahJ?
5. bghKyh a bghU vW TwgLtJ ahJ?
6. g gagLjgLs mLFbrhf ahit?
7. g tJs mUbrhfSF bghU TWf.
FLg cWduh cs xbthUtU ciHf ntL. mJjh
ey FLg. y ciHf, y ciHfhkny mtf ciH
gaid cL, nrhgyhf Ugjdh nghwjf FLg MfhJ. cyf
bga FLg. mY vnyhU ciHfntL. ciHfhk
cthH vtUF cik Uf TlhJ. Ul ciHfhk wUila
ciH gaid bgW thwh. mjdhjh mt rKjhajh
btWfgLwh. vfhy ciHfhk c thnth vtU
btWfgLt.
- lhl K. tujuhr

16

3. yfz
ffUF tFfSfhd yfz gFf g khzt Ma
bjthd m bgUj aikahjJ. Kjyh ML ghlgF d
btGJf, bgabrh, bga gf, MFbga, mbkhbjhif, ntWik
cU bghUS, cU kaf, uil s, mLFbjhl, tGtik,
tbyGJ Flf, fhlf Kjad lbgwd. ulh ML
ghlgF ghlfis fFbghGJ tU yfz mit ca
Kiw gagLJ w khzt Ma bgWjntL.

m) idKW, idbar
t gJ isahodh - brhbwhl isahodh vD brh
t brj braiy FwJ. thW braiy FF brh idbrh
vdgL. idbrh id KWbgW tUtij idKW vd, KW
bgwhj idia vrid myJ idbar vd tHfgL.
idKW
isahodh, gwjJ - brhf idf bghUKo bgW
tJsd. d bghUKo bgW tU idbrh idKW vdgL.
idKW tiff
idKW brhf bjiy idKW, F idKW vd uL
tifgL.
bjiy idKW
knkfiy ghl gojh - gojh vgJ bjiy id
KwhF. brgt, fU, y, bra, fhy, brbghU vD Mwid
btgilahf czJtJ bjiy idKwhF.
brgt

knkfiy

fU

bra

goj

fhy

wjfhy

brbghU -

ghl

bjiy idahdJ gFdh braiy, iliyah fhyij,

Fdh brgtid btgilahf fhL.
gojh jF ghl vw bragLbghU bjthf bjtjh
bragLbghU Fwh idKwhF. jh - J bragLbghU
Fa id, sf jUf, xL fhLf.
F idKW
bghU, l, fhy, id, Fz, bjh Ma mWtif bga moahf
F id njhW. brgtid btgilahf fho braiy fhyij
Fghf bjJ F idbrh, F idKwhF.
t bghd
t kJiuah

bghU
l
17

t iuah
t FWfhy
t brgilah
t fLeila

fhy
id
g
bjh

t bghd vgJ bghid cilatdhf Ujh, bghid

cilatdhf Uwh, bghid cilatdhf Ugh vd bghU cz
bjhiy fhyij Fghf fho, t vw vGthF gaiyahf
Ugij fhf.
F idKiwg fyJiuahLf. ntW vLJfhLf vGJf.
vrid
goj Wt, goJ ghjh, gwj gwit, gwJ brwJ brhbwhlfYs goj, goJ, gwj, gwJ vD brhf bghU Ko
bgwhk tJsd. thW bghU Kobgwhj idbrh bgaiunah
idianah bfhL Kokhdh mJ vrid vdgL.
bgabur
goj, gwj vw vridf Wt, gwit vD bgafis bfhL
KoJsd. thW vridf bgaiubfhL Kojh, mJ bgabur
vdgL.
(v-L) goj Wt, gwj gwit
idbar
goJ ghjh, gwJ brwJ - tW goJ, gwJ vw
bridf ghjh, brwJ vD idbrhfisbfhL KoJsd.
thW vrid, idbrhiy bfhL Kojh mJ idbar vdgL.

M) jid, wid
vGth, jhnd xU braiy brj jid vdbgW.
(v-L) br cz clh.
vGth, xU braiy wiubfhL brj wid vd bgW.
(v-L) brah cz cfglJ.
jid widahFnghJ , , F., R, L, J, , W Mad Ffsh
mik.
(v-L) vGJ - vGJ, c - c, br - br, go - go.
bkbwhl FWfu tbwhluh khWtij fhf.
(v-L) vG - vG, mlF - mlF.
jidf cs bkbyhW tbyhwh J tU.
(v-L) cajh - cadh
18

y jidf tbyhW uoJ widfshtij fhf.

(v-L) ML - ML, khW - khW, MW - MW.
y jidf gF vj khWjY gF iliy iznghJ
td FJ widfshtij fhf.
(v-L) njnw - njnw
br, it, gQ vD brhf jid brhfnshL nrJ tUnghJ
wid brhfshtij fhf.
(v-L) jLng - jLf brnt
jLf itng, jLf gQnt.

) brid, braghL id
xU thakhdJ vGth, bragLbghU, gaiy vD tir
mikJ, bragLbghUnshL I vD ulh ntWik cU nrJ
tUkh, mJ brid tha vdgL ( I cU btgilahf tU;
kiwJ tU). UtSt UFwis adh - brid. brgtDF
w jU id brid vdgL.
xU thakhdJ bragLbghU, vGth, gaiy vD tir
mikJ, vGthnah M vD _wh ntWik cUnrJ, gaiynahL
gL, glJ myJ bgW, bgwJ vD Jizidf nrJ tUtJ
braghL idtha vdgL. UFw UtStuh awglJ braghLid. bragLbghUSF w jU id braghLid
vdgL.
bragLbghUisna vGthnghybfhL, mjF idgaiy jJ
KojY gHf csJ.
(v-L) K FW.
bragL bghUis brjJ nghy
bjhgl sjY tHD cnj -( e} 400)
gL vgijnghy bgW, c, Kjyhd brhf izJ braghL
id miktij fhf.
(v-L) g ah brJfbgwJ.
nfhty bfhiylh.
MW, nghW Kjyhd idf brid vrfSl izJ braghL
idbghU czJtij fhf.
(v-L) fut cjhW.
gh ciwJnghW.

<) dFj
xU brhyhdJ mj bghUis czJtJ kLk, mbghUnshL
bjhlila dkhd bghUis Fghf czJtJ dFj vdgL.
(v-L) nrhW clh - vw brhbwhl nrhW vgJ FH, f
19

Kjatiw clh vgJ Dj, Foj Kjatiw d

Fwd.
btiy nghlh - vgJ ghF, Rzh Matiw nrJ th
nghlh vgij sFwJ.
milatnd MwYilat vwh, milat MwYilat
vgij czJwJ.
nrhWF d - f, FH; btiyF d ghF, Rzh; M
ghYF d bggh. Mjyh it dFjyhF.
khztfis jf gF tHF dFj Fj vLJ
fhLfis Tw brJ bjhFf brf;

c) tHF
ekJ Kndhf brhfis vthW tHdhfnsh mthnw tHFtJ
tHF vdgL. tHF a tHF, jF tHF vd UtifgL.
a tHF
yfzKilaJ, yfzngh, k%c vd a tHF _W tif
miktij fhf.
yfzKilaJ
yfzKila brhfshf brhbwhlfshf bghUSzjgL
tUtd yfzKilajhF.
(v-L) ky bkikahdJ.
FjJ.
jbkh bjhikilJ.
yfzngh
yfz bego yhoD yfzKilait nghy fUjgLgit
yfzngh ahF.
(v-L) fhth vgij thfh vd,
th vgij th vd,
efw vgij wef vd,
nfh vgij nfh vd,
jir vgij rij vd tHFj.
k%c
yfzKiwgo mikj brhf kU yfz myhjt tHFtJ
k%c MF. (kU tjhY rhnwh VWbfhtnj k%c MF.)
(v-L) nrhHehL
-nrhzhL
jrh
- jir
Ubent - beiy
Jnr
- Jit
ahid
- Mid

20

jF tHF
lfulf, kfy, F>cF vd jF tHF _W tif tU.
lfulf
rhnwh UF mit brhy jfhj brhiy, mthnw neuoahf
Twhk, kiwJ w brhfsh mbghUis czJtJ lfulf vdgL.
(v-L) kyfG tUnt vgij fh fG tUnt vW,
brjh vgij Jdh vW tHFt.
kfy
kfyyhjij kfykhd brhfsh brhtJ kfy vdgL.
(v-L) brjhiu - Jdh, iwtdo nrjh, aif vdh vd,
FJsif mizjiy - FJ sif Fu it vd/
RLfhL - efhL vd,
fhuhL - btshL vd tHFt.
F>cF
xbthU TljhU VjhtbjhU fhuz FJ xU bghU brhFia
, ntbwhU brhFiabfhL TWtJ F>cF vdgL.
(v-L) bghbfhy bghid g vW,
ntl ciuahLnghJ fis brhs vW tHFt.
khztfis jf gFf tHF lfulf, kfy,
F>cF bjhlfis bjhFf brf.

C) bjhifiy bjhl
iybkhF tUbkhF il ntWik, ctik, g Kja
cUf kiwJW brhf izJ xUbkhngh tUtJ bjhifiy
bjhluhF.
thW tU bjhifiy bjhlf mWtifgL. mit: 1. ntWik
bjhif, 2. idbjhif, 3. gbjhif, 4. ctikbjhif, 5. cikbjhif,
6. mbkhbjhif vgd.
ntWikbjhif
ulh ntWikKj VHh ntWiktius
cUfS kiwJ tUtJ ntWikbjhif vdgL.

MW ntWik

(v.L.) nkh gUdh - nkhiu gUdh.

idbjhif
fhyfhL iliy, bgabur F kiwJ F idbrh
bgaiubfhL Kokhdh mJ idbjhif vdgL.
(v-L) RLnrhW - RlnrhW, RLw nrhW, RLnrhW vd _W fhyK
njhw tU. CWfh, tsk, RLbrh,
21

gbjhif
gbga iybkhahf W, tUbkhahf bgabrh tJ eL
Ma vD gU kiwJ gJ gbjhif ahF.
(v-L) btbghf - btik + bghf - btik aha bghf vd
.
UbgabuhL gbjhif
w bga iybkhahf bghJbga tUbkhahf tJ il
Ma vD gU kiwJ tUtJ UbgabuhL gbjhif ahF.
(v-L) bjid ku

bjid Ma ku

bjid - w bga, ku - bghJbga; uoF eL Ma

vD gU kiwJ tJsJ.
ctikbjhif
ctikahf tU bga KjY ctfgL bghU mLJ tJ
il nghw, nghy, xg, Vg Kjyhd ctik cUfS xW kiwJ tUtJ
ctikbjhif ahF.
(v-L) jhkiu Kf -

jhkiu nghw Kf

jhkiu vw ctikahf tUbga KjY Kf vw ctfgL bga

mLJ tJ nghw vw ctk cU kiwJ tJsJ.
ctikbjhiffis bjhFJ mit vthW ctikbjhif
ahwd vgij s vGJf.
cikbjhif
xWF nkgl bgaf tJ bganjhW c vD ilbrh
kiwJ tUtJ cikbjhif ahF.
(v-L) ey beL nghld - ey beL
nghld. F bganjhW c vw ilbrh kiwJ tJsJ.
mbkhbjhif
ntWik, id, g, ctik, cik Ma bjhiffnk mt
cUfnshLTl myhj ntWbkh kiwJ tUtJ mbkhbjhif vdgL.
Ibjhif bkhnk wbjhf mbkh

(e} 369)

(v-L) fa Modh - fa nghw ia cila (cilat)bg

Modh vd . F fa nghw vw ctikbjhifl
cilat vw myhjbkh kiwJ tJsjh, J ctikbjhif wJ
wj mbkhbjhif MF.
bghbwho ghodh - bghdh Ma tisa mjt ghodh vd
. F bghdh Ma vw _wh ntWik cU gaD cl
bjhfbjhifl mjt vw myhj brhY kiwJ tJsjh, J
22

_wh ntWik cU gaD clbjhfbjhif wJ wj

mbkhbjhif MF.
kyuo, brbe, Rl, ghFl, mz j isahod. kKf
tjh nghw brhbwhlfis bjhFJ cl gthnuhL
fyjhJ tifgLJf.

v) bjhfhiy bjhl
iybkh tUbkh iznghJ il xW kiwahJ tUtJ
bjhfhiybjhl MF.
mthW tU bjhfhiybjhlf idKWbjhlKj mLF
bjhl tiu xgJ tifgL.
(v-L) 1. idKW bjhl
ghjh fz - bjiy idKWbjhl.
bga fz - F idKWbjhl.
2. bgaburbjhl 3. idbarbjhl 4. vGthbjhl
5. bjhl
6. ilbrhbwhl 7. cbrhbwhl
8. ntWikbjhl 9. mLFbjhl

goj Wt.
ghJ kjh.
fz ghjh.
fzh th!
kbwhW.
rhy ngdh.
ytUF bfhLjh. (J ehfh
ntWikbjhl.)
thf! thf!

ntWikbjhl ehfh ntWikbjhlnghy ulh

ntWikbjhlKj VHh ntWikbjhl tius bjhlfSF
vLJfhLfis bjhFf.

V) bkpW z
c brh Kj F vGJ c, W F vGJ .
Mjyh, brhiy cKj bk<W vd mf.
f brh Kj F vGJ , (+m) W F vGJ .
Mjyh brh bkKj bk<W vd mf. thW iybkh W bk<W
tJ bkh VnjD X vGnjhL iztJ bkpW z MF.
zfu, dfu <W
ntWik z zfu, dfu bkpWf tJ/ tUbkh Kj
td tu zfu bk lfukhf, dfu bk wfukhf khW.
(v-L) k + Fl
bgh + Fl

=
=

kFl
bghFl
23

ntWik z iybkh W zfu, dfu bkpWf xW

tJ, tUbkhKj bkd vGJ, ild vGJ xW tUnghJ zfuK
dfuK aghfnt F.
(v-L) k + bkik
bgh + tik

=
=

k bkik
bgh tik

mt z iybkh zfu, dfu, <Wf tJ tUbkh

Kj td, bkd, ild Ma _dK tu zfuK, dfuK
fhu aghfnt F.
(v-L) k + iwjJ
bgh + wjJ

=
=

k iwjJ.
bgh wjJ.

jFiy rhuhj iybkh W tU zfuK, dfuK

tUbkh Kj tU efu, jlJ bfL.
ntWik z,
(v-L) + eik
nj + eik

=
=

zik
njdik

=
=

brkzW
njdW

mt z,
(v-L) brk + eW
nj + eW

Fyiz yh zdf tj
efu J eQ nfnl.
- (e} 210)
nj vD brhK, tUbkh Kjyhf td, bkd,
ild Ma _d bkfS tUbghGJ ntWik, mt Ma
UlfY aghf Fbkd mf.
mt z,
(v-L) nj + foJ
nj + khlJ
nj + ahJ

=
=
=

nj foJ
nj khlJ
nj ahJ

=
=
=

nj Rit
nj kz
nj ah

ntWik z,
nj + Rit
nj + kz
nj + ah

nj vw brhK bkd tjh ntWik, mt Ma U

zfY aghf iybkh W dfu xW mJ tU.
ntWik z,
(v-L) nj + ky
nj + ky

=
=

nj ky
njky

=
=

njbkh
njbkh
24

mt z,
(v-L nj + bkh
nj + bkh

nj vw brhYF Kd td tjh, ntWik, mt Ma U

zfY zfu bk aghf, dfu bk bfL, td FJ mjF
dkhd bkd FjY cL.
ntWik z,
(v-L) nj + Fl
nj + Fl
nj + Fl

=
=
=

njFl
njFl
njFl

aghf
td FJ.
dbkd FJ.

=
=
=

nj FH - aghf zjJ.
njFH - td FjJ.
njFH - dbkd FjJ.

mt z,
(v-L) nj + FH
nj + FH
nj + FH
kfu <W
ku + mo
kd + cW

=
=

kuto
kdW

tUbkhKj c tjJ.

gH + fil
gH + njhl

=
=

gHfil
gHnjhl

tUbkhKj td tjJ.

ku + eh
Fz + ey

=
=

kueh
Fzey

tUbkhKj bkd tjJ.

jf + ahid
jf + th

=
=

jfahid
jfth

tUbkhKj ild tjJ.

kfu <W brh dh tUbkh Kjyhf c vGnjh tdnkh

bkdnkh ildnkh tJnrUnghJ ntWik z, WYs
kfu W mJ bghJahf c W brhfis nghy iz.
yfu, sfu <W
m)

g + gir
mU + gh

=
=

ggir
mUgh

iybkh Wahf yfu, sfuf tJ tUbkh Kjyhf tdtu

ntWik z yfu wfukhf, sfu lfukhf khWgLtij fhf.
M)

+ bgJ
f + bfhoJ

=
=

bgJ, bgJ.
fbfhoJ, fbfhoJ

mtz tdtu khWgL, ntWgho aghf F.

)

be + kiy
bghU + kh

=
=

bekiy
bghUkh

ntWik z

+ khjJ
th+KjJ

=
=

khjJ
thKjJ

mt z

ntWikY mtY tUbkh Kjyhf bkdtu yfu dfu

khf, sfu zfukhf khW.
<)

f + ahid
kr + tik

=
=

fahid
kr tik
25

ntWik z

be + tsjJ =
th + tJ
=

be tsjJ
th tJ

mt z

ntWik zY mt zY tUbkh Kjyhf ild

tu yfu bkfS sfu bkfS aghf tU.
c)

f + aJ
K + aJ

=
=

f~aJ
K~OaJ

mtz jFiy mLJ yfu, sfu <Wf tJ, tUbkh

Kjyhf tU jfu MjJl Kiwna wfu lfufshf khW.
C)

tUbkh jfu, wfu :

brh + bjhl
bgh + jhkiu

=
=

brhbwhl
bghwhkiu

iybkh W yfu xW myJ dfu xW tJ tUbkhKj

jfu ntWikz tUnghJ iybkh W, tUbkh KjY
wfukhf .
+ eik
nj + eik

=
=

zik
njdik

ntWik z

nj + eW
brk + eW

=
=

njdW
brkzW

mt z

jFiy rhuhJ bkhp F zfuK, dfuK tUbkh Kj

cs efuK .

I) m
ytf mtfsJ fgid ahwyhY yikahY mtf aW
ghlf brhY bghUY mHif nrwhf. brhyHF bghUsHF
izj br fhzgL mHif tJ TWtJ mahF.
ctik m
mfthiu jhF ynghy jik
fth bghWj jiy.

(Fw: 151)

jid njhLgtiu bghWJbfhS ynghy jik

mtkghiu bghWJbfhSj caj gghF vgJ Fwgh
fUjhF.
mfthiu jhF y vgJ ctik. jik fth bghWj
jiy vgJ ctikia VF bghU (ctnka).
nghy vgJ ctik cU.
bghWJbfhSj - bghJjik (bjh)
F xU bghUnshL kbwhU bghU iza itJ xikgL
TwgLsikah, Fwgh ctik m mikJsJ. ctik cU
nghy btgilahf tUwJ.

26

ctik m g, bjh, ga Mait g tU.

(v-L) ky nghw if
mfthiu jhF ynghy ...
khad tif ...

- g
- bjh
- ga

g, bjh, ga FJ tU ntW vLJfhLf TWf. bghUJ

Kiwg fyJiuahLf.
vLJfhLtik m
yagh J mwhF khjF
dag jhF m.

(Fw: 452)

jhnrj y aF Vg j jik ntWgL. mJnghy,

kfSila m mtut nrj d anfg mik vgJ Fw
fUjhF.
yagh J mwhF
khjF dag jhF m
nrjj aghj

- ctik (ctkhd)
- bghU (ctnka)
- bghJjik

Fwgh ctik bghUS (ctnkaK) jjahf f, il

nghy vw ctk cU kiwJ tJsJ. ctkhd xU bjhluhf ctnka
(bghU) kbwhU bjhluhf mika il ctk cU btgilahf
yhk kiwJ tUtJ vLJfhLtik mahF.
ctik mF vLJfhLtik mFKs ntWghoid
mJ, g ghl f lbgWs ghlfis bjhFf.
Jbkhj m
xjfh vdh ct vgif
ehf cg bfL.

(Fw: 763)

unk yhj gift gy nrJtJ bgU Muthu brjhY mij

fL u xUt mrh. mu btFL vGjlmgift mt
vgJ yt Tw Ua fUjhF. Mdh yt mjid neuoahf Twhk vf
nrJ tJ flngh iujhY ghF mjdh Jg iy. gh a
msny mbtf m vd ctikahf ntbwhiw Tsh.
yt jh Tw fUJ bghUis neuoahf Twhk, mnjhL bjhlila
ntbwhiw T jh Tw fUaij Fgh czu itgJ Jbkhj
m MF.
vdnt, Fwgh mikJsJ Jbkhj m.
jFngw m
nghUH bjLj Mbu beLbfho
thu bygngh kJ iffhl
- (ygfhu)
27

mukid nfhilf flgl bfho aghf mirwJ. mJ

nfhtyid fzia ghJ efD tuhf vW TWtjhf yt j
fUij Vsh.
aghf fG xU fnk yt jkJ Fig V (j + F +
Vw) mHFgl TWtJ jFngwt MF.
Kj tFKj vlh tFtiuyhd jghl brf
lbgWs ctika, vLJfhLtika, Jbkhj m,
cUtf mfis bjhFLf.

4. gilghw
Ma vgt ghl cstiw Ug brhY is
nghwt my. mt gKf w bfhltuhf UfntL. gl tiu
Xauhf, ghl Toatuhf, ghl aw Toatuhf, FHijfnshL nrJ MLgt
uhf, wj fij brhgtuhf vd gy wfis bgwtuhf Ujhjh ey
Mauhf fH Ko. RUf brhdh Ma gilghw cstuhf Uf
ntL. mY bkhahaUF gilghw aikahjJ. bkhia
mHFw ngRjF vGJtjF gilghw jf KoahjJ. vdnt, khzt
Maf gilghw cstfshf UfntL vd vghfgLwJ. vgo
bkhia ww ff MaUF mJ eF iftu bgUf ntLnkh
mgona khztfl gilghw cUthf MafS gilghw
bgUf ntL. Kjyh Mo ciuahliy brahFj, fLiuia
ciuahlyhFj, fLiu vGJj vd _W wf khzt Ma g
bgwd. gfis iftu bgUf. j Mo tU _W
wf tyik bgwntL.
1. ngrhw
2. fij vGJj
3. Wfij vGJj

m) ngrhw
ngRj ntW; ngrhw vgJ ntW; ngRj vgJ mogil wf
ehfD xW. mj tsna ngrhw. ngRj vgJ kj c aghd
braghL. Mdh, ngR w vgJ kj jbgU <Lghlh tstJ;
jidjhnd tsJ bfhtJ. ngRw X caiy w. nghfs
uJl w nghL wgt gy. Mdh, fnwh mit mrhk ngr
tyt ynu vd,
gifafJ rhth va ma
mitafJ mrh jt.

(Fw: 723)

vD Fwghtahf UtSt czJwh.

MwD nghwjfJ vgij czuKowJ.
28

jdh, ngrhw ngh

ngrhw tsF tKiwf

khzt Maf jh nkbfhS Ma g fsij ngrhwiy
tsJ bfhtjF wghf gagL bfhsntL. bghUrhj
jiyf tFgiw ngR gia nkbfhsyh.
rhwhf f njit, j w, Vwjhtw rKjha, a
eho ts, ma kdghik Kja gntW jiyf tFgiw
NHnyh bghJ munyh ng gHFjF thig cUth bfhsyh.
Ma g Wtd thunjhW myJ khjnjhW xUKiwnaD
jifa gF khzt Mafis cgLj brayh.
khzt Maf j ngrhwiy wgl tsJbfhs ghlf
myhk w fis goF gHfij nkbfhs ntL. Fghf,
yfij Kiwahf gagLdh gJiw m bgUF. mjdh, mtj
ngR Ritfjhf nfnghiu <gjhf nfshjhiu nff Ug VgLj
tyjhf mik. khzt Maf wj ngrhsf nkil ngRfis
nenyh, thbdh, bjhiyfhfnyh nfL j Mwiy bgU
bfhsyh.
kdtahY jdifahY KaahY gahY gHfjhY
xUt wj ngrhsuhf TL. Kailah failtnuh?
milah. KjKj ngr bjhlFnthF rigia flJ mr
njhW; iff eLF, bjhilf iz thF; eh FHW;
brhf thUJ bttuhkUF. mjfhf ngrnt tuhJ vW
xUtU mr ntoaiy. mit ngr ngr mr mfnwhL.
-m.. gujhkdh.
kd bfhs ntoait:

ngRtjF K vd ngrnghnwh vgij bjgL bfhs

ntL. yhlh il jLkhw Vgl thL.

nfngh Fiw fhg vd mrbfhs TlhJ.

vyhUF go ngrntL.

eifRit fyJ ngRtJ eyJ.

gHbkhf, bghbkhf, Fo fijf ng lbgw ntL.

bjthd crnghL Vw wfnjhL nfnghiu ftUgo

ngrntL.

cz btghL bjthf bjgo ngrntL.

NiyF Vg ngrntL.

ngR jLkhw cr FiwghLf, ngr KoahJ il w,

fUJfis kwJLj Mad gjh F.
29

bjhlf Fiwj neu ngdh nghJ. wF, vbghGJ Kogh vd

nfngh idgjF K KoJl ntL.

ngRtjF Kghf Kj cuf goJ gHfyh. ehjfnyh fnyh

ey gFfis nj brJ jahf thJ ghfntL. wF
kwtf Kghf thJ fhlntL.

bjhlf F itJbfhL ngryh.

gf

xU jiyig bfhLJ kWeh jahnghL tJ ngr brayh. xUt

ngal mij MaU khzt MafS kfyh.

xU jiyig bfhLJ IJ l mJ FJ f brJ ngr

brayh.

JL jhf gntW jiyfis vGnghL xbthUtU xiw

vLJ ghJ ngr brayh. thW clnd ngRnghJ 2,3 l
ngdh nghJ.
xU jiyig bfhLJ mij xo bto khzt Mafis kh
kh ngr brayh.

kh ngR

onfh jf rhiy
ekJ K rjahUF Ujijl, mfkhd trf ekF csd.
mtf fhy, ml, Mnwhu, gzrhiyF gf, Mykujo,
Wtf mkUf, FU fhiy flfis KoJbfhL tJ, ghlfis
brh jU Kiw Uj fhy; VL vGjh Uj fhy; bghGJsJ,
cyif ekJ LF miHJ tJ fhlToa fhy - ghku kf ghuhS fhy.
kdtsij mfgLj khf, KUjijl mf cs fhy. njh eh
ngRnw - f nff. ilna gygy ikf- ehndh fnsh jtf
my; mUshs my. mF nfgJ - m JizbfhL; Ph M
jj rhjd ekF ilUwJ. j rhjdf yhJ Uj ehf,
ekJ Kndhf fhy.
ts trf ekUJ, V kd ts ts Fiwthf UwJ?
Lfny, kd tsij mffnth, ghJfhfnth eh Ka brtiyttif njo bfhtiy.
bgUghyhd Lf mikigna ghUf. Tl-ghJfhghd miw gLifaiw- rikayiw- iI miw- itbayh UF - jf cs l,
gogjbfW X miw - njo ghUf; f f fZl. gy Lfny, f
J rhsuf L, isah khl y jff UF. Mdh, jf
rhiy clh? vW nfSf-g Tw khlhf; xU dif njhW.
igafhuh! vW bghU mj difF.
Lf nkir, ehfh, nrhghf UF. nuhf UF; mitf
bt jhghsK, jjkhd tofS, g br UF; jis
ghuf UF; cilf W filasF UF. kUJtiff W
ita rhiy msF UF. mgogl trs Lfny Tl jf
30

rhiy uhJ; UfntLbkW vz tUtnj iy! mtaK njhW

tiy.
o myfhuij, nr fhy cgnahffhd rhjdfis
ftgJ nghy, onfh jf rhiy, a msyhtJ mikf rakhf
ftd brYjntL; mfiw fhlntL. m Mj Ml ehfny
thG eh, j fhaij ftahUgJ, ehLF kiwKfkhf br
Jnuhf brayhF.
onfh jf rhiy ra ntL - thif mogil njit
fSF, mLj l, myfhu bghUfSF, nghf ngha bghUfSF ju
gL iykh jf rhiyF mj l jugl ntL. cz, cil,
mogil njit; mj njitia brjhdJ, Kjl jf rhiyF
juglntL.
vts bry? VJ mts gz? vW nfg. gyUF njitahd
ms jf thfjh KoahJ. j Fiwia nghf bghJ jf rhiyf
el, rfh, efu rigf, bghJey fHff ga ntL. Mdh, y
mogil mF njitahd jffisahtJ Lf nrfJ gagLJ
Kiw UfntL.
Lfny eilbgW nrfnghJ, btf brW UnghJ,
grf elJnghJ, jff thFtJ vW xU gHfij bfhr tr
s lh y fhyJfhtJ VgL bfhlh, Ryg xU W jf
rhiyia mikJlyh.
jf rhiy mikFnghJ, Vbfdnt ekJ kf kdny C
nghs, mjkw, mtakw nfnl Tl braToa vzfis iyWj
Toa VLfis nrf TlhJ. nrjh, kdts VglhJ. kd, rJ ykhF;
gHik Gf be lkhF.
xnth oY tr iljJ, tr VgL bfhlJ mikf
ntoa jf rhiy, ehL tuyhW, cyf ehLf iyia FF f
it Kjl bgwntL. bghJthfnt, kf mF bj,
MikF cuK, xGfJF t ju jf f UfntLnkbaha,
thGlij tifawJ vW T, QyFF tfhL fS, khah
thjij, kd kUia jU VLfS, jdifia bfLJ, ia
mfkhf tW bgfis J gJ ngL fS Uj Mfh.
grhf my, jf rhiy UfntoaJ.
Uf ntL.

myh-cyf gl

nfhs, ru VLf UfntL. ekF cik cyif fhl, ekF

xGfij, thfhd tfis fhl, onfh UFw flhakhf
Uf ntL.
ekJ jHf jw vW Tw jF rf ya rhuij
rhkhaU mJ thf Toa Kiw lgl VLf UfntL.
Fiwjgr kf KndwJF thif trF cj Phd
fLofis ga Kakhd jftfis bjF UfntL.
ehL LjiyF ciHjtf, kf kd khR Jiljtf, bjhiy
njrfis fltf, uf, ntf Mnah thif F VLf
Uf ntL.
31

j mogil, onfh jf rhiy mikJbfhlh, ehLF

ey iy VgL. onfh jf rhiy njit. Mdh, nfoid l jf
Kiwfis jU VLf bfhljhf UfntL ony mikF jf
rhiy.
(1949M Mo U thbdh mP mzh mtf Ma ciu
gF)

M) fij vGJj
xU fij vGJtijl fij vGJtJ vgo vW TWtJjh rW
fod vW mJiw tYe TWt. mJ cikjh. Vbdwh, fPf
cUthfgLtiy; wwhf. MD, Kiwahd gdhY mauhj
KadhY fP Mndh cL.
khzt Maf, fij vGJ w iftubgw y Ffis <L
nehFnth.
fij vwh vd? rhnwhf vd TWwhf? J fhnghkh?
cs JsJ fij - g
cUbt LgJ fij;
bjs bjj j - cik
bjJ iugJ fij
vd fk njfehafdh vaKiw fijF sf jUwh.
fij vgJ, Mj m myfhu. mJ, bkhF Kfkhf
trdF ahf sFtJ. fRitia fhoY jRit jutyJ.
Mfnt, fijia bkhgH vW miHfyh vgh fP Rujh.
fUJfis irl Tw KgLnthkh, mJ fijahL vwh
fhiy.
wj brhfis wjKiw itgnj fij vgJ, nfh{ vgh
TW.
Mw ua brhf jhkhf bgh ttJjh fij vwh
aif fP vd nghwgL nthlbth.
fhth yhj l bgj xkiHna fij vW TWwh
Ja ghL bgUfP .
thW, fij ga sfij rhnwh gy fhL ghid fhQ
nghJ, fij gij Egij eh xUthW czuKowJ.
,brSFa/fijFa yfzij fhngh.
j
yfz br yfzij ah vnwh. ahj vw brhYF
fLj vW bghU. vGJ, mir, , jis, mo, bjhil Ma cWfsh
ahfgLtJ, mjhtJ flbgWtJ br/fij vW miHf bgWwJ.
ah, br, fij, gh, ghL vgd ah xnu bghU jUtd.
jifa ahg gh idj ayhJ vg. ahg kL fij
vGj nghJkhdjh? tskhd fgidahw ntL. fgid Fiuia
flgo Xllh fij MFkh? xU FnfhnshL mj fgid Fiu Xl
32

ntL. mj Fnfh, fij gonghl czia njhWf

ntL.
vdnt, xU wj fUij (Fnfh) cz bghf fgid
fgidnahL
tot bfhLgnj fij yfz vW
yfz tGthj xU tot
bfhsyh.
fij vGJw iHnth fU bfhsntoait:
vjidg fij vGjntL vW ghLbghU
ghLbghUga bjntL.

fij gilgjF Fj brhts/brhfsa njit. Mjyh,

f wj fij fis goJ, Koj msF ghlfis kdd
brJ bfhs ntL.

wj fPf brhea, bghU ea, ctikea, fgid ts,

brhyh w Matiw fU bfhsntL.

xeaf rj ghlfis thL goJ rjij jhs fil

kd gjh mtiwbfhnl fij idayh.

eif, mGif, tu, kUif, mr, bgUj, btF, ctif, rkiy

Ma xgh bkghL Rita bjbgw ntL.

brh mfuh, bjhilafuh Kjat gKiw gia

nkbfhSj ntL.

MNongh xUt fijf vG gHFtij bjhlfiy gahf

nkbfhsyh.

xL brj, cUtfgLJj Kjyhdit fij vGj Jiz

brkhf, mt g brayh.

mHFz, rKjha ghit, cWnehFj, brhbghU g, jid

bj Ma mogil gf fijw tsngh bgJ <LghL
bfhSj ntL.

bjhlfiy fPf Kj ku fijf vG gHFjny ey

gaF. ku nt% Jik is gugyh.

ku fijf, ciueil fijf (Jfijf), iAT fijf,

FW ghf, eWF fijf vd gythf bttJs fP gy
gilfis gogjh fij vGjntL vD Mt bgUF. mj
Mtnk, fij vGj iHnthF fUthf mik. mfU, d
fijahf cUthF.

MSF X moahf brh xU fijia FGthf nrJ vGj brayh.

ghl ghia (K gh myJ gh) bfhLJ ia vGj

brayh.

Fl bghU/yF/gwit/ f/jiyt FJ fij vGj

brayh.
33

xU fhia (gl/neuo fh/ vGaJ) bfhLJ mij fij ahf

brayh.

Ma mobaLJ bfhLJ nkfl gfis bra brayh.

) Wfij vGJj
ciueil to mikjJ mwhl th, rKjha fhw,
gow, nfw f fUbfhL WWzl Toa thrf
vghuhj Koit fhLw mikigna Wfij vd Twyh.
Wfij xWF nkgl ff yhk UgJ eyJ; Mdh,
U ff U, mt bjhl eF mikfgl ntL.
Wfij fij VwjhH xj gilait vWTl Twyh.
fhuz, MHkhd czia btgLJtY, mij RUfkhf brh,
gogt kd ga itgY WfijahdJ fijia mLJ wJ
vdyh.
Wfij cbgWtJ ffsh my; mtiw TW Ma
gagLJ fgid wK TW wKnk fijF c jUwd.
vfh Myngh vD wj Wfij Ma Taij Wfij vGJ
khzt Maf kd bfhsntL. Wfij Kj tha gogt
ftdij GJ ofiyah mfij gadwJ. gadw xU brhYTl
fij lbgWj TlhJ vgnj mtj TwhF.
MWKj gjh tFtius Jizghl f
lbgWs Wfijfis gof. VjhtJ xU tFFa fijia
nj brJ, mfij fU, fijnghF, fij khj, fij czJ
brfis vGJf. mfij cid vthW ftJ vgjfhd
fhuzij vGJf.

Wfij vGJ w tsj

Wfijf goF Mtnk Wfij vGJtjfhd _y jhf mik.
khzt Maf, jh Ma g bgW fw NHnyh kh tFf
fF NHnyh fhQ ffis Wfij Mfyh.
jh rKjha fL nfL mjtiw jid ghj fia
FJ Wfij cUth mF gHfij jkF jhnk clh bfhs
ntL.
Wfij vGj Kid khzt Maf ciueil ga, ciuahl ga
bkhait bgwtfshf UjntL.
khzt Maf Jikj, b#afhj, F.g.uh#nfhghy, f,
mHrh, .th. #fehj, my, Kja Kiy vGjhsf W
fijfis njo goF gHfij cUth bfhsntL.
34

mthW brthuh mfijahaf fij fUit njbjLF Kiw,

mfijia gilJfhl cUthF fij khjf, mkhjiu bfhL
fijia el brY mQFKiw, mfijfnfg ifahS bkheil, fij
bghUSnfg mikJbfhS fij tot ms, mfijt mtf
czJ tha beKiwf Kjatiw mJ, mtiw j Wfij
gilf gagLj bgU thghf mik.
g

xU fia bfhLJ mij fijahf vGj brayh.

Vbfdnt vGjgl xU Wfijia bfhLJ mij goJL

khztfis jf brhj eil vGj brayh.

Kgh fijia bfhLJ mij bjhlJ vGKof brayh.

gh fijia bfhLJL K ghia vG izJ fijia

KGikahf brayh.

xU jiy bfhLJ Wfijngho eljyh.

Wt jf lbgW fijfis Ma goJfho, mfij

RUfij khztfis Tw brayh.

kh Wfij

y jJ

fLiu vGJtjfhf fgid gwit wiffis mJ gwf

lthW cnkhil ghJ bfhoUnj. mnf ijj j tiyia
gL bfhoUjJ xU y. mj brif cyf x X cikia
idWaJ.
mj cik - cy cs xnth cU thH UwJ; vgoahtJ
vj tyhtJ jh thHntL vW idwJ. yhlh j y
goiHial bka D iHfis bfhL mHfhf khatiy mny
gy W cfis f itJ mt cfis ngh cL kGkh?
j cyf gilng vdF ukhf Lf Koahj uhf njhaJ;
gJF F ghnjhL kh iuahwJ. thH F bfhF
Xo isahL iuahwJ. xUt ciHJ rhf, kbwhUt cL kJ
cgifny cyhwh. gojhnd cyf eilnghLwJ. aif
nghnf mgojhndh? aifnghF go Ujh Llyhkh?... x
cU ciH kbwh czF cyhrF ciwlkhf
mikajh ntLkh?...
jkhf dhfis vG mjF ilfL bfhoUif,
mzh! mzh! ... e! e! vW glij vLJbfhL vl Xo tjh
VHhLf ua v j. glij ghnj; f mHfhf UjJ. mij X
MwFj Xajh oUfntL. tz nrifia rahf To
FHgh xL Xakhf mt mj vYUit rikjjfhf kL eh
mtid wj Xa fiyPdhf fUjiy. mt mj Xaij mj
35

iynfg czfis btLkhW tiuUjh. mj Xa enahL

eL lbgUjJ. Mdh vnf? ...
e th bfhL j c nghuhlij el bfhoUjJ.
Mdh, enah j ff k ig L, mJ gLJgij fL
kJ bfhoUjJ! vW UwJ Xa KG cUt!...
Xa nH cs tfis gonj. eF bfhlhl eLF
lhl vUjJ. mj uL tf mHF mjK bghJ lgij
fL anj. aF wF v j izf J Vsd ig d.
V?
[h! ngg vw Fu nfL U ghnj. iga brjhis
nghLL ngh bfhoUjh. vLJ ghnj. gRikahd iyf
eLnt tz kyf v bjtij ngh mUj bga vGJf Kj
bjjd. thL jiyig thnj. nfhu bfhiy! W y fhuzkhf
thril tsJ thit KoJbfhl mra vUjJ.
mahik fhuzkhf mbjhJbfhl kfSfhf mDjhggL
bfhoUnj. mbghGJ bgh nflJ. RY ghnj; ahiu fhz
iy. Mdh mj Fu kL xJbfhoUjJ. vgo? ...
kiHik fhuzkhf taf vyh twL btoJ ghykhf
lwd. mjdh J gaiy. mj iyny Tl j kfSF
yjhir liy. tuig bgaJ X mo j mLjt y tuL
wh. V? ... dh vbghGnjh xU fhy kiHbgJ is nghJ mf
isit bgW RfkiltjF! tuig jnghl bjjtDF
dij jnghl bjaiy. Rfkhf thH tuig bgajh. Mdh
thjhdh?...
Mw gilj kjnd mra uhahf Uwhnd! mtDnf bjahj
bghGJ Ia gilj yFfS fS cthH mtakhd czfhf
bfhW bfhtij g tUJwhna cdF btfkhf iyah? vW mj
Fu gykhf eifjJ.
cnko xtj iria nehnd. ahiu fhziy. mj
y j tiy eLnt UjthW nkY Gkhf Mo bfhoUjJ. M!
mj yjh J ng UfntL. mij ju ntW xUtUjh
iyna.
eh btnghnd. jD D braf jh J D F
id vw Fw kUij eho Fzkilahk kf FbfhL rhwhfns
vWjh.
- eh. ghjrhu

36

iwa rKjha ffis F tU fUfis

mogilahf bfhL Wfijf gilf.
FHij bjhyhs,
tujriz,
_leiff,
kjnea
bgf iy
ciH nkik
fhyjtwhik

bjhFiu
a khzt Maf j bkh wbgW neh br
cs brhfis J ciueilgL bghU fhz ea ghuhl,
ciueil brhts bgw, ciueil wig vLJ Tw ttif Tw
gLsJ. ghll TW yfz gFf vLJfhLfSl sf
gLsd. gilghw ngrhw tsf, fij, Wfij vGj tf
TwgLsd. tiwbfhL khzt Maf j bkhw bgw
gf nkbfhSkhW Maf brantL.
br ea ghuhLnth.
brfnuh kiyil brik njF
brobfhof bghF; U f
ktU xbfnu nkF th
ikUL ifL; thd J
bjhfw f nghy fK
bjhLth ir x k
mbfhW bfhW Kd njh
mLjbeho thiw Tl!
ijf Fsj nth !
jntj btl d fhnrh!
ikjlf klkhj cJ d
khiyF njbjLF Kiy nth!
ijl glhil Knjh! o
jugl xfnyh! rif nriy
cl bghonth! bjhiy njhW
Cl snfh Tl?

37

gF - M
1. ghl VghL
mKf
xU eho f mikfhd Fnfh 1) mehL gW jJt
nfhghL, 2) r_f mik, 3) r_f njit, 4) khztf csa njitf
vD eh mogil cUthfgLwJ. j mogil ghl VghL,
ghl l, ghl cUthfgL fw-fj eilbgWwJ.
xU
iy khzt bgwntoa m, w, kdghikfis ghl VghL bghJ
thf TW. ghll, vbjj tFiy vitbait iwntw gl
ntLbkd TW. ghl , ghll TWtdtiw ghlfshf tFjF.
_iw ga m MafSfhd mogil njit. njitia j
a iw br.

goiyf
1. ghl VghL/fiyl
2. ghll
3. ghl
4. ghl VghL, ghll, ghl Matilna cs bjhl
5. ghlY MafS
6. ghl M.

1. ghl VghL/ fiyl (Curriculum)

f nehf khztf cleyJlD, cseyJlD thH
mtfSF cjtjhF. khztfsJ gntW wfS MwfS KG ts
bgW irJ bragl f braKiw cjwJ. khztf jfsJ
thif kfis ca bfhs yafis iwntw bgJ
cjah UgJ ghl VghL.
f l, ghl VghL, fiyl Ma _W xnu bghU
tHfgL tU bjhlf. fiyl vgJ My Curriculum vd
tHfgLwJ. J y bkhW tjJ. jbghU t vgjhF.
ghl Vgho af
ghl Vgho Kjikahf ftJ f nehf MF. f
nehffis miltjfhf llgL f brany ghl VghL MF.
vtiw fgJ vw dhF ilahf miktJ ghl VghlhF.
ghl VghL rKjha iyik, r_f njitf tiw iwntWtjh
UjntL. Mfwdha khztf jjikf, r_f gf
ts bgw cj ghlTWf f Vgho lbgwntL.
38

ghl VghL beJ bfhLF jik cilajhf, jah ntWik

fis kdbfhL, FHijfis mtfsJ vfhyF Maj brtjhf
Uf ntL. ghl VghL, braf iwjjhf mDgt mogil
Y, mwhl thifnahL bjhlilajhf UjntL. ekJ eho
ehffij gghil ghJfhJ mLj jiyKiwF mgj fhd trf
Uj ntL. ghl VghL kfsh g gWW eho xUik
gho KGik ahd <LghL cila Fokfis cUthFtjh UjntL.
W ekJ eho Ka uidfshd kfbjhif bgUf, rKjha
Vwjh nghwtiw fLgLj, aif tsfis ghJfhj nghw
tfhd tKiwf ghl Vgho lbgUj ntL.
ff gntW rthfis miwTtfis vbfhS
Fokfis cUthFtjh ghl VghL UjntL.
ghlbghU
xbthU fhy flY f FGf afgL, mit d
fhy msf d ghlbghU ffglntL vd f Vghil
tiuaWJ bfhLJsd. jnghJ iliyf 5 + 5 + 2 vD fhy msit
bfhLsJ.
tlhu bkh, My, fj, Niya, ma, r_f ma,
clf, fiyf, ebd f nghw ghlf 5 + 5 fhy ms khzt
K iynfg ffgLwd. nkiy tFf ulhLf
gntW gffhd bjhlfiy jahFa ghlf ff gLwd.
f Kiw
ghl Vgho bjhU TW fKiwahF. vbjj iyf vbt
Kiwfis ifahStJ vgij ghl VghL tiuaWwJ.
kL
f njia msJ KobtLgJ klhF. xbthU khztU
vj msF ghlbghUs bgW Uwhf vgij, w f yF
f vj ms Kndw milUwd vgij ma kL
cjwJ.
iwa ghl VghL khztf milit msja thunj, khj
nj, fhyhL, miuahL, MLnj, brKiw nj, mfkL nj,
bjhl kL nghw kL Kiwfis tWJwJ.

2. ghll (Syllabus)
fw-fj, kLj Ma braghLf <LgLs khzt,
Ma, njths, jf vGJnth MnahUF tfhL mogil Mtz
ghll. Jnt vij ff nghnwh? V ff nghnwh? vthW
ff nghnwh? vgdtiw MafSF czJwJ.
ghll mij gogt vtuhD mtf midtUF khwhj fUJ
fis czJtjhf UjntL. md gogtF btntW fUJ
fis czJtif U ghl, tFgiw (Ma, khzt), nj
tilna ilbt FJ fju FiwJL. vdnt, ghll
thf bjthf mikantL.
39

xU ey ghll tU TWfis bfhljhf UfntL.

1. nehff,
2. ghlgFf,
3. MafSfhd Ff,
4. kLKiw.
Kj ghl gFia fgj nehff TwglntL.
nehff bkhghlij bghUjtiu wf mogil Uf ntL.
mjhtJ, khztf Fl tFig KojJ vbdd wf bgUf
ntL vd brhyglntL.
flha iwntw ntoa nehffSl TLjyhf Ugjf
nehffS ghll lbgw ntL. flha iwntwgl ntoa
tiwjh eh Fiwjgr fw yFf (Minimum Levels of Learning) vnwh.
nehff mogil ghl ms ghlfis njbjLgjfhd
tKiwfS UfntL. W eilKiw tKiwfSF gyhf ghl
gFfns bfhLfgL tUwd. vLJfhlhf, uL ya
fUJ ts mof juyh vd UgjF gyhf bfhiwntj
jid ghlf, _Jiu jid ghlf vd FlgLwd. jdh
ghl FG ntiyia ghll FG vjhLwJ vW brhyyh.
Ma tFgiw gwntoa braKiwf, khztfSF mf
ntoa gf nghw MafSfhd FfS ghll lbgw
ntL. Fl ghlFa ntisfS w mogilnyh ghlmyF
mogilnyh f ntLkhdh vthW mJ mikantL, Ma vj
tHif gagLjntL, ghl ju, ntW vbjyh mtUF cj
vgd nghw brf RUfkhf lbgw ntL.
W fwY fjY njitna ikakhf bfhoUgjh nj brikahf
mikaho nehffS w wghf mikJ gaiy. vdnt, nehffshf
bfhsgl wfis nrhjid brtjhf mikantL. njfhd jFj
tiuaiwfS tKiwfS ghll bjthf goUjhjh J
rha. ghll jf nj dhjh totik l bgW. ghl bghUSfhd
kbg xJL, bkhwfSfhd kbg xJL, dh tiff,
njFa fhy ms Mait FfgL.
1986 M ML nja f bfhif mogil, nguha
M.bA. jnt mtf jiyik cUthfgl Ijh tF bkh
ghl ghll tUkhW:
w gF
1. nfl

wf
1. xj, ehlf, brhngh tiw nfL J
bfhs aYj. ( g HhfY nghofY)
2. KdKfyhj NH ciuahlf, trdf
Kjatiw Jbfhs aYj.
3. FG braghL xWfhd miuf VW bra
mj.
40

2. ngRj

1.
2.
3.
4.

aghf ruskhf ngRj.

bjj va jiyf ngRj.
Niyfis ffis tj.
ehlff brhnghf gnfw kW
f mfis TWj.

3. goj

1. va v tu sf fhf tiuglf
Kjatiw gojj.
2. mR vGJfis ifbaGJ ufis
Rygkhf thj.
3. brjhfis kw ml brfis
thj.

4. vGJj

1. rahd totikl ilbtL vGJj.

2. vyh x Wj FpLfis brhy
nfL vGJj.
3. vikahd fLiufis fojfis
ciuahlfis vGJj.

5. nfl kW goj
thyhf fUJfis
s bfhSj

1. thbkh vGJiu jft mDkhdfis

jj.
2. thbkh ciueilia goj
mgoahdh - wF mgoaybt - wF
vD dhfSF J il gfUj.

6. brKiw yfz

1. brh yfz va brKiw fis

JbfhSj.

7. jhnd fw

1. ghy fiyfsaij gagLJj.

8. bkh gagLJj/
MSj

1. NHYF jfthW Kiwrhj ngR myJ

ngRtHF bkhia gagLJj.

9. brhyh w

1. VwFiwa Iahu brhfis gojJ,

J gagLJ brhyh w bgWj.

41

3. ghl
bkhf wghf mika ey ghlf njit. fj _W mo
gilfshd Ma, khzt, ghl MatW ghl riyahdh VgL
gh f mf. khzt xUt riy vwh mt kLnk ghf gLth.
X Ma riy bawh mtl gY khzhf kLnk ghf gLt.
Mdh, ghl riy bawh mj ghliy gagL fF vwj
khztf ghfgLt.
Ma fj wghf UfntLkhdh, mt jh ffnghF
ghl iy jl fF khztfis eF JbfhsntL. Ma
ghliy JbfhtjF xU ey ghl yfzij mUf
ntL. J mtUF ghl vGJ th iljhY gagL. bghJthf
ghl gilj ehF iyf csd. mit bjbrj, tirgLJj,
tHFj, kLj (Selection, Gradation, Presentation and Evaluation) vgd. ghl,
fij, fLiu nghwtiw bjbrj Mad bj brj mlF. bj
brj ghlfis myJ vGa ghlfis vikUJ fod, bjjUJ
bjahjJ vD mogil mLFtJ tirgLJj.
xbthU ghlij vgo miknwh, mtF vgf mik
nwh, gfis vthW nwh, ghlfis ciueil jahf, br j
ahf junghnwhkh fyJ bfhLf nghnwhkh nghwit tHFj mlF.
ghliy vG Koj wF kL brantL. w tYe flK mDgt
f MaflK bfhLJ kL brayh. Ra kL ntL.
ko mogil ghliy Uaikf ntL. ghl iy XuhL
fJ ghJ mj mogil U mikgJ rhy wjJ.
bkhghl yfz
1. ghl ghll FlgLs nehffis iwntWtjhf
mikantL.
2. bkh Mtij VgL mj thyhf giaL yfhk
bjhlJ fFtz ghl mikantL.
3. w fhuzfsh bjhlfiyF wF giaL yFgtfSF
th gagLtz wbgW brY tif Uf
ntL.
4. g ntiy ehfSF eljaY tif ghlf vif
UfntL.
5. xbthU ghlY mjF Kija tF ghliyl rW fodkhf
mikJ goiy uhf UfntL.
6. ghl lbgW ghlf khztfis magLJtjhf
mikahk mtfSila thif NHiy xoajhf mikantL.
ghl mik
ghl vgJ cik ghl VL (Reader), g VL, Ma ifnaL
Matiw cslajhf mikj ntL.. ghl Vo ghlfS y g
fS (bgUghY thbkhahf iwntw jfit) lbgW. g Vo
TLj gfS mtiw iwntw mnyna lK UF. Ma
ifnao ghlfis fgjF njitahd jftf lbgW. eil
42

Kiw _W jjahfnth ulhfnth xnu nyh lbgw TL.

xnu ghlyhf Ujh xbthU ghlK jiy, ghlgF, glf, g,
MafSfhd F Matiw bfhljhf UfntL. ghl
bjhlf KDiu flha lbgw ntL. w TWf,
iy fgjfhd bghJFf nghwit lbgwntL. ghl
nehf, bjhlila brf, TLj gf, braKiwf xbthU
ghlF juyh. Mdh, xnu yhf Ujh f RUfkhfnt J mik.
btntW yhf Ujh bgUghyhd gfS xbthU ghlF ca
MafSfhd FfS mjj YF nghL.
ghl, j bkhwfis tsgjF cj xU fUna
ju, Maiu tel brY rhjdkW.
ghl ms sWt ifahStjF Vg UfntL. vG
tot bgjh xUJ kbwhiw ntWgLjaY tif Uf
ntL. ghl fLkhd tYthdjhf UfntL. nkyil khzt
fis <gjhf mikantL. cns glf mf UfntL. tz
glf UgJl mit jftif mrhUfntL.
ghlbghU
Kj tFUJ vlh tFtiuyhd bjhlfiy f
bkhghlkhf ffgL gFf mls brfns ghlbghU MF.
ghlbghU br, ciueil Ma U totf mikJ bkhwid
tsF ts_yfshf fwd. bkhwid tsf mit JizahtnjhL
f Gkfis jh wd.
bjhlfiy f nehf r_ftakhFj MF. khztfis
mtf tsU rKjha bghUjKilatfshf MFj, r_f takhFj
vdgL. khztiu r_ftakhFtjF jkhj xGfK rKjha beia
gW kdnghF ntL. tiw khztf bgWtif mwiuf,
fijf Kjad ghlbghUshf ffgLwd.
bjhlfiy bkhw
xbthU ghl thyhf bkh gntW TWfshd vGJ, brh,
bjhl, bghU Mat bgwgLw njah bkhw tswJ.
bkhia ifahS tyik VgLwJ.
nguha jnt mtf (Fiwjgr fw milf) vD bfhif
mogil bjhlf tFf ghlgFf mikfgLsd. Kj
tFUJ Ijh tFtiu khztf bgwntoa bkhwf xgJ
fshf fgLsd.mit: 1) nfl, 2) ngRj, 3) goj, 4) vGJj,
5) nfl kW goj thyhf fUJfis JbfhSj, 6) brKiw
yfz, 7) jhnd fw, 8) brhyhw, 9) brhfsa bgUf vgd.
khztfis FGfshf Lf. Ijh tFFa wf
xbthiw tsFtif ghlf vGjgLsdth vgij
fyJiuahLf; mif jahLf.
43

4. ghl VghL, ghll, ghl

ghl Vgho Fnfhfis iwntW tif ghll goal
wfis gy ghlfshf xbthU tFF vGjgl ny ghl. ghl
kLk nj tFgiw braghLfSTl ghllij mogilahf
bfhnl mikantLtdthF.
ghllij moilahfbfhL mik njF ghllij
mogilahf bfhL mikj ghliy gagL khztfis
MajgLJtz tFgiw braghLf mikantL. mjhtJ,
ghll FL wfis khztf milJshfsh vd nrhF
njF ghliy gagL wfis tsgnj Ma tFgiw
nkbfhsntoa bra. xU ntis nj ghlY ghll yFfis
vL Ka Fiwiladthf UjhY ghll yFfis Ma
kwfTlhJ.
ghl VghL
ghll

ghl

tFgiw

nj

braghL

5. ghlY MafS
ghl vgJ Ma khztfSF ff cj fUfS xWjh.
a NH mJnt vyhKkhf gyneuf mikJLwJ. Maf
gyU ghl lijna thgiy. ghliyna ntjkhfbfhL f
wd. Mdh, cik ghllijna mogilahfbfhL ff
ntoaJ. ghll brhygl nehff iwntWkhW, bkh
ghlij bghUjtiu ghl l brhygl bkhwfis khztf
milkhW Ma jkJ fjiy mikJ bfhsntL. mjF ghl
cgl vitbayh gagLnkh mtiw bayh gagL bfhsyh.
jnghJ caf thWjh ffgLwJ. nghJkhd ghit f
ilfhik, nghJkhd JizfUf cUthfglhik nghw fhuzfsh
g f ghliyna Kjikahf bfhsntoa iy VgLlJ.
Mdh, jnghJ ekJ Niy btFthf KndUwJ. vdnt, Ma ghl
lij thfntL. m nehffshf jugLs wf vitbad
kd UbfhL mtiw khztf mila bra ghliy
vthbwyh gagLj Ko vd llntL. mJl ghit f,
Jiz fUf, g f nghwtiw gagLjntL.
ghl lbeUfo fU xbthU ghlF y gfns ju
goUF. Mdh, Ma mtWl nkY aw ms gfis cUth
bfhsntL. ehfh Ijh tFf khztfisna ghlF TLj
gfis cUthf brayh. khztf FGthf ij brayh. jdh
khztf ghlij f ewhf Jbfhs th VgL. nkY, khztf
44

thgjF ghJ vGJtjF nfblGJtjF bghUSz gF RU

vGJtjF vd gntW tif ghl cs ghlfis gagLj
ntL. Ma jh thnjh XU khztfis thf brnjh yhlh
thfhknyh ghlF sf brhbfhL nghfTlhJ. vyh khzt
fis vyh ghlfis thL thf brantL. gy FGfshf
J mtfSF thf brayh. thwhf ghll FL xbthU
wid khztf mila ghl iy awthbwyh gagLjntL.
nkY, ghl Fiwf U, mtiw jnjh <Lbr jkhfnth
ghl iy ffntL.
gf xU bjhl f. ulh tFKj ghlf Kija
tF ghlf bjhlna. vdnt, xU tF j fF Ma
mjF Kija tF j ghliy flha goUfntL. w
KtF j ghlfis goUgJ eyJ. njngh, ghlYF
vGjgLs KDiuia Ma thUfntL. Ma ghliy
Jbfhs mJ cj.

6. ghl M
ghl tFF bghUjkhd, juKs ghljhdh vgij M
brjntL. mthW MbrJ kLtjF Gs IJ g
TWfis bfhsyh.
1. w mik.
2. bkhwfis tsF TWf.
3. ghlbghU.
4. ghlbghU btghL.
5. gf.
1) w mik
w mik, ghl tot, gUk, mlbgw jh, mR, fL
(Binding) bghJ njhw Mat juij klntL.
2) bkhwfis tsF TWf
bkhwfis tsgnj ghlbghU jiyaha nehf. mwf
bjhlfiy tFfSFa w gFf vd tiuaWfgLsd. mit: 1.
nfl, 2. ngRj, 3. goj, 4. vGJj, 5. nfl, goj thyhf fUJfis
s bfhSj, 6. brKiw yfz/eilKiw yfz, 7. jhnd
fw, 8. bkhia gagLJj, 9. brhyhw vgdth. bthgJ
wfY cTWf csd. xbthU ghlK VnjD xU wid myJ gy
wfis tsFtz mikJsjh vd klntL.
3) ghlbghU
wfis tsgjfhf mikj ghlbghU vikahd eil csjh?
tFiynfw ms csjh? TwgL fUJ khzt mtF iy
sbfhS iy mikjjh? egfis tsF jftf
csdth? vgdtiw MjntL.

45

4) ghlbghU btghL
ghlbghUis bjgLj TwgL jftf sfkhf csdth?
mtiw sf ifahS vLJfhLf vikahf bghUjkhf
csdth? vd MjntL.
5) gf
fw wf eF gbgw, mt tyikbgw cjtz
gf mikJsdth? btntW tifahd gf nghJkhd ms
csdth? vd MjntL.
thW MbrbghGJ,
ghl tFnfw gf ms csJ. M / iy
ghl gf nghJkhd ms csd. M / iy
vW M/iy vd ilaF Uiy msit ifahsyh.
myJ
ghlbghU
ghlbghUghl
cs
gf

ff
bghUj

ff eW
4

f
bghUj
bghUj

f eW
3

iw
2

Xus
bghUj
bghUj iy

FiwghL
1

w
0

thW IJiy f ilaFtz mikfyh.

thW Uiy msitnyh Iiy msitnyh ghl
iy klntL.
ghliy Iiy ms kl ehFbjhlf
(jiyf) vGJf.

bjhFiu
ghl VghL bghJthdJ. J jJt, r_f, Uthf TWfis csla
f braghLFa l. mjhtJ, Fl Wtd myJ mik
Fl fhy tHfgL f Fj bghJl. J ghlljh
braghLF tUwJ. ghl VghL ghlbghUis bghJ iy ju
ghll Jakhf jUwJ. mjhtJ, vbjj tF vj ms ghl m
tHfntL, vbjj wfis gWf ntL vd tWJwJ.
thW gWf MafSF cj fU ghl. ghllij
JbfhL mjnfg ghliy gagL fgJ Ma flik.
ghl Fiwf UD mtiw <LbrJ ghll yFfis khztf
mila brantL. jF ghliy ga m wdh nehF
MafSF ntL vgdtiw a fnlh.
46

2. brhfsa bgUFj
mKf
eh e njitfis iwnt bfhs, wl e fUJfis gkh
bfhs, czfis btl bkhia ifahS w bgUj
ntL. bkh wbgw nfl, ngRj, goj, vGJj Ma wf
tyik bgUj aikahjJ. w ngRtij nflJ bfhs mt
gagLJ brhfis mjntL. mnjnghW, fis goJ mJ
bfhs mtYs brhfis mj eW. e fUJfis ngY vGY
btgLj bghUjkhd brhf njit. vdnt nfl, ngRj, goj,
vGJj Ma ehF wfSF mogil njit brhfsank. a
mj brhfsa, gagLJ brhfsa ahit vgij brhfs
a bgUF Kiwf FJ, brhg, brh isahLf g mJ
bfhnth.

goiyf
1. brhyik, bghU, gaghL
2. brh fF Kiwf
3. mj brhfsa gagLJ brhfsa
4. bkhwfS brhfsaK
5. ghlfS brhfsaK
6. brhfsa bgUF Kiwf
7. brh gf
8. brh isahLf

1. brhyik, bghU, gaghL

X vGJ jJ nwD, uL _W Kja vGJf bjhlJ
nwD bghU czJtJ brh vdgL. bghUSzjhk vGJf
bjhlJ wh mJ brhyhfhJ. (v.fh.) , fh, th, ngh - it XbuGJ jJ
W bghUis czJ brhf.
, fl, kif, ggu - it uL, _W, ehF, IJ vGJf
bjhlJ W bghUis czJ brhf.
j bkhYs brhfis gagL tif bgabrh, idbrh,
ilbrh, cbrh vd ehfhf bfht.
bghUf bgafis FF brhf bgabrhf vdgL. xU
bghU idia FF brh idbrh vdgL.bgabrhfS MfhJ,
idbrhfS MfhJ ilgldth mit ilbrhyh. jJ
aF Mw bga idfis lkhf bfhL mt ilna
KD D tU ntWik cUf, Ff, iliyf, ctk cUf,
mirbrhf Mad itnghtd w ilbrhfsh.
47

ilbrhf, cbrhfis 6,7,8M tF j fUJ

bjhFf.
cWf, rhy ngdh vd bga idf Fzij czJtjF
cik L tU brhf cbrh vdgL.
ehtif brhfis gagLna eh bkhia ifahSnwh.

2. brh fF Kiwf
brhfis fFbghGJ neuo mDgtij clhFj f
aikahjJ. bgabrhfsh mbghUis ne fho, myJ glfis
fho brhfis ff ntL. idbrhfsh m brafis
brtj_y ffntL.
VynghLj, ty tUj nghw idfis fFbghGJ tF
bghUfis VynghLtJngh f VghL brjntL. khzt m
gbfLJ bfhS bghGJ mbrh bghUis eF mt. mnjnghW
ty tUj vgjid ff kf nfhiy ty tUjg Twyh.
nkirmyJ fUgyif nghwtiw tF eL itJ mjid ty tu
brayh. bghUSF vnu gt lgf U, mjid R tUjny ty
tUj vgjid eF mt.

3. mj brhfsa, gagLJ brhfsa

w ngr nfFbghGJ, fis goFbghGJ gy a brhfis
eh mnwh. Mdh, mthW mj brhf midij eKila ngnyh
vGnyh gagLJtiy. mtW xU y brhfisna gagLJnwh.
nfL ma goJ ma gagL brhfis mj brhf vW, eh
ngRtjF vGJtjF gagLJ brhfis gagLJ brhf vW
TWt.
vLJfhlhf f vD brhiy xUt nflhnyh gojhnyh mj
bghUis Jbfhth. Mdh, mt ngRbghGnjh vGJbghGnjh mjid
gagLjkhlh. thUjh, f vD brh mtUila mj
brhfsa UwJ vW, gagLJ brhfsa iy
baW bghU. xUtUila mj brhfsa mfkhf UJ, mjF
mtUila gagLJ brhfsaF ilbt Fiwthf Ujh, mt
mj bkh tYeuhf fth.
Ma, j khztf mj brhfsaij bgUFtnjhL
mtfSila mj brhfsaij gagLJ brhfsakhf khw
ntL. jF brhgf, brh isahLf f cj.

4. bkhwfS brhfsaK
bkhwf ehfD nflY gojY cbfhS wf vd
fnlh. xUt ngRtij nfFbghGJ eh mahj brhfis j
ngilna gagLjyh. xUbghUis, xU braiy myJ xU fhia
48

sFbghGJ a brhfis gagLjyh. mthW a brhfis

nfFbghGJ, mtiw eh lneh bghU mJbfhnwh.
njnghW fis goFbghGJ a brhf bghUis
mJbfhnth. xUt ngRtij nfFbghGJ myJ ngRntf eh
nfLzJ bghU mantL. vdnt, lneh bghUsnth. Mdh,
goFbghGJ a brhft lneh bghU mtJl, gogij rW
W mfuh ghJ bghU mJ nkY gofyh. thW brtjh goj,
nfl wf tna mj brhfsa bgUf thsJ.
mLJ, ngRj vGJj Ma wfis btLwf vngh.
mthW fUJfis btLbghGJ eh mj brhf midij
gagLJtiy. vLJfhlhf, f vwh mHF vd ekF bj.
mJ mj brh. Mdh, fh g xUt tUJ ngRnghJ, tUzid
fLiu vGJbghGJ f vD brh e ng/fLiu lbgWt
iy. mHF, td vD brhf lbgwyh. vdnt, f vgJ mj
brhfsa csJ; gagLJ brhfsa iy. ngRbghGJ
myJ vGJbghGJ mbrhiy gagLj bjhldh mJ gagLJ
brhfsa nrU. rhjhuzkhf ngRt gagLJ brhfsaij
l vGJbghGJ mf brhfis gagLJnth. vLJ fhlhf, xU
kdid ga fijia TWfh mur, kd vD brhfisna L
L gagLJnth. Mdh, vGJbghGJ bfhwt, fhty, uty
vD brhfis gagLj bjhlFnth. vdnt, ngRtjhY vGJtjhY
gagLJ brhfsa bgUF.
ngRj vD brhFa mj brhf, gagLJ brhfis
goaLf.

5. ghlfS brhfsaK
khztf nfl, ngRj, goj, vGJj Ma bkhwf
tytuhf ntLbk, mtfsJ brhfsa Fahf UjntL.
jfhf g ghlf mikfgLwd. mit ciueil, br,
Jizghlfshf csd.
ciueil ghlfis goFbghGJ, mt ifahsgLs a
brhfSfhd bghUis lneh bghU mwd. brhYF bghU
TWj, vbrh TWj nghw braf_y khztuJ mj brhfsa
bgUF. njnghW br ghl_yK Jizghl_yK khztuJ
mj brhfsa bgUF.
ciueilghl elJbghGJ brhfis, bjhlfis, kubjhlfis,
gHbkhfis thaf mikJ vGj brtjh, mit gagLJ
brhfsakhf khW.
brhf, bjhlf, kubjhlf, gHbkhf goaiy jahJ
gagLJ brhfsakhFf.
49

br ghl br ul fUij vGJbghGJ br cs

a brhfis gagL vGJt. mj brhfsa gagLJ brhfs
akhF.
Jizghl tU brhfis gagL Jizghl fLiu
vGJtjh mj brhfsa gagLJ brhfsakhf khW.
thW ghlfYs ghlfis fgjh khztuJ mj
brhfsa FahtJl, dhfSF ilbaGJtjhY jf gf
bfhLgjhY gagLJ brhfsa FahF.
brhfsa bgUFtjfhd braghLfis mnth.

6. brhfsa bgUF Kiwf

glf myJ bghUfis fho mt bgafis Tw brj
yFf, gwitf, ku, bro, bfhof, f, gHf, mwhl o
gagLJ bghUf Kjyhdtiwnah mt glfisnah khzhfl
fho, mt bgafis TWkhW brayh. d vGj itfyh.
gF, khzhf eF mj myJ nfgldtiw Kj fho,
bjhlJ wtiw fholyh.
mUbrhfSF bghU Tw brj
br, ciueil ghlgFf lbgWs mUbrhfSF
bghU Tw brtjh khzhf brhfsa bgUF. vLJfhlhf, v
- mHF; f - mHF; k - bg FuF; o - bg ahid; btnah - Na;
fhdf - fhL; br - ta. thW mUbrhfis mtFa bghUfis
Twyh.
t, t, t - _W brhfis xnu tha mikJ fhLf.
vbrh Tw brj
ghlgF lbgWs, e x gif; nghW x W; bt x njh;
mw x kw; f x f. thW mj brhfis mtF bghUjkhd
vbrhfis Tw vGj brayh.
KGikahd x cWfis Tw brj
kj vgt cWf jiy, f, fhJ, _F, th, ehF, g, kh,
if, fh, u, ef, vd, ku vg cWfshf jL, is, nt, iy,
, fh, f vgdkhf cstiw Tw vGj brayh.
kabfh brhf bghU ntWghil ma brj
y-s-H, z- e- d, u - w:
x kW vGJ khdh bghU khw VgL vgij vLJ
fhLtjhY brhfsa bgUfyh. tU rhWfis fhngh.
50

M tUtJ bts
bts; Mirah gJ bty.
iy
is tjJ.
fhiy
iy fhis
; iz tUtJ x
s tUtJ x;
x.
iz kf id
id kh cg.
F iz
z kd
dftU.
kif kz
witf guuit flJ tUwd.
gw
wikahd khzt juu fgld.
w
thW Tw vGj brayh.
m) y - s - Hfu brhf ntWghL:
jh - ehF
th - y cW
M - Myku
iy - Ka j
cy - j br
- jhtu
v - Na
- yF
t - tik

jh - jhgh
th - cnuhL th
M - _F
iH -
cH - gbjh
- gwit
v - vbzJ
- Rit
t - ghij, t - fhW

jh - Uto
th - fU
M - jkj
is - bkf
cs - nt

M) - dfu brhf ntWghL:

C - nrhW
k - ygu
g - bjh
f - fzL
kz - thrid
tik - <if
tz - w
mz - nkth

C - yh
k - iyngW
g - F
f - gH
kd - cs
tik - cW
td - mHF
md - nrhW, md gwit

) u - wfu brhf ntWghL:

mu - xU fU
m - btL
v - beU
c - jghid itF c
f - mL f
g - Fiu
Mu - iwa
Cu - efu
iu -
ciu - brh
fiu - Mfiu
cu - tik

mw - jUk
m - mJbfh
v - R
c - (njhiy ) F
f - cbghU
g - fhia g
Mw - ja
Cw - Ruf
iw - fl
ciw - _o
fiw - Mil go fiw
cw - Rw

itnghW bghUntWghL cz ntWghL czUKiw

brhbwhl mikJ fho brhfsa bgUfyh.
51

xnu bghUjU gy brhfis Tw brj

ta - vw xnu bghUjU brhf fH, gHd, br vd, m ghr, ner, fhj vd, yh vgij Ff f, ru, k vd gy
vLJfhLf juyh.
xU bghU jU gy brhfis vLJfhLtjt, brhfsa
bgUfyh. mit tUkhW:
bghU
brhf
Na, Mjt, PhW, fut, g, gfyt,
btnah, dfu
Na
gHd, fH, br
ta
fW, f, ntH
ahid
f, k, m, ru
y
khR, Fw, iH
jtW
gj, s, bkh, thij
brh
FHij, kf, FH, nr
FHij
ah, fij, gh
br
jij, Rf, is

fky, gfa, mnghUf, muj, gJk, fr,jhkiu

Klf
md, beU, fd

eif, tij, kif

bg
K, M, guit
fl
jlhf, bghif, Rit, V, Fs, nf, zW,
CU
iy
ita, gh, , , Phy, ehy
cyf
, my,
ky
itngh w fhLf.
gybghUjU Ubrhfis vG, mt bghU sf
jj thaf mikf.
gybghU jU xUbrh TWj
kh - vw brhYF khku, khgH, Fiu, bgUik (bga) kh vd
gybghU Ugij Twyh.
gybghU jU xUbrh goa:
U fh
I
fkh
x -

bjt, yF, brt, kahij mil.

fhghW, nrhiy, fhf
a, jiyt, kF
Hik bga, khj, ru
Fiu, khku, khgH, bgUik, kh
sF, f, bgUik, mHF, Na, ru,
52

ir
v
M
m
nfh

x, f, brh, rj, uhf

Na, x, bt, gf, u, bgUik
mHF, Tik, iwj,
mHF, eif, tir, myfz, ntl
mur, jiyt, jij, , kiy,

d w bfhf.
bjhifiy bjhlfis J Tw brj
brj, btlhkiu, RLnrhW Kjyhd bjhifiy bjhlfis Kiwna
brik+j; btik + jhkiu; RlnrhW, RLw nrhW, RLnrhW vd J
Tw vGj brayh.
bjhifbrhfis J fhQj
Kj vw bjhif brhiy J fhQbghGJ a, ir, ehlf
vd, Kf vgij kh, gyh, thiH vd, ehy vgij F, Kiy,
kUj, bej vd J Tw vGj brayh.
vLJfhlhf,
bjhif

Uid
uil fha
Uiz
<bur
Kf
Kj
_ntj
ehkiw
ehy
ehFz
ehgil
ehir
ehgh
Iyfz
Igh
Iyf
Ibgh
mWRit
mWrka

Vir
vLbjhif

vFzf

eid, id
ygfhu, knkfiy
caiz,m~iz/mfiz, wiz
bgabur, idbar
kh, gyh, thiH
a, ir, ehlf
nru, nrhH, ghoa
, a#&, rhk, mjtz
F, Kiy, kUj, bej
mr, kl, ehz, g
nj, ahid, Fiu, fhyh gilf
HF, nkF, tlF, bjF
mjz, mur, tf, ntshs
vGJ, brh, bghU, ah, m
M, bg, gy, xw, gygh
Rit, x, CW, Xir, ehw
bk, th, f, _F, br
, fr, , ct, fh, Jt
fhzhga, bfskhu, irt, itzt, brsu,
rhj
Fu, Jj, ifis, ciH, , s, jhu
eiz, FWbjhif, IFWW, gWgJ,
gghl, fbjhif, mfeh}W, weh}W
jtajdhj, a clddhj, aif
zddhj, KWKzj, aghfnt
53

ghrf Fj, nguUSilik, KoyhMw

cilik, tugKilik
etjhaf

be, vS, bfhS, gaW, mtiu, Jtiu, fliy,

bkhir, cGJ

etudf

gJghL

gdhWngW

nfhnkjf, y, gts, guhf, kufj,

khf, KJ, itu, it^a
UKUfhWgil, bghUeuhWgil,
WghzhWgil, bgUghzhWgil,
KiyghL, kJiufh, beLethil,
FghL, godghiy, kiygLflh
f, f, tik, bt, ekf, bgh, be,
e, Ef, m, mHF, bghWik, sik,
J, nehik, sh

itnghtU w bjhif brhfis JiuJ brhfsa bgUf

brf.
FYF beo TWj
gl - ghl; jo - jho; bfhL - nfhL; g - gh; Fo - To; L - L; f - fh
thW Tw brayh.
xU brhYs XbuGij kbwhU vGij nrJ Jbrh
cUthFj
fl - brhYs, f vgij cl, Fl vd, Ml, ghl
vd, ML - vD brh, L vgij MW, M, Miy, Mil, Mir
vd Tw brayh.
xU brh cs vGJfisbfhL a brhfis cUthf brj
xU brhYs vGJfisbfhL a brhf gilf brtj
thyhf brhfsa bgUfyh. rhwhf:
Fiu - vw brhUJ, F, Fiu, iu vd gy brhfis, ija
vw brhUJ, ij, a, , ija vd gy brhfis cUth
brhfsa bgUfyh.
kJiu
gkid
Fiukiy
brfgL
FUFs
Jta
fGFkiy
fhtd
Ubent

kJ, Jiu, kiu

g, kid, gid, k
F, Fiu, iu, kiy, Fiy
brf, gL, br, f, g
FU, FU, Fs, s
J, Jta, ta, a,
fGF, kiy, fiy, Fiy, fkiy
, fh, td, fhd, fh
U, be, nt,

itngh w bfhf.
54

Uisahl, isahL, gJghL, vLbjhif dw

brhf ijJs brhfis btbfhzf. brhYFns
brhUgij btgLJtjthyhf mj brhfsa
btgL.
nkhid brhfis Tw brj
F
FWFg Fuif Fah Fdh
csij csthW ciugt c
c
cynfhuh
ca ciufgL th
thW nkhid bjhlfis mikJ Tw brtjh brhfsa
bgUF.
vJif brhf mikJ Tw brj
vf jif kfkh jf Fz cst
Fs fsid gs jdh
thW vJif brhfis mikJ Twyh.
gwitf, yFf x ku brhfis Tw brj
GsthW
bgUfyh

kufis

vLJfhLtj

gwitf
Mij myW
fhf fiu
ngR/bfhR
F T/ghL
Tif FHW
nfh bfhfF
k mf
tL KuY

thyhf

brhfsa

yFf
vUJ vfhsL
fGij fJ
Fiu fidF
f KHF
e CisL
eh FiuF.
gh W
cWK
ahid W

thW xkufis Tw brayh.

bra/id ku brhfis Tw brj
cz clh.
gh gUdh.
tz odh.
Fl tidjh.
gh dh.
ta cGjh.
nghit nghnd.
nto fond.

KWF wh.
nj mUdh
mUdh.
br adh.
Til Kiljh.
Rt vGdh.
Fs bjhlh.
khiu Gnd.

55

j Fojh.
Xa tiujh.
ghl ghodh.
Tiu ntjh.
Mil bejh.
zW btodh.
Mil mnj.

bghJ ku
nkf ulJ.
fhW aJ.

o ojJ.
kiH bgjJ.

d aJ.
g bfhoaJ.

thW kufis (brhf, bjhlf) mKf brJ brhfsa

bgUFf.
ku bjhlfis Tw brj
brhbghU fhQnghJ xU bghUshf bjhlbghUshf fhQbghGJ
kbwhU bghUS jUtij kubjhl vnwh. f Rj - bjhl cs
f Rj U brhfis jjahf bghU fhQbghGJ, mL f,
Rj vw bghUfis f Rj vW bjhlbghUshf fhQbghGJ
mtkhdgLJj vw bghUis jUwJ. Mj, J kubjhl vW
tHfgLwJ. ijnghnw,
_fjh,
tyofhnj,
th s,
if s,
ehF s,
fnzWgLj,
KJ Fdh.
jiywj ts
Mg ifbfhL.
dw ku bjhlfis Tw brayh.
xU ntbrhUJ gy brhf cUthtij TWj
fh vw ntbrhUJ, fhW, fhwho, fhwhiy cUthwd.
Na, Nu, Nwht, Rwh Kjyhd gy brhf N - vw
ntbrhUJ wwd. thW w brhfis Twyh.
idaoUJ cUthF mj kiwa id totfis ma brj
f -

fwh

(idao) (idKW)

fwbg

- fWk

(bgabur)

- fw

(idbar)

(bjh bga)

thW Tw vGj brayh.

izbrhfis mJ TWj
ebkhYs neiz, viz, briz brhfis mJ Tw
brayh. tUkhW izbkhfis vLJfho brhfsa bgUfyh.
brizbkhf

neiz bkhf

viz bkhf

girgnr
btisbtns
fdfnu
krknr
da
bgdbga
bgj bga
mLfLfhf
ggahf
brf brnt
ttahf

fQ fUJ
<L vL
LbjhL
vo Ro
<L vL
moJoJ
mL JL
xghU fhU
MYntY
Mo Xo
thotj

btnjh
ugf
mFF
ehSnfhS
mwK kwK
mW W
ir tir
gK JgK
zfK zfK
fhjY ctjY
xo bto

56

Q kQ
ca jh
Vwjh
gh
itnghtd w bfhf.
wbkh brhfSF Vw j brhfis ma brj
e bkh ngR tHY vGJ tHY wbkh brhf gy fyJ
tUwd. mtWF izahd j brhfis ma brtJ brhfsa
bgUF wj KiwahF. rhwhf,
wbkh brhf
mnf
M
cnahf
cnahfj
Mthj
nfhZo
Fkhjh
g#h
#df
yh
f#hdh
rfh
mK
igr brj
gJu
kh_
ehZlh
uJ
ekfhu
rujha
rj cgahr
g#id
Fghnf
rnjh
ru
k
Rj
fZl
ngg
Zl
eZl
fg
rghrid

j brhf
UKGF
brhJ
mYt
mYty
thJ
Tl
vGj
filbjU
kf
khtl
fUy
muR
eilKiw
Jitj
RwK e
tHf
fhiy cz
f
tzf
ku
irngUiu
TLtghL
FlKGF
k
tuyhW
iw
ik
Jg
jh
Ug
H
fUwbg
ciuahl

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
57

#d
fguf
jhYfh M
og
eh
trha
Mg
lhl

a
blngh
brngh

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...

mr
nrit
#huij
ngo
mDgt
z
m

...
...
...
...
...
...
...

rhsu
fUtiw
tlha mYtyf
Wo
behWF
ntshik
kUJtkid
kUJt
UW
br
bjhiyng
brng (brWbfhnlngRtJ)/
ifng
Kj
bjhL
z
nefhz
gl
tYe
nrif

dthW, wbkh brhfSnfw jbrhfis TWtj thyhf

brhfsa bgUfyh.
JiwnjhW tHF fiybrhfis ma brj
ma, nta, aa, jhtua, c jhtua, jft bjh
Ega, fbgh ma, tfa thW gJiw fiybrhfis
khzhf ma brtj_y brhfsaij bgUfyh.
bfhir brhfis UJj
bfhirahd brhf Ua totij TWtjthyhf brhfsa
bgUfyh; rhwhf y:
bfhir brhf
mf
mzhfW
mL
mlkiH
jhthu
KGF
mitf
mJf
vlr
jyfh
eir
ir

Ua tot
...
...
.,.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...

mtf
miuPh fW
mts
milkiH
jhthu
GF
mit
mit
ilr
jiyaiz
ebr
br
58

jLkhl
fhjhy
cU
tfh
FlT
tW
Rt
ghtfh
mg
kUthij
xUt

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...

jLkhw
fhiy
c
iffh
FoT
tW
Rt
ghffh
Ig
kahij
xU

dthW wtiw vLJfhLf.

7. brhgf
g khztf mj brhfsa gagLJ brhfsaij
l mfkhf UF. vyhUF gojh UF vwhY ahUF j
U brhfsafSF ilna cs ilbt/ntWghL Fiwthf csnjh
mtf bkhahSik bgwtfshf Ughf. vdnt, khztf mj
brhfsaij TLtnjhL mij gagLJ brhfsakhf
khwntL. jF brhgf f njit.
brh vgJ vGJf nrJ bghU jUtJ. vdnt, brhiy ff mj
mikig bghUis ffntL. mJl brhiy gagLj
fW juntL. bkhia gagLj fW juntL. bkhia
gagLJnghJ idjl brhf kdfK tJ fntL. jF
brhgf bgUJiz . brhgfis vL tifahf fyh.
1)nfhol lij u brh cUthFj.
j gia gy jf mikfyh. xUy tUkhW:
m) xU brh XU vGJfis L ug brhyyh.
rh - g -

(il: rhg)

M) nj gia Fl bfhLfyh.
- - (bfhilah) (il: ts)
) X vGjh ug brayh.
- y - (il: fyf)
<) xWF nkgl vGJf tU brhfis _W vGj brayh.
g- -

gj, gf, gL, gJik

- f - -

jfL --L ---

----59

-----

2) brhUJ brh cUthFj

bfhLfgl brh X vGij nrnjh nah uL nrnjh
a brh cUthfyh.
m) nrj
kf
gl

kf
gl

tisa
cz

ta
cz

M) f

) nrj
bry
br
jL
cjL
3) brhfUJ brh cUthFj
y brhfis bfhLJ xbthUJ X vGij vLJ
brhYUthf brj.
FLg
Ukz
il: gz, Fz, mUF
m
4) brhfis j
xU brh fil XU vGJf kbwhU brh bjhlf vGJfshf
tUkhW f brayh.
jfgFLggug
il:
jf
fg
gF
FLg
ggu
5) ntWgl brhiy fLoj
ehF brhfis bfhLJ mtW bghU, yfz, vGJf vd Vnjh
xU tif ntWgl xnu brhiy fLof brayh.
jtis - - Mik - Kjiy

(il: . J kLnk thG)

6) brhYF brh
xU brhYF agh mikUw kbwhU brhiy fLogJ
g.
m) ilW (cW)
M) btfha

(il: il)
(il: fha, )
60

7) brhf mikj
bfhLfgLs vGJf, brhfbfhL gy tiff a brhf
mikj.
m) vGJfis bfhL brhf cUthFj
ij

fL

(il: ij, fij, ij, L, f, fij, Lfij)

M) X vGij brhiybfhL brhf cUthFj
1)
L
il
jL
- tW
jtW
tiy
jtiy
2)
il : j, u, iy
8) brhiy fLoj
bfhLfgLs FfisbfhL brhiy fLoj.
m) f nrj Mu

il: khiy

bghGJ rh neu
M) cy cfhW Fiwahk Uf eh bgw tu. il: jhtu

8. brh isahLf
bkh gF bkh isahLF bgJ ntWghL iy. bkh
isahL bkh gna. bkhg bjhlJ nkbfhsgLnghJ
mYig VgLjTL. Mdh, bkh isahL Mtij VgLJtnjhL
bjhlJ nkbfhs crhf jU. jdh khztf bkhwbgw bkh
isahLf f gagL. bgUghyhd bkh gfis bkh
isahLfshf khw Ko. khztfSilna ngho kdghik
VgLJtz tF khztfis jjahfnth FGfshfnth bfhL
isahil nkbfhs brayh. vLJfhlhf vGJfisbfhL
brhf mikF brhgia vthW brh isahlhf khwyh vd
fhngh.
y vGJfis fUgyif vG ah Kj j vGJfsh mik
vyhbrhfis fLowhf vd ghfyh. khzt xbthUtU
mtf Vo brhfis vGJt. ah Kj rahd vifia brhwh
fnsh mj khztiu brhfis thf brhyntL. mkhzt mikj
brhf rahf Ujh mtUF ghuhL bjfyh. yhlh, mLj
khztiu thf brayh. ah rahd brhfis mfkhf mikjhfnsh mt
btbgwt. ijna ehifJ ngbfhl FGfshf JbfhL
isahlyh. vGJfis fUgyif vGJtjF gyhf JL
jhf vG xbthU FGF bfhLfyh. VjhtJ xU FG Kj
KojJ kw FGfis brh mikgij Wj brJ, vFG mfkhd
brhfis cUthsJ vd ghJ mFGit bt bgwjhf mf
ntL.

61

JnghW

brhflf uil

cUthFf.

nkY y bkh isahLf nf RUfkhf sfgLsd.

itnghW Ma isahLfis cUth f goJ gagLj
ntL.
1. khztfis tlkhf WbfhL Ma mtfis Fl tif
brhfis xbthUtuhf iuthf brhy brantL. jtwhf brhgt,
bkJthf brhgt, brhdijna brhgt Mnahiu cfhu brhlyh.
Wtiu gt bt bgwt. Ma tifikia Jneu ilbt
khbfhnl UfntL. bghU mogil ku, bro, bfho, fh, f,
gwit, yF, khj vdbrh mogil bjhlF vGijbfhnlh Ma
brh tifia khwyh.
2. tFig U FGthf JbfhsntL. Ma xU brhiy vG
(gl) mYs VjhtJ X vGij kh a brhiy Kj FGUJ xUt
tJ vGjntL (kl). mLJ ulh FGUJ xUt tJ mUJ
ntbwhU brh cUthfntL (kz). thW bjhlJ brbghGJ
ayhj FGF jtwhf vGa FGF K tj brhiyna vGa FGF
v kbg bfhLfntL. Fl neu KojJ Fiwthd kbg
bgw FG btbgwjhf TwntL.
3. tF khztfis gy FGfshf JbfhL xbthU FGF
njitahd vGJfisnah brhfisnah bfhLJ vFG rahf Kj Ma
brhdgo brJ KowJ vW ghJ ghuhlntL.
m) brhfis bghUsogil iz nrj.
M) brhfis bghUsogil Fl vif tif j.
) brhfis fg - ggu - gugiu vgJ nghW tirgLJj.
<) vGJfisbfhL Fl vif yhk brhf
mikj.
c) vGJfisbfhL xU tha mikj.

f
1) brhf
1. KjbyGij f kiwF.
2. ilbaGij f FiuF.
3. filbaGij f FF.

62

Fiu

2) fl f

VjhtJ X vGij fl vG,

mbtGF tygfnkh l
gfnkhnHh nknyhVjhtJ X vGij
nrJ brh cUthf brf. brhiy
goFnghJ, lgfUJ tygf,
nkUJ Hhf goFkhW brf.

Ma khzhf itnghw gy gfis cUth bjhlfiy

khzhf brhfsaij bgUFjntL.

bjhFiu
brhfsa bgUFj vD aiy fWbfhljh,
brhyik, bghU, gaghL Maitg mnjh. brhfsa vgj
sfij mj brhfsa, gagLJ brhfsa vw mj
ghFghil czJbfhnlh. mogil wft brhfsa
bgUf ghlfis fj t brhfsa bgUfkhd Kiwfis
bjnjh. nkY, brhfsa bgUF Kiwf, bgUFtjFa gf
g brhisahLft brhfsa bgUFj gaJkhd mid
tsJ bfhnlh.
mJbfhf:
Kky (Mzt, fk, khia),
_nthir (vLj, gLj, ej),
KRl (PhW, f, beU),
IFut (mur, Ma, jh, jij, jika),
IbgUFwf (bgh, bfhiy, fs, f, fhk),
gruhz (njthu, Uthrf, Uirgh, UgyhL,
bgauhz),
itnghw bjhifbrhfis mnth; brhfsa
bgUFnth; mwhl tH gagLJnth.

63

3. caiy wf
mKf
b kh kjid w cdfUJ ntWgL fhLwJ. wj
FHij tsUnghnj bgnwht bkhia gHFwJ; mbghGJ nfl,
ngRj braghLf <LgLwJ. f ff bjhlFtJKj vGJj, goj,
braghLf <LgLwJ. nfl, ngRj, goj, vGJj Ma mogil
wf khztf tyik bgU bkhia MwYl gagLjyh.
mogil wf thif NH KGikahf gagLtdthF.
wf gntW iyf fUJ gkhwfSF bgJ cjwd. xU
bkhnahL Fj <LghLl izJ thtjF xUt jhbgw bkh
gaid w bgw itgjF cj. bkhahwny caiy wf MF.
it mogil bkh wf bgw tyikah mtiw mojskhf bfhL
vGtdthF.
bkh caiy wfshf gytiw goalyh. iwa
iliy f ghll mogil IJ caiy wfS,
mtiw khztfilna tsF tKiwfS a sfgLwd.

goiyf
1. foj vGJj
2. fLiu vGJj
3. ngrhw
4. gilghw
m) fij vGJj
M) Wfij vGJj
5. fyJiuahliy begLJj

1. foj vGJj
foj vGJj xU wj fiy. eh, e vzfis wF bjf
ntoa NH clhFnghJ, mt eK U ngRtahf bjngh.
khwhf, mt eK yhk njhl U, mtUF vGJ tahf
bjngh. cwd, eg Mnah ey mj, xUtiu wF mKf
gLJj, xUtF cj bra gJiuj, wj eik fU thJiuj,
g ntLj, KiwpL brj Kja gntW Niyf eh fojfis
vGJnwh.
64

My Kja mabkhf foj vGJj xU jfiyahfnt

tsJsJ; wj ya jF bgWsJ. neU, jkf uh fhF
vGa fojfS, nguP mzhJiu vGa fojfS, jHP K.
tujuhrdh vGa fojKiw fS, Mt nfh vgh d jJt
mP iyUJ vGa fojfS ya iy cajF cilait.
gil j ytf jik uj utyfSF vG mDa L ff
ah ghl to mikj fojfns.
foj vGJ nehff
1. bjhiy cstl bjhlbfhs.
2. thbkhah brhy ayhjtiw mj.
3. gaz bryit, fhy zhtij jj.
4. cwit nkgLJj.
5. njitfis iwnt bfhs.
6. ghuhLf tHFj.
7. e bjj.
8. csJzit vGJUtkhf.
9. fgidahw tsj.
10. nfhitahf vGJw tsj.
nghw ggy nehff foj vGJtjh iwntwgL.
foj tiff
fojfis UtifgLjyh:
1. cwKiw foj
2. mYtyf foj
Utif fojfis totiy _W gFfshf fyh.
mit: 1. K gF, 2. cl gF, 3. W gF vgd.
cwKiw foj vGJ goiyf
1. mDe Kft
J foj jiygF tygf nkKid miktJ.
bgaiu jJ, Kftia kL vGjntL.

mDe

2. (miH)
J foj lgf miktJ. ij foj vGJnthF bgW
nthF cs cwnfw brhfshf mikfyh.
3. foj br/foj bghU gF
J bjhlUF miktJ. j ms bghUS foj vGJnth
vzij bghUjik. a, va bjthd bjhlfshf mikgJ eykhf
UF. fojij bgWnth m jFnfw bkheilia gw
ntL. e bkhyikia fhL fskhf foj mikj TlhJ.
4. tzf gF
J foj br tygF miktJ. foj vGJnthF
bgWnthF cs cwnfw bjhlf mik.
65

5. xg gF
J tzf gFF mDe ifbahg LtJ MF. jiH
jhbkhahf cila eh vlJ e ifbahgij j Ltnj eknfw
jFahF. ij ftdbfhL sgUtKj j ifbaGLtijna
tHfkhf bfhsntL.
6. bgWe Kft
foj xiw jhshf U, ifbahg gF ne lgf
gF J miktJ. bgWe bga cl bjthd Kftia mr
FpL vQl KokhW vGjntL.
mryil, mrYiw fojkhf U w foj bgWnth
KftbfW xJfgLs l mt Kftia vGjntL.

cwKiw foj
(kh)
v: 55, tsyh bjU,
tl,
fl khtl - 607 303.
16.01.2009.
m njh!
ey, eyka Mt. eh Ma f gw mj eh idf e
beirL vW fhjdth iyJld. Ma g mwg vd
tF e Ma bgUkf TanghJ mbjhl bghUshH mnghJ
ygliy. nghJ eh Mauhf gahWnghJjh m bjhl
Mjfw mUbghU sfkhwJ. vf uhkYs cHtFo,
bjhyhsFo ViH va FHijfF f fFnghJ, mj FHijf
mil k vG e cz vid bgJ beH itwd.
jiyef brid Ma gahW c a glit ah mJ
kH bgU Ul cns; kl vGJf. c g wf v cs iwj
ethJf.
ml,
m. fky.
bgWe
Uk gh. jnfhij,
10, ghjrhu nfh bjU,
Utnf,
brid - 600 005.
66

mYtyf foj vGJ goiyf

mYtyf foj jah fojkhf, TL fojkhf vGJ Kiw
csJ. j xUtUF ntiyntL zg, fh zg, bghJ
eik fU mu cjntL zg, Jiwrhj fojf Ma ah
mlF.
1. mDe Kft
foj jiy lgf miktJ. mDe bga cl KG
Kftia bjthf vGjntL.
2. bgWe Kft
J mDe Kft miktJ. tif foj bgWe
abgaiu vGj TlhJ. mt VWs g jF bgaiuna vGjntL
vgJ ftfjfJ.
3. (miH)
J foj lgf miktJ. cwKiw fojngh myhk
bgWgt gjF kig FF tif bjhliu mikf
ntL.
4. bghU
J bjhlUF miktJ. foj njitia gF XU
tf RUf ciufntL.
5. foj br/cl gF
J bghU gFF miktJ. foj bghU Fl RUf
sfkhf UfntL. gF y jikg FiwJ ifgL
bgWeiu thdsht fJ vGJt. Kiwia , e njitia fhuz
fhanjhL ciugJ nghJkhdJ. gF njit fU Xus sf bgwyh.
6. tzf gF
J foj br gF tygF miktJ. mDeF bgWeF
cs cik jikia, git fhLtjhf UfntL. cwKiw
fojnghy mig ygLj TlhJ.
7. xg gF
J tzf gF miktJ. mDe ifbahg lbgw
ntL. mYtyf fojf y neuf Fl mYtyF gyhf
mtUF g mYty xg LtJ cL.
8. eh - l
foj brF G, mDe xgF ne lgfK J mika
ntL. l KD eh Dkhf Ffgl ntL.

67

mYtyf foj
(kh)
mDe
m. bjhfha,
27, gdghudh bjU,
fhaFo,
fahFk khtl.
bgWe
nkyhs,
Vir ggf,
76, yhdj bjU,
UitahW,
jrh khtl - 613 204.
Iah,
bghU: f mD itf ntLj - bjhlghf.
--*-jf ggf bjhik j bgUf, fa f, M
f, gilya f nghwtiw brgghf btL jg
M tUtJ ghuhLFajhF.
mik jhf btl f br sguij ehnso fL
knj. mtiw bgW gof Unw. vdnt, fhQ fis
mr t vdF mD itf ntLnw.
1. UFw j kuiu
2. ya tha
3. moRtL
4. brbkh f
5. jf jhj
fSFa bjhifia jfSF gzilahf mDns.
e.
jf ciks,
m. bjhfha.

l: fhaFo,
eh : 28.11.2008

68

khzt Maf, nkfl UKiwfY jkF tU fojf

Kiwahd, Ritahd, mHFj eilila caga jU fojfis
ghJfhLf. tifF xwh U fojf vGJf. cwdf, egf
Mnah wj eh, Ukzeh nghwtF thJ kl vGJf.

2. fLiu vGJj
fLiu vGJj g mj tiff g Kjyhkho jbkh
w tsj vD gF goUf. F fLiu vGJj vgJ
caiyw neh fUjgLwJ.
nfhitahf fhuz fha bjhl mHfhd bkheil mikgJ fLiu
ahF. aif kd njh vG vzf bkhia bghUjtiu
Utif btgL. xW, thbkh; uL, vGJ bkh. ng bt
gL vzf vGJ tot bgwhk iyf ayhJ. it wjdth, nff
thyhj wU gof jfdth vfhyJ iy bgw jFiladth
Uf ntLbk it vGJ tot bgwntL. vG itF gHf
iyna, kj ehff UgJ nghy wJ tsnjh UfhJ. vGJ
bkhahjh xU jiyKiw m brt mLj jiyKiwF gagl
thlhwJ. tif fLiu tiuj caiy wdhf kfgLwJ.
fLiu vGJ nehff
1. bkhwfS btL wfshd ngRj, vGJj MatW
vGJj wid tsj.
2. brfis bjhFJ ma brj.
3. brfis tifgLJj.
4. brfis Jiuj.
5. brhyh w tsj.
6. gfis Kiwahf bjGJ w tsj.
7. eagl wgl ciuj.
8. jdbfd jeil mikJ bfhs.
9.fhytiuaiwF vGJ g.
10. fLnfh w bgWj.
11. fgid w tsj.
12. M kdghik tsj.
13. nfhitahf TWw tsj.
14. F jahj g.
15. tUF w tsj.
fLiu vGJ tKiwf

fLiu vGJtjF bghUjkhf F rlf jahJbfhs

ntL

fLiu vGJtjF bghUjkhd brfis bjhFJbfhs ntL.

bjhFj brfis KDiu, bghUSiu, Koiu vd fsh

bjGj ntL.

fUJ ijahjthW g J vGjntL.

69

bghUjkhd nknfh, ctikbjhl, gHbkh Kjatiw

lnfg gagLjntL.

brhfSilna ilbtL vGjntL.

nknfhshf vLjhS ghl tfis jf l rahf vGjntL.

Wj Ffis Kiwahf ifahsntL.

Fj msF fLiu mikantL.

fLiu vGJtjFK jiybjhlghd brfis thbkhahf
Ma TwntL; khztfis Tw brantL.
fLiuia khztfns vGjntL; Ma fUgyif vG,
mij khztf ghJ vGJtij jj ntL.

kh F rlf
vLJfhlhf rlnkij mz mngf vD jiy fLiu
vGj tUkhW F rlf mikayh.
KDiu
w
g thif
f thif
rKjha g
mua g
bgw glf
Weh
Koiu

3. ngrhw
ngRj w caiy ngrhw. ngrhw tsu mogil njit
nflY gojY. ro Ujhjhnd mfig tU vw gHbkhia
eh mnth. btL w ww ntLkhdh, cbfhS w
tsUf ntL. ngRjw tsu ey ngrhsf ngir mf nff
ntL. njnghW gytifgl fis gofntL.
K jah
ngrhw bgw fUJ f njitahdJ. y neuf fUyhknyna
ey bkh ng nfnghiu ftu Ko. Mdh, mgoglt bjhlJ ey
ngrhsuhf of ayhJ. vdnt, ngrntoa jiyig xo ey gy fUJfis
uonah njh LL bfhtJ eyJ. mjhtJ, ey ngrhsuhf mika
jah f aikahjJ. Fiwj neu ngRtjFTl jah ntL.
D brhynghdh Fiwj neu ngRjtjFjh mf jah ntL.
mf neu ngRnghJ ngrntoa fUij gythW vLJbrh tWjyh.
70

Mdh, Fiwj neujh ngr ilF vwh, mjF vthW vLJ

brhtJ vd eF J Ko bra ntoaUF. nkY, bjhlf fhy
ngrhs fSF jah vgJ jf KoahjJ. kwtfS Fiwjgr
kdJF v ghjhtJ Maj brJ bfhsntL.
Fl jiy ngr nghJkhd fUJfis uobfhL nghfh
lh, xU f VglTL. mnj jiy Kdh ngr Toatf eh
idUj fUJfis nglh ehK mtiwna Ug ngrntoa
iyF Mshnth. mf jahnghL nghUjh, kwtf ngatiw
jJ wtiw nglyh.
ngR Kiw
ngRnghJ fUf ngdhY fUf cjnahL ngdhY
Tl cnsh midtUF e ngR nfwjh vgij cWbrJbfhs
ntL. Tldiu ghnjh njitahdh nfnlh mDgt mogil
nyh ij Jbfhsyh. ngRnghJ nfgtfis Jyf brgo xnu
kh xnu Fu ms ng bfhoUf TlhJ. Vw wffnshL ngR mika
ntL. ngnyna cz btglntL. ahuhtJ fiz _obfhL
nflhY ngRgt nfhg, k nghwit mtUF antL. eogJ
nghW ifahf yhk bkghL njhw ngrntL. mjhtJ jiy, if.
cl mirf msnthL mikantL. it ngRF tYL.
ngir vgo bjhlFtJ, vgo bjhltJ, vgo KogJ vd bj
Uf ntL. ngir bjhl XU lfnyna ngrntoa fUF
tJlntL. mthyhk l KDiu tHFtJ R tisJ
jiyF tUtJ vgit jfglntL. KogJ vgJ NiyF Vg
mikayh. mJtiu ngatiw RUfkhf brhnah ghitahs fl xU
dhit vGnah Kofyh. vbghGJ Kogh vd nfngh idgjF K
KoJlntL. mjhtJ D bfhr ngUfyh vd mtf vQ
goahf KoJl ntL. y KofnghtJngh ng L btFneu
ngRthf. mjhtJ, filahf vd brh xU fUij g ng mJl
Kofhk ntbwhU fUJF jhLthf. y filahf vd brhyh
lhYTl bjhFJ brhtJ nghw ngR jikah Kof nghtij
ngh bfhLngh bjhlthf. thW brtJ nfnghUF vriy
VgLJ. Tl jiytl myJ Vghlhsfl Kng vts neu ngr
ntL vd nfL mjF Vg ngRtJ eyJ. ts neu vW FlhJ
ngRnghJ, ngaJ nghJ vd jiyt Fghfnth neuoahfnth czdh
iu ngir KoJ bfhsntL.
j bkhw gF gilghw vD jiy tU ngrhw
gF lbgWs Ffis <L idTf.
bkhia bghUjtiu bjthf, vyhUF go ngrntL.
xUntis mit cnsh vyh eF fwtfshf Ujh caj eil
ngryh. vgoahD bjhlfiy ngrhsf va eil iHyhk
ngRtnj eyJ. ngR aifahf UgJ eyJ. Fuiy khbfhnlh ntW
gLnah ngRtJ njitawJ.
71

gtzah YF TW gjHFf ngRF bghUJ. mitahtd:

1. RUf brhy,
2. sf itj,
3. enwhF ik,
4. ebkh zj,
5. Xirilik,
6. MHKiljhj,
7. Kiw it,
8. cyf kiyahik,
9. GaJ gaj,
10. sF cjhuzjhj.
ngRw FJ UFw TWbrfis bjhFf.
Fw TW fUJfis g ngrhwiy tsf.
ngrhw tsF Kiwf
uK ifgHf brjG ehgHf vD Mnwh thF
ngrhwYF bgJ bghUJ. w tsu g aikahjJ vgJ
khzt MafSF bjjJjh. ehgHf vgJ gna. bjhlj
gna mtfis bgU ngrhsfshf khaJ. jF vLJfhlhf
fhaofis Twyh. Kig KjKj tHF kw ngr vGJ ngr
Koahk mkjtjh mt. Mdh, dh mtUila ngir nff
fhUjtf vif msl KoahJ.
y jhfshfnth wiu bfhnlh vG kdghl brJ ngr Kat. J
y neuf btia juTL. UD, l fhy neu ga juhJ.
Mdh, ij bjhlf gahf bfhsyh. brjhUnjh jf
Unjh y gFfis njbjLJ cuf thgJ, w vG bfhLj
ciuia thgJ, jhnk vG thgJ vd thj bjhl wF vGaij
kdghl brJ, ng, mjwF Ffis itJbfhL ng gHfyh.
g Fl jiy ngR gia fijbrhYj, Fig
J brhYj nghw ngRj w gf bjhlahf mfntL.
Kj khztfSF mKfkhd jiyfis jJ ngr brantL.
bjhl bjhlf g khzt _W lfS eLiy g khzt
IJ lfS ciuahWkhW gafyh. Kj jafhk Fl
neu KGtJ ngr brantL. wF fUJ bghUjkhf bjhl
mJnghfhkY ngr brantL. bjhlJ Vw wffnshL jf
clyirfnshL ngRjF gHfntL. Kj y jiyfis bfhLJ
kWeh tJ ngRkhW brhyntL. kWeh, bfhLj jiyfS xbth
iw g yiu ngr brantL. ehsil tFnyna jiy
bfhLJ IJl neuK bfhLJ wF ngr brhyyh. mjhtJ, Kj mf
neu jahJ rhjhuzkhf Fiwj neu ngRt bjhl bky bky
khztfis Fiwj neu jahnyna wjKiw mf neu ngRw
bgWgo bfhL bryntL.
72

j uil tHFbkh. jgo ngR tHif Fl lfY

vGJ tHif Fl lfY gagLjntL. nkilng
gagLj ntoaJ vGJ jnH. jnghJ nkil ngR j ngRtJ
bgU tUwJ vwhY, eh vghgJ khztf vGJ j ngR Mw
bgwntL vgnj. bjhlf ng g bgWnghJ ngR j fyJ
ngdh mij jil brahk ruskhf ngR gHf tjwF ngR jiH
jFgo g mfntL.
Fl jiy ngRnghJ mjiyF bghUjkhd gHbkhf,
nknfhf, Fo fijf, thif ff, fijf nghwtiw il
ilna vLjhL ngRtJ nkil ngir wf br. vdnt, thwhd
tiw nffnth gofnth neUnghJ FJ itJbfhtJ eyJ. myJ
jfhfnt fis goJ bjhFJ itJbfhsyh. g y
jiyfis bfhLJ, mjiyf ngr cjt Toa gHbkhf, fijf
nghwtiw bjhLFkhW khztfis Vtyh. khztfis FGfshf
JbfhL xbthU FGF xU jiyig bfhLJ mjFatiw
bjhFf brayh. myJ xnu jiyig bfhLJ xU FGit gHbkhf,
xU FGit nknfhf, xU FGit fijf vd bjhFf brayh.
bjhFjtiw gJbfhL xbthUtU xU gHbkh, xU fij, xU f,
xU ghl vd gagL ciuahw brayh.
khztfis gy FGfshf JbfhL xbthU FGF xU
jiy bfhLJ gJ l tUkhW xU ey kh ngir
xehlhnyh FWtonyh jahf brf.

4. gilghw
cyf cfS kj jjid Mwyh cajtdhf fUjgLwh.
jid vgJ, bkhah btgL bra. bkhtahfnt kj jid
btgLjgLwJ. jid btgho fhyij flJ F jik
vGJ gfSnf cL. bgw bkhwdh kd gj fUJfis jf
ya to jUtnj gil vdgL. mit xGFgl tot mHFz
nahL Mj jid rhf btgoU gyU U fg. mjdh, mJ
J kj FyF gagL.
vdnt, gilghw vgJ jid cnuhl, caw, fhy flJ
gJ, Fga mgJ MF.
fhyflJ F gilf
gyhu MLfF KD D njha bjhfha, rf
yaf, UFw, IbgU fhaf, Mth mU braf, ehakh
ghlf, fguhkhaz nghwit ws kfsh U gofbgW
gadgjF mit gilghw fitahf saikna fhuz MF.
gilghw btghL totf
gilghw vgJ wnyna miktJ; aifahdJ; xUtl fgjh
cUthfgLtjW vd TwglJ. mjdhjh, fP cUthtiy;
73

wwh vd, fUny Uilah vd, jY w bkhfY brh

tJsd.
iwa Mf jid kWwd. midtlK gilghw csJ.
mJ btntW t btntW tot btgLwJ.
bkh gntW gilya totf csd. mit midij
ciueil, br vD ulD mlfyh. ciueil tot bkhia
fF bjhlf fhynyna btpL wfshd ngRj, vGJj
Mat ifahsgLwJ. Wfij, d, ehlf, fLiu, foj Mait
ciueil totyhd gilyaf. br tot bjhlf tFf
kHiya ghlfshf, wF ghl to mik yafshf khzt
fSF ygLjgLwd. jghl, bjhliy br, Wfha,
bgUfha Mait br totyhd gilyaf.
khztl gilghwiy bgUF cf
khztf gilghwiy ciueil, br Ma U totf
btgl fw-fj _ykhf, ey Niyia cUth jUtj
_ykhf tfhLj _ykhf Ma cjtKo; cjt ntL.
gilghw cUthF cJj
vjifa wD fghY gHFjyhY bgwaY. f fhy
khztf bgWw ya Mt, vfUij vYzl EQ
nehf, go gHf, gojijnghy xiw jhD cUthfntL vD
bgUj cz Ma cjfis Ma khztF clhf ntL.
j ya Mtij bghUnj mtl fF khztF ya Mt
mik. Ma j ya neh khztfis <LgLj ntL.
yafis mt y jft, mJ tHF br, czJ bghU,
tifghL, bkhw tsF TWf Ma nehFl gof ntL vgij
khztF czjntL. thW yaij khzt EQ neh
fFnghJ cz nknyh ghuhL kdghF clhF. ghLbghU,
bkheil Mait mtl jhfij isF. mjhf yafis
goF vzij L. ya gonghJ fhQ bghUS bkheil
khztj cs gJ bfhljnfg a gil totkhf bt
gL. J nghy brj vD gHfjh clhtjhF.
kdghl m
yafis goj bkheil, fUJ itKiw Matwh bgw
kdghl m, gilghwYF bgJ JizF. bjhlfiy bkh
tot kdghl m, gilj braYfhd cJj MF. ts iy
fUjsyhd kdghl m bkhtot kdghl mnthL izJ jdhf
gilfis btbfhzU.
gil bgUj
jh gytiw fWnsh, mij wUF TwntL vD bgUj
cz gilghwYF f wj cJj MF. bgUj cz TWfS
xwhf bfhil vgij bjhfha FLwh. TW gilghw
74

KidnghL xL vzjfjhF. vdnt, khztF gil bgUj

cz vGtif mtj gilfis g bghJlf fhgL
jyh. nkY kwf munf ghuhLiu tHfyh.
g braghLf
khztfl gilghwiy tsf gntW gfis juyh.
jiy jUj
VnjD xU jiyig khztfSF bfhLJ, mtfis FGfshf
J f brayh. xbthU FG, mJ Ko br tot, m
jiy bjhlghf,xU gilig Fl fhyF, Fl gffSF
mfntL vd mWjyh. mtiw ntW xU rka tF goJ
fho kwt fUja brayh.
Ff jUj
Fl xU fiy Ffshf kh khztF juyh. mtiw
btntW FGd gilghf kh tF btl ntL. Knghy w
fUjj brGikgL bfhsyh.
KoTw brj
fijf Koit btlhk bghUjkhd Kofis FGthf J
btl Twyh; wj Kofis ghuhlyh.
Koit khw brj
fij Koit thf brj. UF giHa Koit khL
jhf xbthU FG xU Koit btl brayh. a KofS wj
xiw khztfns njbjLf brayh. wj Kothf mikjjfhd
fhuzfis sf brayh. wj Koit njbjLj FGdiu, sf
mj khztfis ghuhlyh.
tot khWj
fij to cstiw ehlf, fij br tHF, Jfij,
ciuahl nghwitahf khw brayh. xbthU FG xbthU totij
vLJ bfhsyh.
tif khWj
xnu tot mj tiffSF khw bra brhyyh. vLJ
fhlhf, ahid vD jiy xU FG sf fLiu vGjyh; kbwhU FG
j tuyhW TWjyhf vGjyh; ntbwhU FG ciuahlyhf vGjyh. go xU
totFnsna mj tiff xiw njbjLJ vGj brayh.
<wo jUj
J br totF Vw braghL. xU ghl <woia bfhLJ
L, mjnfwthW w mofis vGj gHfyh.

75

m) fij vGJj
FHij ghl njhwK ts
FHijf csij bgJ ftu Toait ghlfns. thbkhahf
tH tj gy ghlfis FHijf clyirfSl f kl
ghLtij fL nfL fWnwh. mtf kia FgLJ
tif mH. tagh, fk njf ehaf is, kfhf ghuahU
FHij ghlfis ghl bjhld. mtfis gna fP gy gho
tUwd. mWgJ MLfSF K fh. ektha Kjah, kiy tKJ
nghw y g ghl f nrgjfhf gy ghlfis vGdhf.
mghlf FHijf csij bgJ ftjd.
j FHij ghlf vGa fPf vif VwjhH W
UF. fPf bjt, njr, aif, bkh, bgnah, ma mPf,
ma ij nghwtiw ghLbghUshf bfhL ghosd.
fij ghlf
FHijf fij ghL nrj fij ghlfis bgJ Uwd
vgij mJ fP gy fij ghlfis a tUwd. KY fij
ghlf bfhl iy u fijghL vw bga bg.eh. mrh 1948
btlh. brid j vGjhs TLw rf1977 Wt fij
ghlf vw iy btlJ.
FHij ghl tiff
MW taJFgl FHijfSF caJ kHiy ghlf (Nursery Rhymes).
eifRit ghlf, dhil ghlf, nrir ghlf(Group Songs)
rLFL, fzh_ nghw giHa isahL ghlf Mait FHij
ghlfshf csd.
khztF FHij ghlf
FHij ghlfis Ma khztF ireaJl gho fho gW
j ntL. bjhlfiy tFf WW ghlfis fWbfhLJ,
mtiw Ug Ug ghlbrjY mtj thbkh gF eF cj.
nkY, mkhztf jhK va FHij ghlfis gilJ kH Mt
bfht. rhwhf,
njhl nkJ btisgR - mnf
J FFJ fWFo
mkh vFJ btisgR - cl
mil XLJ fWFo
ehth eFJ btisgR - ghiy
ewh FoFJ fWFo
Kj bfhLFJ btisgR - ko
Ko FoFJ fWFo
vD fk njf ehaf is ghl nghwtiw khztF gho
fho gWj khztj gilghwYF bgJ cj.
76

nkfl fk ghl y bfhir brhf UD, khztf

jhngRtJ nghw brhf Ugjh U ghLt.
ifrkh ifR
fnz kna ifR
filF nghfyh ifR
cilf thfyh ifR
ghL ghLnth ifR
Ml MLnth ifR
nfhYF nghnth ifR
FL tUnth ifR
vgJ nghw Ua brhf mikj ghlfis ffyh.
vJ fij?
Efiyfsha ir, Xa, g, fll Ma gytWS fij
wjJ. fij vw brhYF br, gh, ghL vgtF ntWghL
cL. it xUbghU gbkhahf tHfgoD ntWghL js cs gy
brhfns. br vgJ braglbjw bghUSilaJ; braglbjyh
fij MfhJ.
fij vgjF yfz TW fk,
csJ csJ fij - g
cUbt LgJ fij
bjs bjj j - cik
bjJ iugJ fij
vd ghosh.
fij vgJ brh, bghU, fgid, ctik, cUtf, Xir, Gk
Mat xizj mHF bglf vdyh. kjl fhzbgW m,
cz vw ulDS czia mogilahfbfhL wgnj fij,
cz mitnghy MuhF cgLtiy. mjid mDgJ fhzyhnk
ju ntbwhW bra ayhJ.
fij id Mw
1. Ma fij id Mw cstuhf Uj; myJ mDgF
Mw cilatuhf Uj.
2. fij mDgtij khztF T, mfij gij mDgf
brj.
3. gil fhybjhL r_f nehY, mua nehY Vida
kUJt, n#hl nghw mtJiw rhj nehY fij
bgUj wlij khztF czj
.

4. fijF mHF nrgJ mfij tot. vdnt vGJ, mir, ,

jis, mo, bjhil Ma fTWfsha ahyfz mit
khztF clhFj.
5. xj <uir m _tir mikkhW va brhfisbfhL jhkj
bghUg fij ida brj.
77

6. mfu tir fij vGj brj.

7. rf ya ytfKj fhy fPftiu ghoa ghlfis
goF Mtij clhFj.
8. fw-fj NH ghlf cs fijfis <LghLl ff
brJ nghy brj Kiw khztfis fij ida brj.
9. vj bghUis EQ ghJ f brJ mtWF fij
tot ju brj.
10. g ya kwf fauf, fij ngho Ma ffis
VgL khztiu gFbgw brj.
fij vGJ wid tsF cf
khztf cs csij btgLj tFgiw th cUth
bfhLjntL. g gUt khztf vGJ va fijfis ghuho
Cf_lntL. ghuhLnghJ jaf fij vGJt.
khzt Maf fij vGj gntW cfis gw brayh.
TJF bkghL aikahjJnghy fijF c aikahjJ.
bjhlf FHijfSfhd fijf vGj brayh. Vbd, FHij
fSfhd fijf bghUisl Xireank Ka lbgWwJ. tj Xirna
Ug Ug tUnghJ FHij kd MtJl m <LgLwJ. vdnt,
fij vGj gHF khzt Maf brhf vik ik Xir
gK mikkhW ghJbfhs ntL.
ntl c
FHijf xiw brkhW nto vGJ fijf jifajhF.
vLJfhlhf,
Xo isahL ghgh -
XUf yhfhJ ghgh
To isahL ghgh - xU
FHijia itahnj ghgh

vW,

rhjhlkh rhjhL
jf yng rhjhL

vW

vGJtJ ntl cia rhU. ia g fij vGjyh.

xF c
FHijfSF fij brhYnghJ ililna xFl brhdh
bgJ kt. ah ah idFo, njh njh ehFo, Fs Fs thJ
Fth Fth thJ vDnghJ FHijf kd KGikahf m <LgL J
FF. fij TW fF NHYF Vw xF brhfis
gagLJj, FHijfis mj NHnyhL xWgl brwJ.
rF rfu rhtJ
F FD MLrh
78

vW ghLnghJ FHij F bfd MLtij fhz KowJ. vdnt,

xFfis gagL fij vGjyh.
r bjhluik c
xiw g xW brY r bjhlnghy, xU bghUis
g bjhU bghUis brh brY c fij gilgJ va c
ahF.
vd ?
kif .
vd k
FL k
vd FL
tjy FL
njhHik c
FHijf cuw m~iz bghUfis jdFa cw njhHdhf
fU, mtnwhL ngRtij ghnwh. FHijf bghikia Fgho,
nrho, jhyho ktij fLnsh. FHijf gwit, yFfnshL
ngRtJngh mikJ vGJ fijf FHijfis bgJ ftu ToajhF.
vLJfhlhf,
idafh idafh
vnf nghf?
ylDF uhia eh
ghf nghndf!
mnfngh idafh
vd brf?
Fo v xiw ghJ
Xo tJnlf!
vW,
nl nl gwJ th
wif wif J th
bfho lF kfis
bfh bfh dth? vW
vGs fijfis fhzyh.
mfutir ghl
MNo, bfhiwntj nghy ghlYs KjbyGJ mfutir
mikkhW fij vGj lyh.
mkh nf th! th!
Mir Kj jh! jh!
iy nrhW nghL
<ia u XL!
79

cid nghw eyh

C aht csh?

...

...

...

vd mfutir ghlf mikJsikia vLJfho ghliy vGj

brayh.
vf mikJ ghLj
vfis mikJ vGJ ghlfis g ghl vGj brhtJ va
KiwahF.
xW xW uL
Xlhnj kUL
uL uL ehF
u ewh F
_W _W MW
Kf ig nrU
ehF ehF vL
efij ewh btL
IJ IJ gJ
mnt ekF brhJ
d vfis mikJ vGJnghJ ililna gw ntoa
fUJfis nrJ vGJtJ wilaJ.
gig btgLJ ghl
gwit, yFfis fho mt ey Fzfis fWbfhSkhW
TW ghlfis fhzyh.
d d vWng
fhu bw Wng
cid nghy ehDnk
ciHl ntLnk!
xw nd xwh
CJ ngh ewh!
ewh cik fL
eljh eik L!
vw Kiw gig btgLJkhW fij vGj lyh.
fijghl c
FHijfSfhd fijfis ghlfshf vGj brj. vLJfhlhf,
M! J X mra
nfgjF rnjhr!
Mik KaY
gja itJ nghdhf
uL ngU Xod
Kanyh lJ!
Miknah lhk
efJ brW btwJ!
80

vgd nghW mik Mik KaY fij ghl eafjhF. bjhlf

iy fij vGJtjF nkTa cfSl Lfij mikj, miu
TWj nghw cfis ifahL fij vGj brayh. , Fl
jiyig bfhLJ fij vGJgo CFfyh.
fij vGJtjF ntW vbt Kiwfis gwyh vgij
tFgiw thf. xU goghjh gilghahf Ko. vdnt,
fij vGJtjF iwa fij fis goj, vjbthU fit
cW nehFj, xU fnthL kw ffis xL ghj
nghw jikfis aghfnt cUth bfhsntL.
br cWf
ku fijf vGj br cWf g mUgJ aikahjJ.
vdnt gF, khzt Maf jhf ku fij gilf, ku fij
ff cj.
bjhfha khiu, vGJ, mir, , mo, F, bjhil,, nehF, gh,
msa Kja KgJ ehif bjhFJ br cWfshf TWwh.
F y kLnk sfgLwd; kwit nk tFf ffyh; myJ
njitgLnth bjhfha bra flJbfhf.
ehfz vGJfis, rhbgGJ, Fafu, FaYfu, Mj,
msbgilf, khiu, mir, , jis, mo, bjhil, gh Kjatiw g
iynyna fUnwh. mtiw s idTtJ braWtjF
br ea ghuhLjYF gh mikfis fltjF gadF.
vGJ
vGjgLtjh vGJ vdglJ. br aWtjF mogil
vGJf.
(v-L) vbzg Vid vGbjg uL
fbzg thG cF.

(Fw: 392)

Fw cF, cbeo, bk, cbk, FaYfu Ma vGJf

csij flf.xnth vGJ
vGJF xas cL. bkF miu khiu,
FYF xU khiu, beoYF uL khiu, jkhiu asUJ FiwJ
xj FaYfu vd vGbjhfis fUnwh.
mir
vGJ mirJ ir nfhl mirna (ahgUfy U-N.2)
vGJ jnjh gy nrnjh XirlhFkhW J gJ mir
vdgL. J UF cWghF. gy mirf nrnj brhY Ukhwd.
vbzg - _W mirf csd. mit: v-bz-g . mjhtJ,
_W ms xfis bfhLsJ. xbthU gF X mirahF. tir
uL tifgL. mit: 1. neuir, 2. iuair.
neuir:

1. F jJ tu
2. F xwLJ tu

81

f
f

3. beo jJ tu
4. beo xwLJ tu iuair:

fh
fh

1. F izJ tu
2. F izJ xwLJ tu
3. F beo izJ tu
4. F beo izJ xwLJ tu-

gL
gL
flh
flh

neuir IbjGJF fhkY iuair MbwGJF fhkY UF.

vGJfis fzLbghGJ bkbaGJfis na fzlntL.

vD brhYF a x vW bghU. miriaJ

miriaJ bfhs
w nu (ahgUfy) mir xnwh gynth To gF gFahf uhd
Kiw moF cWghf miktJ. Xuir, <uir, (kh, s), _tir
(fh, f), ehyir (bghJ) vd f miras bghUJ bga bgW.
Xuir
neuirnah iuairnah jahf W, xU uhf tUtJ Xuir vdgL.
J btgh <wo W uhf tU. ghl ntbwF tuhJ; tu
TlhJ.

thghL

ne

eh

iu

ky

<uir
<uirf nrJ xU uhf miktJ <uir vdgL. neuir iu
air jK izJ kh <uirfshf tU. ne mir KotJ uL
iu mir KotJ uLkhf <uir f ehfh. ne mir Kotjid
kh vW, iu Kotjid s vd TWt. <uir id a
myJ Ma c vd miHg.

thghL

ne ne
iu ne

nj kh
kh

kh

iu iu
ne iu

fU s
T s

a
myJ
Ma c

_tir
<uir eh WY neuir iuair jjahf To
tUjyha vL _tir fsh.

ne ne ne
iu ne ne
iu iu ne
ne iu ne

thghL
-

nj kh fh
kh fh
fU s fh
T s fh
82

fh f

ne ne iu
iu ne iu
iu iu iu
ne iu iu

nj kh f
kh f
fU s f
T s f

f f

itbaL c vd bgW. tW fhf bt vd, ff

t vd TwbgW.
ehyir
_tir vo WY ne, iu mir nru, tU gdhW ehyir
vd TwgL.

thghL

ne ne ne ne
iu ne ne ne
iu iu ne ne
ne iu ne ne

nj kh j
kh j
fU s j
T s j

ne ne iu ne
iu ne iu ne
iu iu iu ne
ne iu iu ne

nj kh eW
kh eW
fU s eW
T s eW

ne ne ne iu
iu ne ne iu
iu iu ne iu
ne iu ne iu

nj kh j H
kh j H
fU s j H
T s j H

ne ne iu iu
iu ne iu iu
iu iu iu iu
ne iu iu iu

nj kh eW H
kh eW H
fU s eW H
T s eW H

F: Xuir, <uir, _tir, ehyir fSfhd mirfS, thghLfhd

mirfS bghU tUtij fhf.
jis
uL jL w jisna (ahgUfy U: N.2)
jis ahtJ fLj, nrj vD bghUSilJ. jis vgjF jhs
bghUjkhF. irF f beUa bjhlila jhsij f EgkhdKiw,
brF ydhF Kiw, brhfis mikgnj jisahF. ghnfw Xir
tUkhW fis nrj. Xuo w <wirnahL tU Kjyir
xahD xwhkyhD Xir mika nrUgJ jisahF. xWjyhtJ
neK neU, iuK iu tUtJ. jis nebuhW Majis,
iubahW Majis, a btlis, bt btlis, fjis,
xa tjis, xwhj tjis vd VGtifgL. t sf ij
it bjw ntLnth, braY ghit fY fL bjf.
83

mo
mjis mLJ elj mona (ahgUfy U: N. 2)
jisf xW gy mLJ tUtJ mo badgL. mtof Fwso,
jo, msto, beoyo, fbeoyo vd ItifgL. Fwso - Uuh tUtJ;
ehbyGJ Kj MbwGJtiu mik. jo - Kuh tUtJ; VbHJKj
xgJ vGJtiu mik. msto - ehuh tUtJ; gbjGJ Kj gdhF
vGJtiu mik. mstoia neuo vW TWt. beoyo - IJ uh tU;
gidJKj gndG vGJtiuY mik. fbeoyo - IJ UF
nkgL tU; gbdL vGJKj UgJ vGjstiu mik.
bjhil
mouL bjhLj Kjyhd bjhilna (ahgUfy U: N. 2)
gy mof yhD gy fyhD vGJf xtu bjhLgij
bjhil vd tHFt. mJ vJif, nkhid, ia Ku, msbgil vd
ItifgL. it xbthW mit tUlfis baho vL vL tifahf
ghFghL bra bgW.
nkhidbjhil
gy mofyhtJ, Xuo gy fyhtJ KjbyGJ xtu bjhLgJ.
Wghik dbtGJfS nkhidah tU. Xuo fbyyh nkhid
tjh, mJ KWnkhid vdgL.
(v-L) ff frlw fgit fw
f mjF jf.

(Fw: 391)

Kj tj KjbyGnj mLJ tU fY KjbyGjhf tJsij

fhf. njhW nkhid bgW tJsjh J KWnkhid vdgL.
br Kjyo KjbyGjhf tj vGnj mLJ tU monjhW
KjbyGjhf tjh mjid monkhid bjhil vg.
(v-L) ait a gajyh ait
D mrgL.

(Fw: 202)

vJifbjhil
mobjhW KjbyGJ msbthJ f, ulh vGJ xtu
bjhLgJ; Wghik dbtGJfS vJifah. ylf vJif brh
KjbyGF ulh vGF ilna bjhU bk bgW tUtJ
ntW;
cL; jid Mill vJif vd tHFt. (v.L): MntW - gh
khl - khl.
fh
wh gfhgh MD braf
(v-L) <
nwh gF id.
rh
(Fw: 656)
KjbyGJ xasbthJ ulh vGJ xtUjiy fhf.
iabjhil
br monjhW <bwGnjh nuh brhnyh bjhlnuh xt mJ
ia bjhil vdgL.
84

(v-L) mgheh ntLj nf lUj ntL

MUf bfyheh mbra ntL
vghU vgjK vfQeh brnw
vijd jUfiH al ntL
brghj nkiynk Rjt khf
fnjhf mUn#h brYl ntL
jngJ ehbrD bghWj ntL
jiytid ahj iyik nt Ltnd.
(UtUgh: Rj rkhf ntLnfh-1)
M mjK mjid na
M vW mUa mUbgUn#h
emKJ vxU ehcs fho v
myiy a mUbgUn#h
(UtUgh: mUbgUnrh mft- t:269-270)
Kubjhil
brhdhyhtJ bghUdhyhtJ khWgl bjhLgJ Kubjhil
vdgL. Ku v khWghL. br mof brhf Kuzhf (xWbfhW
vbrhyhf) mikJ tUtJ. Ku uL tifgL. mit: 1. brh
Ku, 2. bghU Ku vgd.
brh Ku:
(v-L) Q kQ; U beU; u gf; gh;
nghWth nghwL, Gth Wth wL.
bghU Ku:
(v-L) bgh md bghW nka
U md sa bed.
fhiy
fhiy gfY ifaW khiy
khiy

(FWbjhif: 32)

msbgilbjhil
br msbgil tu bjhLgJ msbgil bjhilahF.
myit brj nj
(v-L) mwd
bghJ eif.
wd
(Fw: 182)
vJif, nkhid, Ku, ia, msbgil vd bjhil IJ tifgL.
brbjhil
vJif, nkhid, Ku, ia, msbgil Ma tif bjhilfS mikah
UgJ brbjhil vdgL.
(v-L) j ntif aid na
kd mf ehl
eDj bfho kdjf njhnd
br vj bjhil lbgwhikia flf.
85

uilbjhil
br Xuo KGtJ xU brhny tu bjhLgJ uilbjhil
vdgL.
(v-L) xFnk xFnk xFnk xF
s bw xFnk xF
Fsbfho w.
jD Kjyo, Ktj brhny mLJ KGtJ tJsij fhf.
mjhbjhil
Kw gho WYs vGjhD mirahD uhD
moahD tU gho Kjyhf mika ghLtJ mjhbjhil vdgL.
thW awgL W br mjnk, Kj br Mahf
miktJ klj vdgL.
k
(v-L) cyFl sF xf mk
k
key mF tsbfG KFil
KFil H bghil ahrd
Mrd Uj Ubjh mtid
m
J
mnr csnkh lUjt J
Ja khju bjg
g
gdU w ir cynf.
br lbgW k, KFil, Mrd, m, J, g, cyF Mait mjh
fshf tJsjhf fhf. (mj-W, M - Kj)

gh
mir, Kja cWfis bgW tUw ghf btgh, Magh,
fgh, tgh vd ehF tifgL. fgh XireafJ. ghf Xir
Kiwna brg, mft, Js, f vdgL. nkY jhir, Jiw, Uj
vD ghdfS Uj xeaij ygLJt jwl
sFwJ. j njha Kj Uj tf jhk. Uj fiu
flt fg. mjdhnyna UjbkDxghF ca fg vd fg
nghwglh.
btgh
btgh <wo Kuhf tU; Vida mo ehuhf tU. a
btlis, bt btlis gy bgW. eh, ky, fhR, w vD
thgho xwidbfhL Ko. btgh brgnyhir cilaJ. btgh
IJtifgL. mit: Fw btgh, neir btgh, ir btgh, a
btgh, g~bwhil btgh Mad.
(v-L) khd Fyf tik ailik
jhd jtKa jhshik - nj
ftj brhank fhKWj gJ
gt lgwJ ngh.

86

(et:26)

Magh
Maghit mftgh vd TWt.
J mftnyhirilaJ.
Magh <uir f Fahf bgW tU; kiw f Wghikahf
tU; nebuhwhajis, iubahwhajis gy bgW. fUsf,
Tsf vD Uf kL thuh. _wo bwiyahf ngbuiy
ghLth kdfUij bghUJ mik. j <wo V, X, V, <, M, xs
vgdtW VnjD xwh Ko. Magh tiffshtd: neir
ahagh, izFwshagh, iykoy Magh, mokkoy Magh
vgd. mfeh}W, weh}W, ygfhu, knkfiy fYs ghlfis
nehFf. Ma Uj gh:
(v-L) ghid L jhD rhy
gJ ghna Dila
Cid cU cbsh bgU
cyyh Mdj kha
njid brhJ ww j
brtnk tbgU khnd
ahDid bjhlJ bfd onj
vbfG jUSt na.
(Uthrf, oj gJ - 9)
fgh
fgh Jsnyhir bgW tUtJ. ju, jhir, muhf, mnghjuf,
jbrh, Rjf vD MW cWD VgdbfhL mstoah tU. bt
f Fahf wf Wghikahf tU. njkh, kh, fUsf,
Tsf vD ehF f kL tubgW. fjis w jisfS
tU. flis fJiw vgJ vGbj ghlbgW. neuir bjhl
gdhW vGJfS, iuair bjhl gndG vGJfS bgW tU.
(flis - ms). f Uj:
(v-L) cybfyh cz njhj fat
y yha k nta
my nrha mgy jhLth
ky ygo th tzFth.

(bgauhz, ghu)

tgh
tgh fnyhir cilaJ. uL fis bfhl moahnyD
_Wfis bfhl moahnyD tU. msto Kja kwia mof tu
bgwh. bgUghik jjis Wghik wjis jG tU. j
brh bgW mft Rjfjh Ko bgW; btis Rjf tubgwhJ. t
Uj:
(v-L) CD aj udh
nk j Ldh
jhD aj jtdh
thD aj tudh.
(fguhkhaz, j fhl, FgfUz tijgly - 120)
87

kUgh
kUgh Kulo btghthf tU; ulo Maghthf tU.
btgh mftgh fyJ tUtjh kUgh vd tHf bgW. wiy thJ
kUgh, ifis kUgh, thiw thJ kUgh, brac kUgh vd
kUgh ehF tifgL.

M) Wfij vGJj
khztfl tsfntoa caiy wfS Wfij vGJ Mw
Ka lij twJ. Vbd, Wfijia khztf j FHij gUt
Kjny j ghl gholK jh jijlK nflJ kj mDgt mt
csF iHnaho bfhoUF.
Wfij ff khztj mwhl th, mtj FLg NH, mt
fhQ rKjha NH elF ffnshL bjhlgL ghgjF VJthf
fhzgL.
Wfij tot
th gntW ff VnjD xiw vLJ mHFgl gnj
Wfij ahF. xbthUtU thif vjidnah ffis fhnwh.
Mdh, midtUnk mjid MJ neh cztiy. eh czuhj xiw
czjhY wUF czjKoahj xiw fgid tsf fiyP czJ
Wfij M wU czUkhW brwh.
Wfij gilig g TW vGjhs my,
fij ms f ajhf Ufyh; bgajhf Ufyh; fjh ghuf
xnwh gynth Ufyh; fij elF fhy Tl IJ lnkh, xU ehnsh, xgJ
MLfnsh Ufyh. Mdh, fijia goJ Koj cz kL
gogt be iwantL. vG Koj fijF nd Knd cs
vGjhj fijf gongh cs antL. bt bgWlh
m~J mUikahd Wfij vg Iaiy. KGikahd thitnah th
gy nfhzfisnah Wfij vghgjiy. thif xU nfhz
thif bts xU R cz bgU xU Ug tW xW
nghJ WfijF vd sFth.
miu kUJ uliu k neuF goJ Kof Toajhf
Wfij mikantL vgh vfh Myngh vD mbkf Wfij
vGjhs.
j Wfij
j ey Wfij njha fhy kbfho j bttj fhykhF.
mj fij vGatfshd Jikj, bks, F.g.uh., .v. uhikah,
f.eh. Ruka, e. jgu Ruka, .R. brygh Mnah kbfho
Maf vW miHfgLwhf.
t.nt.R. Ia kifafu fhj, Jikj fhrid, e.
jgu Ruka Nafh Ma Wfij bjhF fS, my
eh fij vGd fij, b#afhj ahUfhf mGjh nghw WfijfS
vW id git.
88

rf ya brfis mogilahf bfhL fij vG bt

bgwtf lhl K.tujuhrdh, .th.#fehj Mnah. M.Nlhk, mDjkh,
uh# UZz, Ffia Mnah bg Wfij vGjhsf vz
jft Mt.
Wfij vGJ w tsj
1. jiywj Wfij vGjhsf gilfis khztfSF mKf
gLJj.
2. g yf cs Wfijfis goJ FbgLf brj.
3. tFgiw NH xU Wfijfhd bjhlfij Manuh m
khztnuh bjhl, khzt midtiu mfij tsJ Ko
ngh Tw brj.
4. fijfhd fUbghU xiw T vGj brj.
5. gh fijia T, fijia khztiu bfhL Kof brj.
6. Wfij nghof el, khztiu gFbgw brj.
7. Wt jf khzt j Wfijf lbgWtjfhf MW
gLJj.
8. tFgiw ifbaGJ jf, g ifbaGJ jf Matiw
cUth RHKiw khzt midtiu mj Wfij
vGj CFj nghw bghUjkhd braghLfisbfhL
khztF Wfij vGJ wid cUthfyh.
Wt jfY eh, thu, bghJ jfY btahF Wfij
fis jj bjhFghFf.

5. fyJiuahliy begLj
fyJiuahl vgJ xU jiyig KW uLF nkgltf
ciuahLtJ. bgUghyhd neuf jiynfg xWF nkgl FGfshf
J mFGf jj fUJfis fyJiu brJ midJ FGfS
izj bgUFG fUJiugo KobtLj fG. fyJiuahl gtif
ca Mwfis VgL jU tyik cilaJ.
fyJiuahl bef
eLiy tFfSF Xus bghUJ.
nkiy gfY
ffY jid eF ifahs Ko. Kiw_y tfhl w,
gyjugl fUJfis bjhFj, brayhW Kiwfis tiuaWj, w
fUij C nfl, khW fUJfis vbfhSj, jDila vz
fis btLj nghw caiy wf tswd.

fyJiuahliy ifahS braghLf

fyJiuahl Kiwia ifahSbghGJ jiy njbjLj, FG
j, jiyt, gths gakj, Kofis bgUFG vLJiuf
brj Ma braghLf nkbfhsglntL.
89

jiy njbjLj
tF iyF gnfF khzt m wJF Vg jiyfis
njbjLfntL. eLiy g iy bjhiyfhah VgLtJ
eikah? ikah? vd Muhj, ma ts Mffh? mfh? nghw
jiyf fyJiuahlyh.
FG j
fyJiuahl gnfnghiu FGfshf FbghGJ, ytiw
fUbfhs ntL. mit: 1. MWngUF nkgnlh FG lbgw
yhfhJ. 2. xj fUJilatnuh xUtUF xUt zfkhdtnuh xU FG
lbgwyhfhJ. 3. MfS bgfS mla tF mtf vif
nfg GfhL iy UghyU midJ FGfY lbgw bra
ntL. 4. FG mikj wF Ma jglthY m wjhY FGf
ikl mikJsdth vd Ko brJ njitba cWdfis FG
khw brJ ikgLjntL.
jiyt, gths gakj
FG cWd fyJiuahliy KiwgLj jiytiu jftfis
FbgLf gthsiu gakj ntL. FG cWd midtUF
jiyt ca th mJ fyJiuahl wghf eilbgw ttFf ntL.
Kofis bgUFG fUJF itj
gy FGfshf f bgW fyJiuahl iww Kofis
midJ FG izj bgUFG fUJiuF itJ Kof
Ujf U mtiw izfntL.
Ma g
fyJiuahl bjhlFbghGJ jiynfg KobtLf ntoait
g FGdl bjJ fyJiuahliy bjhl itfntL.
fyJiuahl ir U bryhk begLJtJ Ma flik ahF.

bjhFiu
af khzt Ma wghf tsJbfhs ntoa MW ca
iy wfis fwnjh. foj, mjtif, nehf, vGJKiw Mad
ga Egfis mnjh. fLiu vGJ nehff, fLiu tif, fLiu
vGJ Kiw Mad g mnjh. ngrhw aikahik, ngrhw
w, mjid tsFKiw Kjyhd brf bj bgnwh. fij idj,
FHij ghlf aWj, Wfij vGJj, Wtfhd jf gilj
Kjyhd gilghw w tsF ghid anjh. nkY, fyJiuahl
ga, fyJiuahliy ifahS Kiwfg Ma flik g a
_y mJbfhnlh.

90

4. iH M Fiw fisjY
mKf
xU bkhia fFnghJ fngh gntW fhuzfsh iHbrtJ
aif. Mdh, miHfis fisJ mbkhia Kiwahf gagLj
brtJ Ma flik. Ma, j khztf br iHfis Ro fhL
tjh kLnk mtf iHfis fisa KoahJ. mnjngh, iHahd bkh
aikF gyhf Kiwahd mikig jUtJ kL nghjhJ; neh ehLtnjhL
nehKjY ehlntL. mbghGJjh, nehahia KY Fzkhf
aY. mthnw iHfhd fhuzfis mJ mtiw KYkhf fntL.
mthW Ftjfhf iHfis bjhFJ fhuzfis MuhJ fhgnj iH
M.
iH M MaUF gytiff gagLwJ. iHah tahf
khztf bkha, Fl iy vgo UwJ vgij bjJ
bfhs mtf bkhait ghF fhuzfis fL f
cjwJ. nkY, khztf bkh fF Ka vj ms <LgoUwhf
vgJ iH M MaUF bj. J Maf khztfl
Mtij l gytf Kafis nkbfhs cj. nkY, iH
M tahf Ma, j fj cfis nrhJ ghJbfhs Ko.
jdh mt, j fj cfis khbfhL fjiy nkY wghf
aY. njnghW ghll, ghl Mat UF Fiwfis
czJbfhs iH M cj. iH Mth gy gaf UjhY mj
Kjik nehf khztf iHfis fistnj.

goiyf
1. jtW iH
2. iHfhd fhuzf
3. iH tiff
4. iH fhz
5. fw iH l
6. Fiw fisj

1. jtW iH
iHbagJ kuUJ tGtJ. mjhtJ eh vghF btghil
l fgtlUJ ilF ntWgl btghL. mgoahdh, khztfl
fhzgL ntWgl btghLf vyh iHf vwh iy. mit
iHfshf Ufyh, jtWfshf Ufyh. iHF jtWF cs
91

ntWghL vd? jtW vgJ nrh, ntf, ftdFiw, kd cisr Kja

fhuzfsh VgLtJ. iH bagJ khzt Kiwahf fWbfhshj
fhuzjh njhWtJ. mjhtJ, jtW vgJ khztf bkhia btgLJ
t vgL Fiw; iH bagJ fWbfht VgL Fiw. jtWF
fa fhuz vJ yhjjh vnghjhtJ VgL. fw Vgl
Fiw fhuzkhf njhWtjh iH vyh lfY njhW myJ
njhWw lf VjhtJX xGF UF. nkY xU khzt, jh brj
jtWfis L xUKiw ghjh mjtWfis Ubfhs aY.
Mdh, iHfis mtdh czJbfhsnt ayhJ. y vLJfhL
fis ghngh.
xU khzt Xl bghWik vD brhiy bgWik bad vG
Uwhbdd itJbfhnth. J jtwh? iHah? vd Ko bra kw gy
lfis ghfntL. mkhzt ylf ju kwlf bgh
vGij Kiwahf vGUjh, mt brjJ jtW. mgoyhk vbfyh
bgh vGJ tUwnjh mbfyh bg vd vGUjh mJ iH.
bdhU khzt brhf tuntoa lf gytY
gagLJwh vd itJbfhnth. mnghJ, mJ iHah vd vgo Ko
brtJ? mt tuntoa vyhlfY vGij vGjhk y
lf ylf vd uil vGsh. vdnt, vGs
lf vit, vGs lf vitbad ghfntL. brh
Kj e, eh, ... vd cbuGJl nrJ tU. brhil jahf (gJ)
cbuGJl nrJ (Xeh) tU. tW brh Kj vG,
brh il vG Ugjhf itJ bfhnth. (v-L) gJ, Xdh.
mnghJ mJ iH. Vbdwh, vGij Mf vbjj lf vGJwh
vd tiuaWJ Tw KowJ. J iH g.
xU khzt tUlfbyyh vGsh (v-L brt brt). Mdh, vGa lf VjhtJ X xGF tUwjhbtd
tiuawJ brhy Koaiybad itJbfhnth. mnghJ mJ iHaW,
jtbwd Ko brJlyhkh? xUntis mj khzt tGthf vGs
D ylfis ghjh mbghGJ tiuaWfyh. ekF ilw
Fiwj ms juit itJbfhL xU khzt brw Fl xU
tGit jtbwd Ko brtJ jtwhf nghf TL. vdnt, xU tG iHah
iyah vd Kobra tU uL tKiwfis mogilahf
bfhsyh.
vGJ tG
khztf brw tGfis mtfshfnt Ubfhs Kowjhbtd
xU th bfhLJ ghfntL. mtfsh Ubfhs Kowtiw
jtWf vd, Ubfhs Koahjtiw iHf vd Ko brayh.
Mdh, mtfsh Ubfhs Kowjh vgij ftdkhf ghfntL.
vLJfhlhf gH vD brhiy xU khzt gs vd vGUf, Ma
mjid Rofho rah vd nflh, khzt Ma nflijbfhL
jtwhf vGUgjhjh nfwh vd idJ gH vd khbfhsyh.
jdh, iHia jtbwd Ma Ko braTL. vdnt, khztfsh
cikahfnt Ubfhs aYwjh vd ghJ Ko brantL.
92

brh tG
xU tG, khzt bkh iwa lf fhzglhny mjid
iHahf bfhsyh. Vbdwh, iHia jtbwd v Ujhk
LLtjh, VgL Higl jtiw iHbad v
gagjh, mf H VgLlhJ. xU khzt vGJ
lbgwntoa ylf kLnk vGij vGsh. Mdh,
vGJ lbgW gF vD brh vbf bfyh tUwnjh mbfyh
gF vd vGJwh. gogl Niy vd KobtLgJ? -
tGit ylf kLnk brtjh mij jtbwd Ko brantL.
Mdh, gF vgij vbghGJ gF vd vGJtjh mij iHbad
bfhsntL.
mjhtJ, gF - gF vgij brhiHahf
bfhsntL.

2. iHfhd fhuzf
g khztf jiH fFnghJ br iHfSfhd fhuzfshf
tU VHid Twyh.
m) xikahf
M) yF mahik
) jtwhd fUJUthf
<) vikahf
c) Lj
C) ngRtH jhf
v) gyhik
m) xikahf
fw bkh jhf mj y bkhaikfis nghW, mik
fis cUthFtJ xikahf. mjhtJ, xikahf iHf khztf
jtwhf uL mikfis xikgL ghJ, mit uoF gyh xnu
mikig cUthFwhf. vLJfhlhf mj, j, vj vD RL
fSF xW FJ vGJtij bgaburnjhL xL mF xW FJ
vGdh mJ xikahf iH. mjhtJ,
mj gR
j fil
vj ril
tj iga
idj bra
wj fj

Kja RL bjhlfis,

vD bgabur bjhlfis

xnu jujitahf v (j Kotjh) Kdt xW FJ tj

iga, idj bra, wj fj vd FJ iHahf vGjyh.
ntWy vLJfhLf:
1) ntWik cUFK - m <W brhfnshL mJ rhia nrfhik.
gz + I
- gzij vd vGjhk gzik vW,
fky+M - fkyjh vd vGjhk fkykh vW vGJj.
93

2) ntWik z uofhik
L + F
khL + I
gghL +

=
=
=

LF vd vGjhk LF vd vGJj
khil vd vGjhk khil vd vGJj
ggho vd vGjhk ghgho vd vGJj

khztfl vtifahd xikahf iHf fhzgLwd

vgij flJ goal brf.
M) yF mahik
yF mahik xikahfnjhL bjhlilanj. F fG
xik ahf xU F ca fLghLfis Jbfhs jtajh
fjJ. xU F yFf UFnghJ, khztf mtiw mahk
ia yFfSF gagL ntWgl mikfis cUthFwhf.
vLJ fhlhf gJ vD vQbgaUF xW FJ vGjhik.
gJ + ghl

gJ ghl vd vGjhk gJ ghl vd vGJj.

jF fhuz vQ bgaf mjhtJ vL, gJ fyhf w vQ bga

f xW fhJ vDia mahik.
tU r iHfis yF mahikah briHfshf
bfhsyh.
1) cfu <W idbar tbwhl FaYfukhf UFnghJ xW FJ
vGjhik.
goJ + gh
toJ + bfhL
moJ + brh

=
=
=

goJ gh (goJ gh)

toJ bfhL (toJ bfhL)
moJ brh (moJ brh)

vd iHahf vGJj.
2) bfhR, gR, tL Kja brhf cfuij bfLj.
bfhR + I
gR + F
tL + M

=
=
=

bfhir (bfhRit)
gRF (gRF)
tlh (tLth)

vd iHahf vGJj.
) jtwhd fUJUthf
fwnghJ khztf jtwhd y fUJUthffis jfSFns
brJbfhL, mj fhuzkhf iH brwhf. vLJfhlhf, idT
vD bjhlYs T vgjid TW vD brhyhf fU id TWnw,
id TWnt vd gagLJtJ jtwhd fUJUthf iH.
tfhs Flh fliy fynw.
j tha tfhs Flh fl fynw vd mikfntL.
94

fy, fyF vD U idfS fyit gagLJtjF gyhf fyF vd

idJ gagLanj cUF gyhf I cU gagLajF
fhuz.
<) vikahf
brantoa vj ntiyia vikahf KatJ kj a. jF
bkhfwY yF mW. bkh fFnghJ khztf fw bkh
mikfis vikgLj Ka brwhf. vLJfhlhf, btntW id
KofSF gyhf xnu idKoit gagLJtij Twyh.
eh tUnw.
eh tUnwh.
mt tUwh.
mt tUwh. thW btntwhf Kofhk,
eh tUwh.
eh tUwh.
mt tUwh.
vd gagLdh mJ vikahf iH vdyh.
vikahf fhuzkhf eKila khztf mfkhf ttot iH
fis brwhf.
(v-L) x - P
j -

e -

o -

G -

c) Lj
bkhia fFnghJ bkhTWfis goiy brjKiw, ghlkha
Kiw, Ma sff, thaf lbgW y brhf NH
Mat Ljyh khztf br iHf Lj iHf vdyh..
vLJ fhlhf,
f vyhU RWyh ngh tjhf vW vGUjh vD
tha vyhU vD brh ngh tf vgjF gyhf ngh
tjhf vd vGj khztfis osJ.
ntWy vLJfhLf tUkhW:
1. ghgfh m~izl f nrj
mkh vdF iwa gzf bfhLjh. - jtW
mkh vdF iwa gz bfhLjh. - r
eh mf nfhgf glkhnl. - jtW
eh mf nfhgglkhnl. - r
2. xUik - gik
eh vf g v egfnshL ManuhL RWyh brnw.
95

C) ngRtH jhf
xU bkhia fWbfhSnghJ, mj bkh vGJtH,
khztf Vbfdnt mj ngRtH jhf UF. fFbkh Uiy
tHF bkhahf Ujh jhf mfkhf UF. Vbdwh, Uiy tHF
bkhf uL tHFfSF ilna cs ntWghL mfkhf UF.
e - d
z-d
y -s
w - u
Kja xaa iHf
X - xU
nghw brhyfz iHf ngRtH jhfF vLJfhLf.
ngR tH jhfjh bragL iHfis clgY
khztf vGUJ ngUJ bjhFf.
v) gyhik
gyhikia iHFa fhuzkhf Tw Kokh vgJ thjFaJ.
vD, iHfSF Jtiu Ta vj fhuzij fhl Koahlh,
mnghJ mij gyhik isthf vLJbfhsyh. Mthsf jhf
mjF VnjD fhuz Rodh mij VWbfhsyh.

3. iH tiff
iHfis gythW tifgLjyh. wdogil ngR iHf,
th iHf, vGJ iHfbsd bkhaik mogil vGJ, brh,
tha, r vd fyh. xU tifgho kbwhU tif cfshf
mik vwhY nf vG btgL iHf thf sfgLsd.
Vbdwh, jbkh f vGJj wDnf Kjl jugLsJ.
UD, ngRnghJ thFnghJ btgL x iHf ftd
bfhsntL. kw iHf vG btgL iHfshfnt bgUghY
UF.
x iHf jhfjh vGJ iHf njhwyh vwhY, mJ
flha iy. ngR j jhfjh y it s thf xF xUt y tU
lf s btd vGJth vd Twyh. vG KY j iH brahkny
Uf TL. vdnt, ngRnghJ thFnghJ x iHf brgtfis
dfL mtf iHgl xF xfis Kiwahf xf g mf
ntL.
vGJ iHf
vGJ iHf vd bghJthf brhyglhY mitbayh ttot
iHfiy. vG btgLw x iHfS mtW mlF. j
yfz, vGbjd FLtJ ttotij kLiy, xiajh vgJ
96

F idTujfJ. j uLtif iHfSF ilna bjthd

ntWghLf csd. d - z vD x iH d F gyhf z vGj
gLwJ. ttot iHf tot xWiks vGJfilna VgL. x
iHf bgUghY x xWiks vGJfilna VgL. ttot
iHf thnghUF jtwhd vGij czJ. Mdh, vGatf
mtiw rahf thf TL. x iHf thnghUF jtwhd vGij
czJtnjhL vGatfshY rahf czu KoahJ.
1) ttot iHf
xU khzt Fl y ttotf iH brwh vgjh, mt
kw totfis f rahf vGJwh vgiy. mjhtJ, bgUghnyh vGJ
nghJ mR totij nghW mgona vGJtiy; khwfSlndna vGJ
wd. Mdh, j khwfsh X vGJ knwh vGjhf njhWnghJ mJ
iHahwJ. vLJfhlhf r - f vw iH r, f uL KGikahf
vGj glhlhY r mj viy tuig vGj gljh, mJ f
viyF mikJ fitngh njhwkwJ. khwhf f jdJ viyia
r viyF mikJLkhdh mnghJ mJ r itngh njhwkJ
f-r vD iHahL.
khztf mf brw ttot iHf tUkhW:
1) m - v

11) y - t

2) m - R

12) t - y

3) M - N

13) s - d

4) - F

14) d - s

5) I - #

15) d - i

6) x - P

16) F - U

7) r - f

17) R - f

8) j - e

18) o -

9) e - j

19) G - K

10) e - w

20) #& -

ttot iHf bgUghyhdtF fhuz vikahfny. xbthU

totij brikahf fJlh vikahf kdghikia jgJ
fodkW. nkY, tU rhWfisngh tto br W khwTl
bghU ntWghil VgLjTL vgij khztf czUkhW bra
ntL.
mGF
fha

mKF
rha

ght
Iah

ghy
#ah

ttot iHfis jgjF ttotfis Kiwahf fW ju

ntL. khztf ttotfis fWbfhSnghJ mtfSF Kiwahd
K khia juntL. yhlh jtwhd kh totf Kiwahf
fWbfhshk iHnagl fhuzkhf mik. vdnt, Ma bjhlf g
Kj tF Kjny xbthU vGij ca tto vG ff ntL.
97

iHfis fisa Ma _W eltoiffis nkbfhsyh. Kj iHia

dfll Ma mJ iHbagij khztfSF czj ntL.
khztf iHia czJbfhlh, wF mj iH tUlf ftdkhf
UfaY. mLJ, Ma Fl vGij vthW vGjntL vd
Kiwahf fW juntL. _whtjhf Kiwahf fW bfhLjij jf
itJbfhs njitahd gfis juntL.
2) x iHf
1. z,e,d kabfh iHf
2. y, H, s kabfh iHf
3. u, w kabfh iHf
4. F - beo, beo - F iHf
5. v, V, x, X (cbk) iHf
6. - ( v-L) mP - mr
7. , -F xW uoj
(v-L) c - c
Ka - Ka
8. - cl xW uoj (v-L) mjF - mjF
(v-L) fh - fh
nff - nff
gy iHfSF ngR j jhf fhuzkhf csJ. bgUghyhd iH
fis vGJf tUifKiwia fgjh f aY. thW f ayhj
NHf VgL iHfis w iHfis khztf jj bkh ga
ghL gl thyhfnt f aY. thW TWtjh Ma VJ bra
ntoaiy vgjW. khztf bkhia gagLJt gl bgw
Ma cjtntL. ehnjhW tF xbthUtuhf thL goFkhW
brantL. brhf xig vGJfis eF bjJbfhs
nfblGJ g fgagL.
j iHfis jgjF Kj tFUnj Kiwahf gaf
ntL. Kj x g juntL. iHf lbgw Toa xfSF
mf g juntL. xfSF jahf brhfY brh izfY
g juntL. x gia mLJ xbaGJ bjhlig kd ga
brtjF milahs fhQ gia mfyh. Ma uL _W
vGJfis fUgyif vG mtW xiw xJ mij fUgyif
vG, mj vGij knwh vGij xJ, mtW vJ fUgyif
vGjgLsbjd fLof brhyyh. xfis dfhQj mtiw
ttotfnshL bjhlgLJj, ttotfis Kiwahf vGJj Ma wf
nkgl nfblGJ g njit. tnwhL thj g juntL.
Ma iHfis dfll mtiw khztfSF Rofhl ntL.
Rofhoa wF iHfis Ftjfhd f U, mtiw ff
ntL. mj fis kdUbfhs iwa gfis mfntL.
f vJ iyahdh iHia sL jf gfis juntL.
khztf iH vGJtiu Ma bjhlJ g jJbfhoUf
ntL.
98

brhyfz iHf
xL neh kw iHfisl brhyfz iHf Fiw.
xU - X
j c vGJf bjhlF brhfK X vzil
bkbaGJf bjhlF brhfK xU vzil tU. Mdh,
khztf xF gyh kbwhiw gagLJwhf.
(v.fh.)
xU Mo (X Mo vgjF gyhf xU Mo)
xU C ( X C vgjF gyhf xU C)
X gHbkh (xU gHbkh vgjF gyhf X gHbkh)
X bjt (xU bjt vgjF gyhf X bjt)
f F
j gik Fahf f, M, m, , kh Kjatwh FfgLwJ.
y brhf jgl Fna gik bghUis czJwd. ghgfh
m~iz bgafSF xUik, gik ntWghoiy. j mikig mahk
khztf j mf gagL f gik Fia njitaw brh
fSlD izJ gagLshf.
gikia FF gygh _l bganuhL f nrwd.
mitf ekF m jUwd.
kwitf j Ujd.
mJ rhia
m <W bgabrhfnshL ntWik F nrUnghJ bfL il
mJ rhia njhW.
Kf + I
Fs +

=
=

Kfij
Fs

Mdh khztf thW vGjhk rhiaia LL cUfis kL

nrbjGJwhf.
Kf + ik
=
Kfik
Fs +
=
Fs
thW khztf br iHfis fhuz T fisantL.
, uoj mahik
bgabrhf beoYF W cfuK cs , uL
ntWik z uoF.
ML + I
nrhW + ghid

=
=

Mil
nrhW ghid

Mdh, khztf thW uofhk cUfis csthnw izJ

vGJwd.
L + F
tuyhW +

=
=

LF
tuyhW
99

xikahf, yF mahik, NH l Mad nkny Fl

brhyfz iHfSF fhuz. fis fgj thyhf bjhlJ
gf mgj thyhf jifa iHfis fyh.
r iHf
uL brhf nrUnghJ mtilna vGJf njhW, ,
bfL. agh mikJLtJ r vdgL. br iHf r
iHf. r iHfis uL tifahf fyh. Kj tif xWiHf,
ulh tif w r iHf.
1) xW iHf
xW FJ vGJj khztfSF fodkhd xwhfnt csJ. mtf
ntoa l LL ntlhj l FJ vGJwhf.
khztf bgUghY ntoa ntlhj lf vW ghfhk Ma xW
FJ vGJtij tWJgtuhf Ujh bgUghyhd lf FJ
yhlh bgUghyhd lf fhkY vGJwhf.
uL brhf nrUnghJ tUbkh , , , Ma bkf (mjhtJ f, r,
j, g tir cbkf) bjhlFkhdh mF xWf thsJ.
f + fl
t + nriy
ahid + jj
ngh + go

=
=
=
=

ffl
t nriy
ahid jj
ngh go

Mdh, thW bjhlF vyh brhfSF KD xWFbkD flha

iy. iybkhia bghUJ FjY fhik mik. vF xWF,
vF fhJ vgjF fSsd.
ntlh l xW FJ vGa iHf
mts bga (mts bga) tj iga (tj iga)
thW brjh (thW brjh) mJngh
(mJngh)
fj wjJ
(fj wjJ)
ntoa l xWFJ vGjhj iHf
mj bghU (mj bghU)
s TW (s TW)
khj nj (khj nj)
fhij bjhL (fhij bjhL)
ehL gW (ehL gW)

F fl (F fl)
ftdkhf nf (ftdkhf nf)
gJ Fw
(gJ Fw)
ekF gif (ekF gif)

xWiHfis fis fWjJ fyh. Mdh, fis ff

khztfSF gy yfz brhf bjUfntL. vyh yfz
brhfis bjhlfiy ff ayhJ. vdnt, gf thyhf xiw
ntoa l FJ, ntlhj l LJ vGj gl bgWgo
brayh. nkY, ghll lbgW yfz TWfis fFnghJ,
mt xWFkh fhjhbtd mnfna fJlntL.

100

y lf vbuuhd uL f bghUjkhf mikayh. vLJ

fhlhf gaJ vD l tU uL fis gagLjyh.
1. XbuGJ xUbkhF xWF.
2. vGthF xW fhJ.
Jnghw NH fhJ vd TW ia LL F vd TW ia
g FJ vGJkhW khztfSF gafntL.
2) w r iHf
xWiHf fyhd w riHf gytifahf mik. mit F
thf sfgliy. mf fhzgL iHfSfhd vLJfhLf
tUkhW:
rjd ku (rjd ku)
Kailah (Kailah)
fl
(fl)

mJUgh(mUgh)
lbkyh(lbkyh)
bghUiu (bghUSiu)

xikahf, yF mahik, gyhik Mait r iHfhd

fhuzf. F Rofhos vyh riHfis fis fgj
thyhf f jf brayh. Mdh, fis sta fgJ fod.
UD gf tahf f khztf kdJgkhW brayh.
khfis bfhLJ mtiw nghW brtj thyhf fis kiwKfkhf
fWbfhs brantL. kh csJ nghW Ug Ug brtj
thyhf khztfsh cthfgLL. vLJfhlhf y gf
tUkhW:
khia ngh nrbjGJf:
m) LF + ngh =
fhLF + ngh =
filF + ngh =

LF ngh.

M) go + m
=
bgh + m =
m + m
=

goa

j gfis vikahf Kj jJ bky bky caiyF L

bryyh. vLJfhlh g M tUkhW vikUJ fodkhf
gogoahf cajglyh.
) f + m
k + mo
o + ms

=
=
=

fa

btLJfhLf iybkh W Mf Uf tUbkh vyh m

bjhl tUbghGJ mfu afukhf kh tUtij fhf.
<) gh + l
Fo + ML
to + C

=
=
=

ghl

iybkh W Mf Uf tUbkh VjhtJ cbuG bjhlFtij

fhf.
101

c)

k + Xir
+ cl
fis + vL
k + Xir
mnj + ML

= knahir
=
=
=
=

iybkh W , <, V, I vd Koa tUbkh VjhtJ cbuG bjhlF

tij fhf.
g m tUkhW , , , vyh tUkhW caiyF bfhL
bryglyh.
ntiyF + nghdh
kfDF + bfhL
glJF + br
LF + U

=
=
=
=

neuoahfnth kiwKfkhfnth fis fj wF Jnghw nrJ

vGJj gnahL tU gfis juyh. gf xWF
lfnshL fhlfS fyJ jugLsd.
1. rah? jtwh?
2. jf lf xW FJ vGJf.
3. tU gia iH rahf vGJf.
4. bghUjkhd brhiy njbrJ uf.
filfhul xU go ----------------- (fliy/fliy) nfnl.
tha iHf
khztf gytifahd tha iHfis brthf. mf bragL
iHf tUkhW:
1) ia iHf
2) ntWik iHf
3) brid, braghLid iHf
4) bragLbghU Fa - Fwh id iHf
1) ia iHf
j gh, v, l Matnfg vGth, idnahL iaJ
tuntL. Mdh, khztf iaig iHahf vGJwhf.
l
mLjKiw f vfSl tUnth vW enw.
(mLjKiw f vfSl tUf vW enw.)
f vyhU RWyh ngh tjhf vW vGUjh.
(f vyhU RWyh ngh tf vW vGUjh.)
v
- knfu m#jh jhfltiw jHf gilf Kawd.
(Kawh)
102

- vyhU mtis kgh. (kg)

- Kndw milahjtf Kaia Ughjtfshf thUgh.
(thUg.)
gh
- muR gy rYiff tHFwd. (tHFwJ.)
- gJfsh gy cf gahwd. (gahwd.)
2) ntWik iHf
ntWikia gagLJt _W tifahd iHf fhzgL.
1. ntlhj l ntWik Fia gagLJtJ.
2. ntoa l ntWik Fia LLtJ.
3. jtwhd ntWik Fia gagLJtJ.
ntWik
tWik Fia njit gagLJj
(v.fh.)
- mtUF gyj fha miljh. (mt gyj fha miljh.)
- nkiyehLfY ij gagLwJ. (nkiy ehLfY J
gagLwJ.)
- u Ulf bjhiy bfhLwhf. (u Ulf bjhiy
bfhLwhf)
ntWik Fia gagLjhk vGJj
- mehil iuahd. (mehil F iuahd.)
- Mdh bjhiyfh cUtij fhz Ko.(bjhiyfh
cUtij fhzKo.)
- J e jiy vW Fiw brhbfhL thtJ ga xW iy.
(J e jiy vW Fiw brhbfhL tht ga xW
iy.)
ntW ntWik Fia gagLJj
- xU ngUJ mtf neh tjJ.
(xU ngUJ mtfis neh tjJ.)
- khztfSF etgLJnt.
(khztfis etgLJnt.)
- vdh mij bra Ug iy.
(vdF mij bra Ug iy.)
- yif kd HhF fyJbfhlh.
(yif kd Hh fyJbfhlh.)
- eh Mafis kahijl elJbfhs ntL.
(eh Mafl kahijl elJbfhs ntL.)
103

3) brid, braghLid iHf

brid thaf khztfsh
vGjgLwd.

uL

tif

iHahf

vGthl M nrJ
- nrhHdh nfh fodh. (nrhH nfh fodh.)
- ikahd fhiw jhtufsh btLwd.
(ikahd fhiw jhtuf btLwd.)
idl gL nrJ
- a ghlfis ehlffis xguggLwJ.
(a ghlfis ehlffis xguwJ.)
- kf gy Hhfis bfhlhlgLwd.
(kf gy Hhfis bfhlhLwd.)
braghL id thafS khztfsh uL tif iHgl
vGjgLwd.
vGthl I nrJ
- fjit KUfdh wfglJ.(fj KUfdh wfglJ.)
- Hhit g TlfY bfhlhlgLwJ.
(Hh gTlfY bfhlhlgLwJ.)
idl gL nrfhk
- fz nruehil milJ bjfKwJ ygfhu brhwJ.
(fz nruehil milJ bjfKwJ ygfhu
brhygLwJ.)
- Cuh kwY efuh kwY iyaf ytrkhf
VgLsd.
(Cuh kwYefuh kwY iyaf ytrkhf
VgLjgLsd.)
4) bragLbghU Fa, Fwhid iHf
bgUghY khztf bragLbghU Fwhidfis bjhlila
bragLbghU Fa idfis jtwhf kh gagLJwd.
Fwhid - Faid
- mJ ekF mL va gagL. (mJ ekF mL vf gagL.)
- mj fh gytif gwitfis milJ itUjd.
(mj fh gytif gwitfis milJ itUjd.)
Faid - Fwhid
- mzh wj ngrhsuhf vGjhsuhf sdh.
(mzh wj ngrhsuhf vGjhsuhf sdh.)
- lhik kjidbayh Ufkhf khw itF.
(lhik kjidbayh Ufkhf khw itF.)
tha iHfSfhd fhuzkhf ngRj, NH Lj, gyhik,
jtwhd fUjhf Mad mik. khzhf vGthnfg idia,
104

idnfg xU bgaiu ntWik FlD yhkY gagLj g

agj tahf iHfis fisayh. tU gf bghJiy cj.
1. milF cs brhiy jfthW kh uj.
2. fijia, mj fij lbgW fij khj brhtJnghW khWj.
3. fijia ehlfkhf khWj.
4. ciuahl xUtUila gFia uj.
5. nfhol idF gyh milF csij gagL
thaij mikj.
(v-L) mtUF t iuthf fl iljJ. (bgW)
mt t iuthf fl bgwh.
nkY, Fl gfis xbthU iH jjikF Vg
jahJ tHfyh.

4. iHfhz
bkhaha flikfS jiyahaJ khztf br iHfis d
fL fhuzkJ mtiw fistjfhd ttiffis nkbfhSj. Ma
khztf fLiu VLf, njjhf MatY tF mtfnshL
ciuahLnghJ mtfSila ngUJ iHfis fL bjhFfntL.
thW bjhFF iHfis nrJ iHfis bjthf dfL bfhs
ntL.
ftiy vgij ftis vW fl vgij fl vW gyh
vgij gsh vW vGUjh mtUJ - vD iHia
fla ntL. mjhtJ, Fl khztndh khzt gynuh xia
Mf czJ iH brJsij Jbfhs ntL.
njnghW xU iHia Fl xU khzt kL brwhdh? xU
WFGd kL brwduh? tF bgUghyhdtf brwhfsh?
vgij Ma mantL. mbghGJjh iH f g bfhLf
trahf UF.

5. fw iH l
iH brtJ kj ajh. vdnt, iHfns brahk khztf fW
bfhsntLbkd Ma vghf TlhJ. RUf brhdh, khztf
xbthU iH brnghJ fW bfhwhf. j neu Maf
cj khztfSF njitgLwJ. iHf khztf fw nej Fiw
vgjh iHfhd fhuzij fL fisantL. mthW fisaglh
lh kd MH gJ Uj fodkhditahf (fnk vGjhf -Fossilized error) khL. nkY, bkhia bghUjtiu vbfyh xGfik
Fiwilajhf Uwnjh mbfyh xikahf iHf Vgl thsJ.
(v-L: mt - mtDF, mt -mtSF, mt - mtUF, vgJngh, eh - ehDF
vd vGJtJ xikahf iH).
vdnt, xGfikF yfhf
cstiw fJ iHia fntL.
thwhd iHfis
bgUghyhndh brjh, miHfis vghJ fis yFfis
KTona ffntL.

105

6. Fiw fisj
iHah fl KofSnfg jf eltoiffis nkbfhL
khztflUJ iHfis fisantL. sFj, ia fj,
g jUj, L fj Ma tf xiwnah ytiwnah ifahL
iHfis khztf gaghoUJ fntL. iHf msF, iH
br khztf vifF Vg iHfis fis eltoifia
nkbfhsntL.
khztf iHfSF KGtJ Maiu bghWghf KoahJ
vwhY, Ma iHfis fLbfhshk Ll KoahJ. mt jhkhfnt
KaW iHfis fistjF njitahd braghLf wfntL. jf
fis th neUlf ffntL. gfis cUth khztfis
iwntw brantL. iHf eltoiffis lL nkbfhs
ntL.
xU tFYs khztfS bgUghikd y iHfis br
wd vwh tF KGikF iH f gfis mfntL. y
khztf kLnk brUjh, mtfSbfd jahf neu xJ gf
juntL. tF bkhjfhdhY khzt yUfhdhY iH f g
fis jj wF mtf mj iHfis brwhfsh vd nrhf ntL.
mnghJ iHf brjh L mtiw fisa KayntL. tF
KGikF iHf g bfhLJ wF nrhJ ghFnghJ, bjhlJ
iH brnth vif Fiwthf Ujh, mtfSF L gf
jUtij tFF btna brayh. xU FGF kLnk iH f g
jjh iHf yhk vGJgtfis FGUJ L bjhlJ iH
fSl vGJgtfSF kL L g juntL.
thW bjhlJ Katnj wj Ma flikahF. mjhtJ, xU
khzt jDl gY fhy KGtJ iH f Ka brantL. mjF
wF khztf iH brjh, mnghJ mtiw F bghW mLj tF
MaUilajh L. Mdh, L L iHf gf jUnghJ
Ma, gKiwfis kh ghfntL. y iHf K tFf
bjhlJ fisaglhikah kd MH gJ ij totkhL. it ju,
kw iHfis XUKiw g jUtnyna lyh. ijtot iHfis
FtJ rW fodkhdJ. UD, bjhlj gf mtiw F. y
neuf y iHfis khzt yUF bkhUJ mfWtJ ayhk nghf
TL. khztf csa, clYWf rhj uidf jF fhuzkhf
Uf TL. mnghJ khztf bgnwh tahf jf tYefl
miHJ brW Fiwfis fisayh.
khztf br iHfis goaLf. mit vtif iHf
vgij tifgLJf.
iH f vjifa tKiwfis
nkbfhf.

106

nrhjid
brj

iHfis
milahs
fhQj

fhuz
fhQj

fj

iHf
fhz

nrhjid
brj

g
cUthFj

iy

g
mj

mLj ghl

fj iHfis fistjfhd goiyf

bjhFiu
j fF Ma jkJ khztf br iHfis dfL
mt fhd fhuzfis flJ mtnfg L fnjh gf
bfhLnjh iHfis fistjF njitahd fUJf a
sfgLsd. iHia Ko brtjF jtW iH vD gF
iHfhd fhuzfshf VG fhuzfS khztf j gntW iyf
br iHfS mtiw fistjF vLF eltoiffS
bjgLjggLsd. tiw fW khzt MafS iHfis
bjhFJ mtiw fistjfhd gfis cUthf ntL.
isa rKjha fFnghnj iHyhk ngr vGj bra
ntoaJ Mafsha e flikjhnd!
mJbfhf: aFe, mDe, bgWe, XLe, elJe; Rt,
bt, t, guL, g_W, bwL, KW, ehyhu
itnghW Kiwahdtiw mJ gagLJtJ bkhkuig
fhjyhF.

107

5. j fj jftbjhEg
mKf
a UbgU fis cslaJ; xW, bkhgwhTl,
kbwhW, f jG. bkhgwh Tl bkh x iHfis
ngh nkgLJtjF bgJ cjtJ. jhbkhahsF kLk,
mabkhdU vjhf iuthf xU bkhia ff cjtJ. bkh
gwh Tl mik, fUf g a Kjf vLJiuf
gLsJ. khzt Maf adtiwbayh tuntW, mtiw j ts
gL tUfhy FHijfSF gWfntL. mtiw jtwlh
fhy eik wj brWL; bkh tsbgwhk FL. bkhia
gagLJtY tsgLJtY MafSF bgUgF cL. bjh
Egij gagL j fjiy nkgLj khzt Maf wbgw
ntL. f gaghL mfjj isthf K gagLa bjh Eg
cf vyhtiw ft gagLj Ko. vdnt, f tahd
bjh Eg nf thf ngrgLsJ.

goiyf
1. bkh gwh Tl
2. f jG
3. j bkbghUf
4. iza
5. j iza gfiyfHf
6. glfK j fjY

1. bkhgwh Tl
fJiw bjh Eg ts ey khwfis tHsJ. jh
bkhayhj w bkhia Kiwgo fWbfhs bkhgwh Tl bgJ
cjwJ. 1960f nkehLf tsbgw iy jnghJ jehL
gf tiu tJsJ. brid cyf jHhuh Wtd, ikN a
bkhf eLt Wtd nghwt l fhykhf gagLjgL
tUwJ. bghJthf wbkhid fWbfhs UgtUF mbkhia
jhbkhahf bfhltiuna ngr brJ, g brJ nf kW ngR
gF g Tl thgwJ. bkhgwh Tlij jhbkh
fjYF lL brikahf gagLjyh.
xUt mbkhia jkjh bfhsyh. gF th Tl
bgJ JizwJ. xbthU bkhY cs xKiwf, ngRnghJ
Fu njhW Vwjh, ngR ntf it aghf mikj ntL. jF
nehffis thTl g iw brwJ.
108

bkhgwh Tl jkhzt fwiy ikakhf bfhlJ. mJ, j

khzt njitfis iw brwJ. bkhw,nfl gF,
thbkh gF wl jUwJ. j mikig fhngh.
mik
bkhgwh Tl x jilaik (Sound Proof) bfhljhf UF.
w xf cns fh. mnjnghW cns vG xfS mf ghfhJ mik.
mnf,
1. fUtiw fU (Console)
2. Kjikiy ehlhf (Master Tapes)
3. uil gFf cs ehlhf (Twin track tapes)
4. xg ehlh fUf (Tape Recorders)
5. jiya bjhFf (Head sets)
6. Ebzh fUf (Microphones)
Mad UF.
fUtiw fUf
Ma MizL fUahf ij fUjyh. j_y Ma bkh
gwh Tl gbgW khztfSl bjhl bfhwh. nkY,
khztfis bjhlbfhs, gWf, ffhf, brf Tw, Mizl
Vwtif fU gahsf xg ehlhfUlD, jiya
bjhFlD izbfhlJ. bghJthf fU,
m) xgu kW xg ehlhfUf xg brJ bfhtj
nfw tif mikj irf (Distributing Switches) UF.
M) Fl neu Fl gahs gF eilbgW gia
ffhJ Uj, kljf tif cs bra irf (Monitoring
Switches)UF.
) g bgW j khztUl g bjhlghf ciuahl VwKiw
mikj irf (Intercom Switches) UF.
<) gwh Tl g bgWbfhoUF Fl y
khztfSl bghJthd Ffis xnu neu TWtjF Vw irf (Group
Call Switches) mikUF.
c) gbgW vyh khztfSF brfis jUtif mikj
irf (All Call Switches) mikUF.
Kjik iy ehlhf
Mauh llgL xg bragl gf mikj ehlhfns
Kjikiy ehlhfshF. it mjj gfSfhd fwj khfshf
mik. tgo bragLtjhnyna bkhgia wghf vj Ko.
uil gFf cs ehlhf
tif ehlhf bkhgwh Tl wf vdyh. y
gfSF tif ehlhf gagLjgL. rhwhf, xUjfhd
gf myJ x mGjfhd gf kh ngRf ehlh xU
109

gF mikUF. gahsf x mLj gF gthF. kh

xg mahJ (Permanent); gahs xg maToaJ. J,
kh x

kh x

ehlh

gahs x
vw tif mikUF.
xg ehlh fUf
gahs xbthUtU jjna g bgWtjfhf fUf
Tl UF.
MTl trnfg fUf vif
mikUF. w fUfW jLfsh fgl gFf, Vw
Uif trfSl Toajhf fUf itfgoUF.
jiya bjhFf
gahsf jfSbfd xJfgl gFf brW mkJ xg
ehlh fUfSl izj jiya bjhFia mj d gF
MajkhFj ntL. bjhF uL fhJfSlD izj fhbjh
fUfS (Ear phones)mJl gahs g jUtjF mikj Ebzh
fU mikUF. jiya bjhFia mjl gahs
xg ehlhlndh myJ fUtiw fUlndhjh bjhlbfhs Ko.
w gahsf xf gahsiu ghfhtz jiya bjhF
mikJsJ. ftdijit jLf g ukhf <Lgl tik
JizwJ.
Ebzh fUf
gahsf gnghJ lYF Vw Jyffis brjh,
mtiw xg ehlhfsh ga itgjfhf mikj EfU JthF.
bghJthf, fU jiyabjhFlndna izUF. jiya
bjhFia mjld xngf uL U fhJf miktJnghynt
EbzhfU thF rWKd xia VWbfhs Toa tif
mik. Jtiu bkhgwh Tl mikig fl eh, mLJ
gia fhngh.
g/fj
Ma Kjikiy ehlhit aFth. mbthahdJ, gahs
fSfhf mikj xg ehlhfUf cs xg ehlhf gthF.
d gahs j xg ehlh nffntL. ylf
g TwntL. mit mtnghJ xg bragL. gahs j
xg ehlhit vjidKiw ntLkhdhY gagLjyh; xL
ghfyh; L nffyh. Kdijnghy mjhtJ, khianghy iyna
myJ iHnagoU Ug xg brJ w bgwyh.

110

y gfSF uil gFf cs ehlhf jugL. Ma gF

Kj gF UF; bjhlJ ilbt UF. ilbt, gahs
JyfYfhfnt jugL. L nfFnghJ bjhlahf nff Ko.
j_y _ygFF gahs gFF cs ntWghil fgtnu J
braglyh. ngR gf (Speech drills) t_y jugLwd.
it:
Ma gF

khzt gF

l - 1

l - 2

sTw -1

sTw - 2

...

...

...

Jyf - 1

...

Jyf - 2

vw tif UfF.
fj/fw tiff
MTlf fj gwgL Kiwfshtd:
1. xgu tif (Broadcast Procedure)
2. yf tif (Library Operation)
3. bjhiyng tif (Dial Access)
4. izjKiw (Combination Type)
xgu tif
mogilahd bkhgfSF Kiw gagLwJ. fUtiwUJ
Kjikiy ehlhg xguggL, mbth gu midJ xgu fU
fSF gjfntL. d, t gahs g bgwntL.
Kiw gahsf jf Ugngh njbjLJ gY th
iy; Ma llgojh braglyh.
yf tif
gfis Vbfdnt gbrJ itfgLs xg ehlhf
jfS njitahd ehlhit bgWbfhL, m gbgW th
cL. Kiw khzt j njitnfg bragl Ko. jdh, j
khzt njit KGik bgWwJ.
bjhiyng tif
gbgW khzt jlUJ Fl viz adh bjhl
ila gahdJ xguggL; clnd g bgwyh. Kiwia ga
gLj mf bry VgL. xnu fhy gagLJtjnfw tif xnu g
Tl g bragl gy ehlhf ntL.
izj Kiw
xgu tif, mnj neu jj fwYfhd bkh g
fUf mik, braKiw bfhlJ izjKiw vdgL.
jnghija bkhgwh Tlf Kiwna gwgLwJ.
111

bkhgwh Tl w jikf:
m) s brj ((Retracing)
bkh, y tiuaiwfFgl Kiwf mikwJ. vdnt nff, nghy
bra, xf, L xf, iHfis czu, Uj, xl gwh Tl
thsJ.
M) ghlgFf njbjLj ((Material Selection)
gbragl bkhg ehlhf Fsjh gahs vgF
w ftd njit vd czwhnuh mgFfhd gfis njbjLJ
gbgw thL.
) jntf fw
bkhgf fgtf jf jntfnfg braglyh. w
FWL iy.
<) Uj bgWj
g bgWnghJ gahsfl Fiwf fhzgo fUtiw_y
Ma Uj jUth. jglKiw Uj bgWtjh brik brJ
bfhs ma th ilwJ.
gaf:
1. jhbkhahs aghd ngir nfL g bgW thsJ.
2. gahsf thbkh g fyJbfhs mf fhy ilwJ.
3. FWL iyahjyh gahsf vjjkhd mrK TrK
g bgwyh.
4. fUtiw _ykhf Ma jfwYF cjt Ko.
5. khztJ jjahf ftd brYj Mauh Ko.
6. jf ntfF wikF Vg ff aY.
7. Ua gf gKiw g bgwyh.
8. jf jtWfis jhfns fL U bfhs Ko.
, bkh gwh Tl eilbgW gfis fngh.
gf:
1. xj gf
2. nfl gf
3. bkh gf
4. fUJzU gf
nghwt bkhgwhTl ftd brYJwJ.
1) xj g
xbthU bkhY xjfa xf csd. mbthfis brik
ahf ng xjhjh bghUt bj VgL. vdnt, mbthfis
bfhL brhf, brhbwhlf g jUj.
2) nfl g
bjhlahf, bjhlila ey kh ngRfis nfgjh nghy
ngRtjF, vj bghUis vLJbfhlhY vgo TWtJ vW mtjF
112

Jiz; ciuahl KiwY g lbgW; ghlfis nff

brayh.
3) bkh g
bkh mogil TWf wbgw g jUj cL. rhwhf,
dhf mikj vW vLJbfhlh,
xg ehlh:
Ma
: eh gTl nghnw.
gahs : vnf nghwh?
vd clnd nfl ntL. thW gy iyfSnfw gf mik.
4) fUJzU g
W ff W fhyms x guggL. d bjhlJ mJ bjhl
ghd W dhf nffgL ilf vghfgL. g gahs
KG ftd brYdhjh ilju aY. mnjhL Tl idthwY njit.
gf_y Ujkhd x, ciuahl EQf, ng TWf
MatY brik bgwyh.
bkhgwh Tl - kL
th Tlf gy iwfnshL y FiwfS csd.
1. gahsfSF Mt iyna gf ga yhJ nghL.
2. ghllf - gf jahg MaUF Rikf mf.
3. bkhghl fUfis aFt yUF lghLf VglTL.
4. bghUbry mfkhF. mnjhLTl f yUnf Fl n eu
g juKo.
jiH fWbfhs J gagL jikia mLJ mJ bfhsyh.
bkhgwh TlK jhbkh
wbkhfis ff bgJ gagL th Tlf jhbkh
fjY Jiz.
xbthU jhbkh wUF ma bkhahF. vdnt, fj
bjhlfiy, eLiy g khztfSF xj gf juyh.
nfl g, bkhg MatY mjj iyfSnfg
khztfSF jhbkh g juyh.
vGJfis Kiwahf xj, kabfh ntWghL czJ goj, rahf
xgjFa gfis mj, bghUSznfg Fu Vwjhl goj,
bjhlfis ca ntfJl goj KjyhdtF bkh MTlij
ifahsyh. nkY,wj brhbghfis nfl, bris ca XirnahL
goF Kiwf, Ritahd gFfis FLjf Madt bkh
gwh Tl gaghL bgJ Jiz br.
113

2. f jG
j who m F cyf bjhlF thyhf ftJ
f. f yhjt cyf bjhlyhjtnu. mj msF f ga
ghLf eilKiwF tJld. vyh JiwfSF VwthW fia
totikJsd. xU f thyhf mlyh, fzbfGjyh, gl
tiuayh; Hgl vLfyh; ghl eljyh; cybfF ilF brfis
ulyh; ntoa bghUfis Lnf tutiHfyh;cybfF cst
fnshL mKfgL bfhL neUF neuhf ngryh; oUJ bfhnl
cyf tiuglid bfhL cyhtuyh; vUJbfhL jf il
nehllyh; jf thfdf vF brWbfhoUwd vd ghit
lyh; iugl vLfyh. ts trfis thfis Lnf njo
jU ajF bghna f. wghf thH f f ft f
aikahjd. mneh, a fg ft fg
ff Unwh.
cyfnjhL xl xGf gyfW
fyh myh jh. (Fw: 140)
cyf KndwnjhL ehK eik nkgLbfhL cauntL.
iyna, cyf eik wjL.
ftuyhW
.K. 3000 MLfSFK ghnyhaf vfis vQtjF
mtiw Tl bgUf fkzh njhWj kgyifna iwa
fF jhF. .K. 500 MLfSFK ff kfis nfhJ
vQ krlij vaf cUthd. .. 200 MLfSFK
dfS #ghafS kjLfis( Saun-pan computing tray) cUth
fzld. .. 1617 fhyhJ ehL #h nea vgt tFj,
bgUfYfhd RUf Tl Kiw filfis fLojh. .. 1642
ghi[ rhj ns ghf (Blaise Pascal) vgt vfis fzLtjfhd
fj fUia KjKjyhf cUthdh. .. 1673 fhiuL by
(Gottfried Leibniz ) vgt Tl, bgUf, fj, tFjYfhd auij (mechanical calculating machine) cUthdh. ..1833 yhJ ehL rhy
ghng{ (Charles Babbage) v gFgh fU(Analytical Machine) Jisjh
milfis gagL flisfSnfg fzL Kj fia
totikjh. mjdh, tnu f jijbad nghwgLwh.
.
http://www.cyberstreet.com/hcs/museum/chron.htm izajsF
brW f tuyhiw fhf. Kj jiyKiw, ulh
jiyKiw, _wh jiyKiw ff glfis iza
js njo bjhFf.

114

ghnyha kgyif

#h nea

nyo yny

jfhy krl

ns ghf

#h n#. mldhrh

115

rh ghng{

nghL bg

ghng gFgh bgh ((Analytical Engine)

ah ((ENIAC) f
.. 1842 My fP igu kf nyo yny, ghng f bra
ghoF njitahd flisfis jahjjjdh tnu f bra
ghLfhd Kj bra l tiuths (writes programs for Babbage) Mth. 1890
mbkf ehil nrj lhl bAk nfh (Dr. Herman Hollerith) kf
116

bjhifia fzbfLf af Jisail fUia totikjh. 1924

I..v. Wtd cUthdJ (IBM International Business Machines).1931 Kj
fghid ( First calculator) b#kia nrj bfhuh N (Konrad Zuse.) vgt
totikjh.1946 ah ( ENIAC -Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer),
f cUthfglJ. 18,000 FfS 80 l vil bfhl f
xU dho 5,000 Tlfis 360 bgUffis fzL ntf fJ.
1939 #h n#. mldhrh~, nghL bg Mnah izJ jha
vyf fia cUthd.
1946 f Uiy vfSfhd J (bit) vD brhyhia
Kj Kj gagLat #h Jnf Mth. 1948 af fghid
(Electronic Calculator) I..v.btlJ. 1954 nghuh vD bral
tiu bkhia(FORTRAN Program) #h ngf vgt vGdh. 1959 nfhgh
(COBOL) bra lbkh vGbtlglJ.1965 bgntah
gfiyfHf rL v. btrns vgtUF fbgh maYfhd
Kidt glij KjKjyhf tHaJ. 1965 xUizj RWfsh
aF _wh jiyKiw ff cUthfgld.1967 fl cyf
(Computerworld) vD Kj br j btlglJ. 1969 ghf(PASCAL)
bral tiubkh nfhy (Nicklaus Wirth) vgtuh vG f
WtglJ.1971 f FWjLf(Floppy disks) cUthfgld. 1971
#h shbfngf vgtnu kid ffis Kj mikjh. 1972
bl Wtd voa myF(byte) bfhl Eaf fia
(microprocessor.) mKfgLaJ. nj Mo Kjju ff btahd.
1976 mntf f ( Superminicomputers)ia bg-vk, Fbr Mnah
mKfgLd. 1990 iknuhrh nlh (Microsoft Windows 3.0) mKf
gLjglJ.1993 iknuhrh nlh v.o. (Microsoft unveils Windows NT)
btlJ. iwa iy v..o.(LCD Monitor) iu l glf trfSl
ff, koff, Wff vd gtif ff gagho
tJld. nkY, ff bjhiyng izfSl izfgL
izajs (Internet)trfS tJld. mfw gil (Broad band connection)
iza iz, neuo iza iz (Wi Fi connection)vd f thyhf
brfis ffis vUJ bgWtjfhd trfS thfS
tJld.
kgyif bjhl Kj jiyKiw, ulh jiyKiw, _wh
jiyKiw, ehfh jiyKiw, Ijh jiyKiwbad Wtiu gy bjhl
Ka isthf msgU gfis br f cUthsJ.
fia iza izfis eKiw gagL cyf mu
ehoid KndWtJ xbthUt flikahF. f f, ft
f, ft bkhf Mad xnthuhaU mJbfhtJ fhy
njit. fh eilts, ntsh ts, bjh ts vd bghUshjhu tsnkghL
fhynfg kh, W br tsnk tskhf (Information is wealth)fUjgLwJ.
xU bria beho jtwlh Hf nfhof fJLwd. Mfnt,
brfis jUtY bgWtY xbthU beho nkghlila iza
izf ngUjwd.

117

gid izgf
gid Kidaf
iza

mu
Firewall
Server
tfho Router nrit ika

iza cUthf mik

f f

ika brayf myF (CPU = Central Processing Unit), f iu (Monitor), irgyif

(Keyboard) Mad ffhd mogil bghUfshF. tiw tbghU( Hardware)
vg. f bragL cUbghUf, aF bghUf, bra cWf,
dQ bghUf, fhjbghUf, w au bghUfsidJ
tbghUfbsd TwgL. itaidJ ta f bghUfshjyh
tbghUfbsd miHfgLwd. jikF khwhf bkafit
bkbghUfbsd (Software) miHfgLwd. braKiw f bjhFia FF
brhf, f bghaik braghil tbghUf afij
fLgLJwd.
f bghaikfhd bkbghUf, gaghL
braKiwf vW, bghaikfhd braKiw f vW tifgLjgLsd.
irgyif thyhf brfis ika brayfF cL brJ,
bkbghUf thyhf fis fL Kofis f iu fhzyh.
mtiw f nrJ njitahdnghJ ghfyh; myJ mau thyhf
mL Vlhf khbfhsyh.

fgh bkhf
fghDF bjj xnu bkh Uiy v(Binary) bkhjh. mjhtJ,
vf 0 c 1 c bfhl bkh. ij au bkh (Machine level language)
vW TWt. Uiy v (Binary) bkh bral tiu brj f
fodkhd g. fiy F bghUL FpLfis RUf brhfis
gagL iliy bkhia (Assembly level language) cUthd. j
iliy bkhia Uiy v bkhF khw bkhkhia cUthd.
iliy bkhYs FpLfis id itJ bfhtJ fod. nkY
Uiy v (Binary) bkh iliy bkh auF au
khWgl ToaJ. vdnt, mLj iy caiy bkhf cUthfgld.
jF bkhkhf njitgld. fbkhfshtd ng (Basic),
~nghuh (Fortron), nfhgh (Cobol), ghf (Pascal) Kjad. bkhf
Fl vif brhfis Fl yfz fis bfhL
mikfglit. it bgUghY fzF bjhlghd brafSF bgJ
gagLwd. nkY, braif Ez bjhlghd MfSfhf gagLw
bkh ~nuhyh (Frolog) vgJ. ~nuhyh bkh lgL Mizf My
bkh thanjhL f xUF.
sf Kiw bfhLfgL
jifa br TWf bjhFng brbjhF (Data Base) vdgL.

3.j bkbghUf
f braKiwfis iwntWw bkbghU (OS = Operating System)
vgJ, mltizgLJj, jtWfis flj, fzLj, bjhFj,
nrj, jft nkyhik, cbrYJj, btgLJj Kja
braghLfSfhd afKiw brayhf Miz bjhFghd af flis
mik. MS Word, Excel, Power Point, Pagemaker, Fonts, Virus, Access Kja midJ
bkbghUfns. tiw bfhnl brf cL brJ f bgwgL wd.
j gntW tifahd bkbghUf cUthfgLsd. j
bkbghUf cUthdjfhd fhuz j iza khehLfshF.f
j vGJUit gagLj bjhla d j bkbghUf gy
cUthd. Mufzfhd j iza jsf mikfgld. j fW
jU FWjfLf gy bttjd.bghaf bkbghU, gaghL bkbghU
vd bkbghU U tifgL.

bkbghU

bghaf bkbghU
(au bkbghU System Software)

gaghL bkbghU
(braghL bkbghU Application Software)

j 99 khehoF j yfz, yafSF jj bkbghUf

cUthd. rh vD bkbghUis gagL, ft brhbwhlfis
aif bkhah (Natural Language Processing) gFJsd.

119

bkbghU gagho j
jiH gagLj gntW bkbghUf cUthfgLsd. v.v.
ntL (M.S. Word), vr (Excel), mr (Access), mY (Outlook), ng{nkf
(Pagemaker) Kja bkbghUfY jiH gagLJtjfhd vGJU
bkbghUf cUthfgLsd. rhwhf, snfh j 2000 vD
bkbghUis f W irgyif totikig nj brJbfhs
ntL. mj d gaghLKiwia nj brantL. j
dUJ j bkbghU bragL. giff, jff
kLk f iuf btFfhybjhnl jbkh cyhtJ
bfhoUwJ. FHij ghlf, khztfhd ghlf, bteho thG
j kf j fW bfhtjfhd ghlf, f mogil yhd ghl
gf, (Computer based tutorials) glf isahLf (Multimedia Games) nghw
bkbghUf j btlgLsd.
mtW y tUkhW:
brhbraf (Word Processors)
ciubjhFghf (Text editors)
bral tiu nkyhik (Database Management)
fza bjhFf (Accounts Packages)
iza cyhf (Web Browsers)
njLbghf (Web Search Engines)
dr (e-mail)
jbghGJ Dgy a jbkbghUf cUthfgLsd. f
mogilyhd ghl gf, glf isahLf, j itu f,
j xgl vGJzf (Optical Character Recognition) Kja bkbghUf
ilwd. f j jlR bra j vGJUfis (Fonts) f
WUfntL. j Fw rh (Kuralsoft), njhnt (Indoword), nk
(Keyman) gj, bghbkh, bghkl, bghJiz, thd, snfh, MT,
fij, fg vd bghJ bkbghUfS bgh, r, tf, fzf vd
bkbghUfS, gh mfuh, M iy j byf, fa Kja mfuh
fSbfd btlgLs bkbghUfS, FwsKJ, bghJiz, j f,
njbkh, gr ju fijf, mogil j, ghgh ghl Kja glf
bkbghUfS csd.
vGJUf
brfis cL brtjF vbkh cL brnwhnkh mbkh
fhd vGJUfis f WUfntL. vyh ffY My
vGJUf(Fonts) UF. Mdh, j vGJUfis izaUJ
flz gwf (Download)brJ Wtyh; myJ, njitahd
vGJUfis iyF th Wbfhsyh. j gytifahd vGJU
f ilwd. njit nfg tf nehY vGJUfis bgW
f Wtyh. Myij nghy bghJthd vGJUfis j
cUthfhjjh, vj vGJUit gagL cL brnjhnkh mj
vGJUit nrJ brnahL mDg (upload) ntL. mbghGJjh
mbrid gwf brJ gofKo. vGJUit nrJ mDgiy
bawh, bria bgWgtl mbtGJU yhjnghJ, mbr ntW
vGJUfshf khwbgW sfhk nghL.
120

j irgyif
brfis, Mizfis, cLtjF gagL fU irgyif.
My irgyif mikng vyh ffSlD izJ jugLwd.
wbkh irgyiff cUthfgL tUwd. My irgyifYs
vGJfJ ca j ttotfis bghU jlR brayh. j
jlR irgyif KLFir Ff (Active Keys), Klfgl ir
Ff (Dead Keys) vd Utif irFf csd. bkbaGlgL
f, fu, <fhu, (, ) vGJf lbgW F beo bfh t
totikf, cfu, Cfhu lbgW (, , q, ) FYfhd WnfhL,
beoYfhd R, miu Jizfh Mad Klfgl irfis gagLa
d KLFir Ffis gagLjntL. mbghGJjh j
jl vGJf cUthF.
_W tifahd j irgyiff f gagLjgLwd.
mit: 1. j jlR irgyif (Tamil typewriting Keyboard), 2. xa ir
gyif (Phonetic Keyboard), j 99 irgyif,(Tamil 99 Keyboard) Mad. gadhs,
jnjitnfg ir gyiffis gagLJwd.
jjlR irgyif ((Tamil Typewriting Keyboard)
j jlRKiwia jHf muR 1960-f xUiygL murhiz
wJsJ. j jlRKiwia fwtfS g Jiw UgtfS
bgUghY j jlRKiwiana g brfis cL brwd.
MyYs bkbghUf midJ ASCII vD xnu cFpL
Kiwia (Coding Standard) gagL, mbkhF vik tsik nkghL
nrJsd. jbkhF kLjh IJ (Encoding standards) FpL juf
csd. mit: lh, lh, o, , nfhL (TAM -Tamil Monolingual, TAB-Tamil
Bilingual, TSCII - Tamil Standard Code for Information Interchange, ISCII-Indian Standard Code for
Information Interchange, UNICOD - Universal Trunk-out-of-Service Code) vgd. My
bkhFsJngh jGF xnu FpL juij cUthf Kaf
nkbfhsgL tUwd. xnu FpL ju tUnghJ midtU xnu
khahd vGJUfis gagLJ iy cUthF.
j iza ulhtJ kheho (j iza 99) ju gLjgl,
bkbghUshs xjnyhL j 99 irgyif mKfgLjglJ. J
jHf mudh Vg bgwJ. j 99 irgyif xa irgyif
jjlR irgyif csd. jjlR mnjh jjlR
irgyifiana gagLJwd; mahnjh xa irgyifia
gagLJwd.
xaKiw (PHONETIC METHOD)
xia mogilahf bfhL jlR br Kiwna xa
KiwahF. jjlR bjahnjhU Mybkh mj midtU ir
gyifia gagL jlR brayh. vLJfhlhf, My irgyif
Ys K vD vGij mGdh, j f vD vGJ mrhF. amma
vd My jlR brjh, mbrh j mkh btd f iu
njhW. j jlR bjahnjh Kiwia gagL iuthf brfis
cL brwd. jbghGJ TF (Google) iza jsnyna tr
ilwJ.
121

j 99 Kiw (Tamil 99 Method)

j 99 Kiw vD irgyifia 1999 M ML ut , 8 M eh
brid eilbgw ulh j iza kheho mKfgLjglJ.
j irgyifKiwia f midtU gagLjyhbkd jHf muR
Miz wjJ. khWir Fia (Shift Key) mGjhkny ir
gyifia ifahtJ j 99 Kiw w TwhF. irgyif
Kiwia jHf Ys midJ bkbghU jahghsf fUzf
jHf muR totikjJ.
_W irgyiffis gadhs j njitnfg gagL
brfis cLbrJtUwd. UD MybkhF csij
nghW jGF xnu tifahd vGJUfis midtU gagLJgoahf
cUthf xnu irgyifia midtU gagLJgoahf cUthFtJ
bkh tsF nkghLF ngUjahf UF. fhynthl
bgUghik nah gagLJ vGJUfS irgyifnk iybgW.
FHijfSfhd bkbghUf
FHijf v mJbfhS tif tz sf glfSl
ghlf, Wfijf, mwbe fijf d FunyhL gagLJtif
bkbghUf gy ilwd. it FHijfis v fttnjhL Mt
ij o fwiy nkgLJwd.

kHiy f

fgjfhd mogil wf

122

khztfhd bkbghUf
khztf fodkhd ghlfis vikahf fgjF gy bkbghU
f bttJsd; ya yfz ghlfis goiyf gbgw cj
wd. bkbghUf fodkhd ghlfis vjhf khzt kd
gwd.
jbkhia fgjfhd bkbghUf
jbkhia fWbfhs mogilahd njitf midij iw
br tif bkbghUf cUthfgLsd. gwitf, yFf
glfis fho, mt bgafis MyY d jY v fW
bfhs t bragLsd. fsgaz brJ fF glit bkbghU
f khztfSF VgLJwd.
glf isahL bkbghUf
brh isahLf, brhYUthff, brhfsa bgUf Kja
bkhwfis tsf bkbghUf cUthf gLsd. xU brhYs
XbuGij L, mjid utjF nfholgoUF; nfhol lij
u brhiy fLofntL; glfSF bgaLj, glfSF
tz Lj, j glfis bghUJj vd gy fw, isahL
braghLfSF bkbghUf cUthfgLsd. bkbghUf
FHijf brJ fF Mtij Lwd.

j iza jsfSF brW FHijf bkbghU fhf.

www.kids.yahoo.com
www.pebbles-india.com
www.tamilvu.org
www.kids.com
www.everythinggirl.com
www.links4kids.co.uk
dr bkbghU
drYfhd bkbghUf gy cUthfgLsd. j thyhf
brf, glf mDggLwd; fUJ gkhw (Chatting) neuoahf eilbgW wJ.
j njLbgh bkbghUf
jbkh thyhfnt KGikahf njL Kafis bkbghU tYe
MuhJ tUwd. J W msnyjh ga gho csJ. J, btFiu
j bkh midJ TWfis njobfhzU tif mik.

4.iza
cybfF f cs brfis izjiyna iza vwd.
jid My lbe (Internet) vd miHwd. ya, tuyhW,
a, thda, ma, fj,iugl vd vzw Jiwf gntW
jiyf iza tahf brfis bgwKowJ.
cybfF j lF brfis UF lUJbfhnl bgw
iza iz cjwJ. j f iza iz gogoahfjh
tsjJ. 1960 xU fUJ kbwhU fF bria khw fhj
ehlhit gagLd. J Fj fhy uaij VgLajh, jF
123

fhQbghUL xU fllJF UF ffis bayh fRUSl

izg f tYef bt flhf. j ffilnaahd
izig <jbe mil (Ethernet Card) vD Wgyifia bghU
gagLd. j FWgu izF (LAN - Local Area Network) FWgu
tiyd vW bga.
ehsil FWgu tiydf gy njhd. jid bjhlJ
xU tlhuJF cs ffis izjd. J mfw gu tiyd
(WAN - Wide Area Network) bfhlJ. j tiydiy bfhL cyf KGtJ
cs ffis Xus izf KojJ. iznghJ ehLf,
flf, flf, kiyf vd ilWf gy Vgld. jilfis F
bghUL braifnfh t iz juglJ. ia R, ehLfJ
tisatU bt fyfilna izig VgLd. J cyf
KGikFkhd tiyaikig clhf t tFjJ. j KGikF iza
(Internet) vd bga Nod.
RryhJ eho br vD mQJf Muh iya csJ.
mF, bgd vw aa tYe gahdh. t 1989
cyfsha tiydYF World Wide Web vd bgalh. J www vd
RUfkhf miHfgLwJ. j jid itaf tiy vd miHwd.
1991 nk khj itaf tiy mKfkhdJ. W tiyaik gy
brfis mahk ghJfhf cjwJ.
iza braghL
iza bjhlig bgw tU bghUfis bgW xizf
ntL. mit:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

f (Computer)
bjhiyng( Tele-communication)
kh (Modem)
bjhl bkbghU (Communication Software)
iza nrit tHFe (Internet Service Provider - ISP)

bjhiyngt izaij gagLj bjhl bkbghUf cj

wd. bghGJ xiH (Optical fiber) jlft iza izig v
bgw KowJ.
iza iz Kiw
izaij gagLj, iza nritFatl (ISP = Internet Service
Provider) jfzF (Account) bjhlfntL. , fia izajs
jl izf ntL.
iza iz tiff
bjhiyng tahf ffis khfis izJ gagLJ
iza izKiwid bjhiyng iz nrit (Dial Up Service) vd
miHwd. J Kj gagLa lbe iz KiwahF.
ntfK tr Fiw. vdnt, j gaghL Fiwthfnt UjJ. mwhl
ntiy neu iz bgWt ffS jlfS Vgld. Mfnt,
UJ Lbgw a mQFKiw njitglJ.
124

mntf iza iz
cWd vyf iz (DSL = Digital Subscriber Line), tl kh (Cable
Modem), braifnfh (Satellite), fziw (Cellular) vd ehF tiff itaf
tiy ilwJ. itaf tiy bragLtijbfhL, mj
ntfij mayh.
cWd vyf iz ((DSL)
cWd vyf izt mntf itaf tiy
izid bgwyh. J 30 Mbps(mega bits per second) ntf bragLwJ.
j izidna bgUghyhndh gagLJwd.
tl kh ((CABLE MODEM)
j tif iza iz mntfkhf bragLtnjhL bry Fiw.
tliz bjhiyfh (Cable TV) KiwY itaf tiy iz
bfhLfgLwJ. j iz bgWtJ vJ. J cWd vyf
izigl (DSL) ntfkhf bragL.
braifnfh nrit ((SATELLITE SERVICE)
cWd vyf iz ((DSL), tl kh (Cable Modem) nghw
izfisl j ntf Fiw. Mdh, bjhiyng izig (Dial Up) l
VG klF ntfkhf bragL. jtahf, cy vj _iyUJ
izig bgwyh vgnj j w.
fziw nrit ((CELLULAR SERVICE)
fziw nritKiwahdJ kof (Laptop), elkhL brng (mobile)
tif izF Vwjhf csJ. J JKiw bragLwJ. fhlhf, 3 G
Cellular Network Laptop kW brngft izf bgW brfis
vjhf gwf (download) bra cjahf UwJ. brngUJ 50 Kbps
(Kilo bits per second) ntf brfis mDgyh. ntfkhf gwf (Download
400 kbps Kj 700 Kbps) brJ brfis bgwyh. tU fhyf j
iz mf gagL vW iza izghs fUJ bjJsd.
iza izfhd kh ((Modem) tiff
bga efufKj Fuhkftiu midJ lfY gutyhf
iza gagLjgLwJ. iza izF f kW bjhiyng
iz Ma uL ju, kh (Modem) vdgL bgh aikahjJ.
kh tahf jh brfis xU fUJ kbwhU fF mDg
bgw Ko.
j iza khehLf
cyfj iza Kj khehLf 1997M ML fY,
ulhtJ khehL 1999M ML bridY, _whtJ khehL 2000M
ML fY, ehfhtJ khehL 2001M ML nfhyhyY, IjhtJ
khehL 2002M ML fnghahY eilbgwd. MwhtJ j iza
khehoid jHf mu cjnahL j iza gfiyfHf, mzh
gfiyfHf MatWl cjk kW fj rf Ma mikf
izJ 2003 M ML, MfL 22Kj 24tiu brid eld.
125

khehL khdf
KjU khehLf j vGJ FpL juf, irgyif jughL
Kja mogil njitf M bragL juf cUtikfgld.
mLJ eilbgw khehLf, fY izaY jbkh ga
ghil FgLj njitahd brhbraf(Word Processors), njLbgh f(Search
Engines), bkhahf bghbkhf(Machine Translation), iza js cyf(Internet
Browsers), xt vGJU m bkbghUf(Optical Character Recognition
Softwares), ciu-x(Text to Voice) khf Kja gaghL bkbghUf ga
Kiwf, ff Mad M bragld. tif MwhtJ khehL j
fF jft bjh Eg vD fUbghUSl eilbgwJ.
f jbkh M, g, tf, MSik, izat
f, iza bjhEg, jbkh ts, j bkbghU ts Kja
jiyf fLiuf gofgL MF cgLjgld.
cyf jH gagho iza
jgghL milahsfis iyWbfhs ghugaf rlF
fis, Hhfis bjhlJ nkbfhs jhknzhL jhbkhnahL bjhl
mwhkUf izaij 1986 btehLth jHf gagLj bjhld.
Myt kL iza brfis bgw Ko vw iy kh, 1995
iza jt brfis bgw Ko vw iy cUthdJ.
mnlhg 1995 f mg U. x lh rh bjhl itj Journey,
Words, Home and Nation - Anthology of Singapore Poetry (1984-1995) vw ehF nja
bkh fijfSfhd tiyaf jh KjKj j iza
mKfkhdJ.
j, iza mKfkhd j iza FJ 1997, 1999, 2000
Ma MLf khehLf elj bgwd. khehLf j irgyif
khw FJ f jrf bjhlfbgW Wtiu mg bjhlJ
eilbgW wJ. gfdh, fj vDbrhyh jHfsh
gutyhf gagLj bgwJ; iza vD brh j mfuh EiHjJ.
j iza
j, fiuthyhf jft beLrhiy gaz brwJ.
abkhf gytiw xnehFnghJ, f j mfkhf gagLj
gLwJ. iza EiHj Kj a bkh jbkhna. jHh bkh
ahfs muRfS cyfsha jah WtdfS gfiy fHffS jHh
tyfS j yafis yfzfis iza lbgw
brJsd. nkiyehLf g jHf f trl jHhtK
xWnru, mtf jdhtkhf Kaf gy nkbfhL iza j
thf iuthf gutif brJsd.
iza w
izajs cyfkakhfYF bgJ Jiza Toa xW. jid
czJ tif ma jft ts cyfij xU Fuhkkhf kh
lJ vD kh f TW cikbagij czu KowJ.

126

j iza w
iza fbga yfkhF. f, bjh, jf, tf, Uthf
Kja midJ JiwfS j iza tJld. iza cj
ah fhyij ciHig bghUis rgLj KowJ.
izat eikfS ikfS cblD iza ts bjhlJ
tsJbfhnl brwJ. jid, flj 20 ML f gaz
iza Ka ikf vnw brhYnt vW nf FLwh.
iza njLbghf
iza js izJs xbthU fF X v cL.
Mdh, viz gagLJtJ fod vW vGJfis gagLJnwh.
Kftia njl gy njLbghfis gagLJnwh. mit: ahT (Yagoo), TF
(Google), mlh lh (Alta Vista) Kjad.
iza js cyf fbgw TF Wtd jnghJ xbga
bjh Egij (Transliteration Technology) mKf brJsJ. mjhtJ, mkh
vD jbrhiy My amma vd jlR brjh, mJ j vGJ
fshf khL. Mdh, bkhbga vdgL xU bkhUJ kbwhU
bkhF kh jU bjh Eg (Translation) D M iyjh csJ.
njLbghf KGikahd bkhbga uZa, mnua, d bkhf
kL gaghLF tJsJ.
njLj nrit tHF izajs ((www.sputtr.com)
j njLj nritjs 37 tifahd iza jsf njLj
nritia tHFwJ. TF, ahT, v.v.v Kja njLj izajsf,
FG iza jsf, br izajsf vd midJtifahd iza
jsf njLj nritia neuoahf tHFwJ. j iza jsF
brW flzyh cWduh njLj nritia bgwyh. fhlhf j
ehil ga jftfis njlntLkhdh, jehL (tamilnadu) vd jlR
brJ, TF fhaf (Video) j bjhlghd midJ brfis bgwyh.
thW 37 izajs nrit vij brhLdhY (click) mjj iza
jsUF jftfis vjhf bgwyh.
ft f
fia gagL fF fna ft fahF. j,
My ma, fj, r_fma, f,bghJm, eld, ifntiyghL,
rikabyd vjbthiw vjhf oUjgona f thyhf ff
Ko. bjhiyu fia izat fia f thyhf gyU
fW tUwd. iza js thyhf Iaf, ff, Mnyhridf,
njitf, tfhLjf KjatWfhd fis bgwKo. rhwhf,
ahA](yahoo) izajs Kf gfYs gf (Answers) vgjid
brhLdh (Click) nf(ask) vD w (Window) nfia jlR
brjDdh, ij flnjh g jUt. xbthU kjDS ahl
nfgJ, vgo nfgJ vD Mukhu nff ijJ lF mtW
bfyh gF ilbgwyh. g bgWtjF dr KftkL
bfhLjh nghJ. mnjngh, lbgW nffSF ilbjj ah
127

ntLkhdhY gY mDgyh. W bgnwhl, Mafl, eg

fl, bgfl, mPfl nfL bgwayhj, vgo nfgbjd mrgL
midJ nffSF izajsf gywd.
Mf, totikf, lf, kUJt, bgha, ma, tha,
nfha, rika, nrhl, ifntiyghL, tzf vd Ma fiyf mWgJ
eh VgL Iafis nghf ff iza jsf csd.
iza js thyhf neUFne ff Ko. cy vUgtUlD
oUj gona neUFne bjhlbfhL fF th W ilwJ.
Kawh Koahjiy; Ka UidahF vgJ iwa izajsf
brfis abyd th tHFwd. tUfhy f ft fahf
mik. jLf iza fjit, cyf rhsu wF; njLf
izajs cyf mbtyh ilF. izaF izahdJ
izabkhnw. iza vyhUwJ. njLnth njitfis iw
brtJ izank.
ft bkhf
izaf vyh jU vd fnlh. jbkh fia gntW
izajsf tHFwd. bkh mogilwfshd nfl, ngRj,
goj, vGJj vd bjhl caiy wfshd fij, fLiu, br, ghl,
foj, RU vGJj, bjGJj, FbgLj, mfuh fhz vd
midij iza thyhf ffaY. j iza gfiyfHf
cybfF thGjHfSF jHa iHnthUF thid eFwJ.
kJiu l vD izajs bgUghyhd j yafis iza
flz gwf brJ ff thgJsJ. j gfiyfHf,
brbkh Wtd, jah Wtd iza jsf, jbahUt iza
jsf vd bkhgy izajsf j gy csd. jH
(www.thamizham.net) vD iza js 32 brayilf thyhf j
vGJfis vGj crf fwJ. fdlh, Mnuah, mbkfh, b#k
Ma ehLf thG jHPfS btehltU j gWf
izajsfis cUthsd.

5.j iza gfiyffHf

(TAMIL VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY)

cyf jGa iy thG j kfSF, j <LghLbfhl wbkh

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132

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134

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135

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www.links4kids.co.uk www.surfnetkids.com
www.kidsites.org
www.coolmath.com
www.coolmath4kids.com
www.spikesgamezone.com
www.kids.yahoo.com
www.hitentertainment.com )
www.pbskids.org
www.nickjr.com www.uptoten.com
www.kidsgames.org
www.gameskidsplay.net
www.funbrain.com
www.everythinggirl.com
www.bonus.com
www.cyberkids.com
www.kid_space.org.
www.kidlink.com
www.kids.com
www.kidsword.com
www.kotb.com
www.tince.com
www.xkides.com
http://app.de.mingoville.com/
http://www.hellokids.com

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137

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138

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xlyh.

139

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cl ts g MSikts
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development)

vGJ
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(Written test)

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(Oral Test)

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(Practical)

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(Daily Work)

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(Assignment)

ko gaf
1. xbthU khztD ghlbghUis vj msF fUwh vgij
ma w f yFf vj ms Kndw fhzgLwJ
vgij ko_y mJbfhs KowJ.
2. khztf fw milw lghLfis mJ, mtiw f
iwfis tsJbfhs KowJ.
3. Ma fj ghlbghU fUJfis mjid sFtjfhf mt
Ta vLJfhLf, nknfhf Kjadtiw vj msF
khzhf idWsd vgij msjtJ kLj
gadhF.
140

4. Ez, MSik Kja fhuf mogil khztfis

tifgL mjnfg fjiy khaikJbfhs KowJ.
5. fj g jh fLs bt msit juij Maf
vjhf mJbfhs cjwJ.
6. khzhff bgw kbgf mogil mtfSF njitahd
CFig bra cjwJ.
7. ghl mik, f VghL, ghllf Mat mtbghGJ
njitahd khWjfis brtjF kLj cjwJ.

2. ko tiff
kL uL tifgL. mit:
1. w kL
2. mf kL
w kL
kLnth khzt iljhis kL neh mtid kLtJ.
mjhtJ, w iyia kLtJ w klhF. jnghJ gy tFf
Kiwna eilKiw csJ.
ghlbghUis mj kLnk kl
gLwJ. khzt egf, ey gHf tHff, xGf bef Kja
tiw w kL M brahJ.
kL fhy viyF cglJ; ahuhY khfglyh.
klhsUF MaUF bjhlyhkY mikayh. ML KGtJ
fwJ _W kneu khJ klgLwJ.
mf kL
khzt mwhl braKiwf, f brYJ ehl, nj
gFbgWj Kja iyfis M brj mf klhF. klhsU
F khztDF neuobjhl VgLwJ. khztid ga giy bjhl
klhf mf kL mikwJ.
khzt ghlbghUs kLkyhk mtDila egf, ey gHf
tHff, xGf bef Kjadg kL brtJ. xLbkhj
khzt KG MSikwid mtif mf kL mikwJ.
mf koF cj fUf
1964-66 mikfgl nja fFG mf kL brtnd mik
tjF cj fUfis tifgLaJ. koF f gntL, kw
khztf thyhf mj (Information from ones peers), neKfngo (Interview),
jah M (Case study), Uf goa Kjad cj.
jif u (Check list), Kndw mif (Progress report), juL ms
nfh (Rating scale), nf u (Questionnaire), mogil w nrhjid (Basic skill
test) Kjatiw fUahf gagLjyh.
bkhghl khzt bkhaht, gilghfw, brhngh.
fyJiuahl, fLiu, fij, ngR nghof gnfw, brf nrfj,
j jahj, ya yfz Mt Kjatiw klntL.
141

tiw Maf wjKiw gagLj gilg mf

ntL. khztfF jugL rhj mf kL, w kL kbgf
jjna jUjntLbkd nja fFG TsJ. W f
gy iyf Kiw gwgL tUwJ.

3. kL Kiwf
iwa kLj fhzgL njfS nrhjidfS bjhFiy
(xLbkhj) kl ( Summative evaluation) MF. Fl fhy ilbt
mJtiu ffgltiw nj bghUshfbfhL eljbgW kLjny
bjhFiy kl vdgL. j nehf catFF khztiu khwyhkh
ntlhkh vgij fljny MF.
fw fj khzt w bgUwhfsh vgij fl
nehfnjhL mtnghJ nkbfhsgL kLf vyh tst kL
(bjhlahd kL) (Formative evaluation) vdgL. bjhlahd KGikahd
kL (Continuous Comprehensive Evaluation) vd jid Twyh. iwa
fKiw w mogilyhd fw fjYF (Competency Based Learning and
Teaching) tst knl f bghUjkhdJ gaDilaJ MF.

4. ko njit
f vgJ khzt, Ma, ghlbghU/w vD _iw rhjJ.
_wD vY Fiwfnsh iwfnsh Vgl tL. Fiwfsh fisa
gl ntL iwfsh mLj f KaF gofyhf gagLj
glntL. jid fla fw fj ga Kiwahd jftfis uo,
Kiwgo MuhJ rahf juiygLj kL aikahjjhwJ.
kL iyba fw fj btfukhf fH thiy. J
fw fj vF Fiw VgLsJ, mjhtJ J Ma mQFKiwyh,
fj Kiwyh, JizfUyh, khztlyh, ghlbghUyh vgjid
fla KowJ.
ko_y fw fjiy nkY MHkhdjhf Mft
khdjhf Mf tnagLwJ. ko fw fj f KGik
ailahJ. f bragho xbthU iyY iwFiwfis fla
kL cjtjh, mj njit aikahjjhwJ.

5. wfis kl
w ghlkhd bkhghl ghlbghU vgJ wfis tsgjF
MaF bfhLfgl X vLJfhL (Model) MF. vLJfhnl fah
lhJ. khztf fw fj brayh bgw ntoaJ wfnsa vLJ
fhlhlhJ. khzt mogilwf ehY tyik bgwntL.
togilwf ehF koF cshwdth v,
nfFahfnt csJ. vGJj w xiwna kLtjhf iwa nj
Kiwf mikJsd. midJ wfS koF cshdhjh
bkhghlij kljhF. bkhwf xnwhblhW
izJsd. nfl w Kiwahf fHiy bawh, ngRj brikaila
KoahJ. ngRj Kiwahf iybawh nflY wghf mikahJ. jid
142

kdbfhnl xUizj wf mogil Kndw Vgl ttif

brjntL vd (Integrated Competency Based Development) fahsf
tWJwd. jF khwhf, xU w tsia kL kLtJ bkh
klhfhJ.
nfl w
ghlbghUnshL TLjyhf fijf, ghlf, ciuahlf, ehlff,
brhnghf Kjatiw Manuh khztfis bfhnlh xehlh _ynkh
f fho, khztfis nff brantL. khztf nfl wid
ma dhf nffntL. rahf ilWfhj khztf Fiwfis
flJ fntL. nfl wid kLt Ma, khztf ngR
bjthf Ujkhdjhf UjntL. khztf nflwid
kl oY bghJlfY ngR ngRfis xgbrJ, khztiu
nff brantL myJ jifa brhfis majfthwhd dhfis
nfL nfl wid klyh.
khztf kabfh brhfis milahsfL TWwhfsh vgij
nfl wthyhf klyh. Ma kabfh brhf bfhl brh
goaiy myJ glfis khztF tH, Ma mbrhfis xFnghJ,
khzt rbad FL fhl brantL.
ngRjY gojY
ngRj, goj wf gytif xWik cilad. mtiw kL
nghJ rahd cr, Vw wf, ilbt Wj, mGj Ma tiw
kd bfhsntL.
tFf xnu xila vGJf gKiw gWtU bjhlfis
bfhLJ xj xila vGJf gWtU bjhlfis bfhLJ ngr
brtj_y xKiwid klyh.
vLJfhL: fs Fsid gs jdh.
MSF ehY gH bfhL.
bjthd ngRj, goj w bgwhj khztfS ngr gof brt.
bghU sbfhshj khztfS y bjhlfis jtwhf ngr gof
brt. Ma tiw Vw dhft klntL.
vLJfhlhf bgf Ud vD bjhliu bg f Ud
vd njityhj l ilbtL ngRj myJ goj bghU
khwij VgLJ.
fiyau ght brjh vD bjhl ght vg gh it mG
brhdh fiyau brj ehoa Kfght vD bghU kh fiyau bgU
Fw brjh vd bghUshL. tiwbayh Ma kd bfhL
ngRj, goj Ma uL wfis klntL.
vGJj w
vGJj wid kLnghJ vGJ totf rahf csdth vgij
fhzntL. cUt xWik cila s, d, G, K, r, f Kja vGJfis vGJ
143

nghJ Ujkhf vGjntL. fs vD brhiy iuthf vGJnghJ

s RbgW fd vd gof neL.
foj, fLiu vGJnghJ mjFa totij rahf filof
ntL vgij kLnghJ ftd bfhsntL.
r iHf, tha iHf, vGJ iHf, xUik gik kaf,
iz, gh, v, l tGfY ftd brYjntL.
vGJj wid kLnghJ bjhlf tFf XU brhnyh va
a bjhlfnyh jkJ fUij khzt btgLJwduh vgjF Kjl
mfntL.
bjhlf tF khzt milit nrhgjfhf brat
fw, eh FpLbfhl milf lbgWsd. mtW l
bgWs dhf mj, j, gagLJj, Ms Ma Kiwgo
mikJsdth? mit bkh nehffis iwntw Toadth
csdth? vgij flf.

6. nj tiff
ghlbghU msit tiuaWJbfhL fw isit Fl fhy
ms vGJtjF tFJbfhl dhfSF iljU bra nj vdgL.
nj vgJ, fgtiu g fgtiu g nghJkhd tufis
mJbfhS eilKiwahF.
Kiw khztf midJ ghlfis fwJsduh vgij
mtij, mtfsJ idthwiy, uhf vGJ tyikia nrhgij,
mtfsJ Kndw FJ bgnwhfSF mif mDtij Ka
nehffshf bfhLsJ vdyh.
1986 cUthfgl nja fbfhif, nj gy Ujfis
gJiu brJsJ. nj Uj njit czugL JKiw nj
Kiwf bkhghl Fjgld. mtif nj tifid,
mil nj (Achievement test)
bkh tyik nj (Proficiency test)
Fiwanj (Diagnostic test)
wta nj (Objectivity test)
vd ehfhf J fhzyh.
mil nj
khztf Fl ghl milJs milid msLtjF
gagL nj mil njthF. blngu, bAuhL bgdhL
FLtJ nghy xU khzt mil mt fw brYa ehl,
fwYfhd Majiy, fwYfhd thf _ isth Vgl
rhjidia FF.

144

ghll (Syllabus) cs brfis khzt mJsduh? tFgiw

fjijbayh khzt mJsduh? vgij ma gagL.
Fghf brhdh, fj bra btia fw bra fJs
msit ma mil nj cj.
mil nj nehff
mil nj,

khzt milid mj,

idthwiy mj,
bghUSzuhwiy mj,
fjYs Fiwfis flj,

Kjatiw nehffshf bfhLsJ.

mil nj tif
eilKiw gagLjgL mil njf uL tifgL.

mil nj
(Achievement test)

Mauh cUthfglJ.

jugLjglJ.

(Teacher made test)

(Standardised test)

thbkh nj

vGJ nj

1.cr
2.bkhts
3.bkh eil
4.Fu ts

1.fLiu dh
2.FW dh
3.wta dh

Mauh cUthfglJ
fwYF khztf milid fla Manu cUthF
njthF. J MaUF Ma ntWgL. fwYF KD fwYF
DKs khwij Mauh msja Ko. fj njitgL
khwfis czJ tfhoahf mik. J thbkh nj, vGJ
nj vd UtifgL.
thbkh nj
Ma khztl thbkhahf dhfis nfL il bgWjiy
thbkh nj vg. khztf ng fhzgL bkhts, cr,
bkheil, Fu ts, cz btgL ghF Ma bkh TWfis thbkh
nj_y kL brayh.
145

iwf

ghlgF KGik dhf nffyh.

khzt bkhahw wid clDFl mayh.
dhf aiyba clDFl kh bfhsyh.
MtKs, Mt Fiwj khztfis flayh.
khzt Tr RghtFiw; Mt bgUF.

Fiwf

khzt vif mfkhf UFnghJ midtiu kL

bra ayhJ.
Ma U btWnfg kL khW thsJ.
egfjik Fiwthf UF.
Tr RghtKs khztfF jh kdghik VgL.
Kiwahd dhf lbgW th Fiw.
Fiwf UD mtiw U thbkh njid bjhlf
tFKjny nkbfhsntL.
khztf vif mfkhf cs tFgiw thbkh
njit vd eljyh vgij g khztfSl
fyJiuaho lLf.

jugLjgl nj
xU tFF xnu ghl UFbghGJ nj mik MSF M khW
glhkY fhyF fhykhWglhkY Uf njf KiwgLjgld.
jid jugLjgl nj vg.
jugLjgl njf tYe FGth cUthfgLwd. mit
gFgh kW ghitF cgLjgL midJ khztfSF
bghUJ tif mikfgLwd. dhfis vGJtjFa njitahd
sf Ffis cj ju mltiz FfisbfhL Ma gyuh
gy lf nrhfgl dhf mogil jugLjgl nj
mik. njid vj MaU vj NHY vj khzt FGY
gagLjyh. Mauh cUthfgL njitl jugLjgl njf
wiladthf mik.
bkh tyik nj/bkhahSik nj
bkhghlt khzhf bkhahSikia nrhgJ bkh
tyik njthF. bkh mogil wf kLk, bkh gntW
TWfis csl bkh tyikia fla cj dhfis cUth
elJj bkh tyikia tsf cj. bkhtik nrhjidf w
bgnwh bkhail nrhjidfY wbgwtfshUwhfsh? vgJ
Mthsf ftdij <gjh csJ.

146

iwf

bkh jikia czu Ko.

bkh Mwiy tifgLj Ko.
iH ngr vGj tnagL.
gilghf Ka Mt wF.
bkhw czu_y kubjhl, gHbkhf gaghLfis
ma Ko.
ngRj, vGJj cs Tr iyia f Ko..
Fiwf
vyh khztfS bkhahSik bgWt ftd brYJt vd
Tw ayhJ.
nghJkhd jftd iyna ts njhwhJ.
jbkhia gaKiw jHhkhztfSF fWbfhLgj
_y khztfis bkh tyikbgw brayh. j_y X
ya kjdhf khztid cUthf Ko.
Fiwa nj
khztf fw <LgLbghGJ mtfSnfgL Fiwfis fla
cj nj Fiwa nj vdgL. Fiwaj vgJ kUJt Jiw
gutyhf gagLJ brhyhF. kUJt nehah cl nehia
flJ mjid F Kiwia ifaht. mJnghy fw khztfl
fhzgL Fiwfis flJ mtiw f Ma nkbfhS Kiw
Fiwa nj vdgL. khzt fw vtiw rahf maiy? mtiw
V maayiy? vgjfhd fhuzf, NHfis ma nj
gagL.
jghl fw khztfl bghJthf,

xW iHf
vGJ iHf
brh iHf
xUik gik kaf iHf
iz, gh, v Kof fhzgL iHf
Wj Ffis gagLJt fhzgLiHf

Kja gntW iHf aghf njhWwd.

fis Maf nkbfhsntL.

tiw fis ttif

FiwF gf
khzt bgw mil_y FiwghLs khztfis
flantL. vjifa iHf fhzgLwd.
mjFa fhuz ahJ vgij flJ Fiw f bkh
gf mj ntL.
147

 kabfh iHfis f bghU ntWghLzJ brhfis

goaL sFj.
iHahd brhfS mtFa rahd brhfis sFj.
bjhliHfis Ujfis vG sFj.
xWFtjhY fhikahY VgL bghU ntWghil
dilf bfhL sFj.
ngR tHF izahd vGJ tHF brhfis vG
fhgLJj. khztf mjid L L gof
brJ iHfis Fj.
iz, gh, v tiw gagLJnghJ fhzgL iHfis
brhbwhlf_y s Fj.
Fiwf
khztf vif mfkhf cs tFgiwf Fiwfis
flJ FtJ Xus fodkhd brayhF.
Fiwf ff Fiw. Kiwia lL bragLJtj_y
khztfis bkh tyik bgw bra Ko.
wta nj
nj Uj mogil njha JKiw wta njthF.
EiH nj, t nj Kjat Kiwia gagL j bt
eFzugLsJ. g njY J gutyhf nkbfhsgL tUwJ.
Kiw nkbfhS kL Jakhf rahf mika
thsJ. kLnth kdiynfg khwh jikia Kiw cUthF
wJ. njf il Ff KTona jahfgLtjh, rahd
ilia KTona khf KowJ. klhs UbtWF
liy.
wta njit cUthFbghGJ gwgl ntoait:

dhfis bjthd Kiw jahj.

Jakhd bghUjU brhfisna gagLJj.
rahd ilia njbjLf Vila mogilfis jUj.
xnu khahd brhfis gagLJjiy jj.
ghljfYs bjhlfis mgona gagLJtij jj.
xU dhFa il bjhU dhF ilahfhk ghJ
bfhs.
Fghf bghUjU dhfis jJ neuoahd ilf jU
dhfisna gagLJj.

148

bkhghl wta njit mikF Kiw

wta dh
r/jtW tif
(True/False)

gil
bghUJj utif khaikf
bjbrj tif (Matching) (Fill in the blanks) gltif
(Multiple Choice)
(Rearranged type)

rahfnjhW il

jtwhd il

f wj il

r, jtW RLj
bfhLfgoUF fUJ brhbwhl mUnf r, jtW myJ M, iy
vg VjhtJ xiw khzt RLj ntL.
vLJfhL: UFw UtStuh awglJ. r/jtW.
gil bjbrj
ehF ilf bfhLfgoUF. mtW rahd xiw kL
khztf bjbrJ ilahf vGjntL.
vLJfhL: wbghF vyh cF vd Tat.
m) snfhtof
) fa Fwdh

M) UtSt
<) fg

bghUJj tif
uL tirf mikUF dh TWfS rahd, bjhlila
tiw izj myJ il viz vGJjntL.

Ma

1. ehyoah
2. ygfhu
3. knkfiy
4. tf jhk

m) UtSt
M) rkz Ktf
) Ujf njt
<) snfhtof
c) jiy rhjdh

idT tif
tif nfhol l uj, xU brh myJ xU bjhl ilahf
mikJ vGJj. tif dhf kLnk bfhLfgoUF. khzt
ilia vGJjntL.
vLJfhL:
1. e}iy -------------------------- adh.
2. makh mitfs yt ---------------.
3. cF vGJf ----------------tif dh yfz mit msgjF bgJ cj.
thbkh njY gagLjyh.
149

jid

nfhol l uj ilf milF bfhLfgL rahdij

njbjLj, brhYFa vbrhiy vGJj vD tifY dhf
mikfgLwd.
vLJfhL:
1. gij nkny ----------------------(v/v)
2. FHijfSF RWyh vwhny xnu --------------( ftiy)
khaikF tif
tot khw tif dh bkhghl bgUks gagLjgLtjhF.
tha mik mid njjtjF tif dh wjjhF.
vLJfhL:
1. bfhLfgLs thaij milF bfhLfgLs
Fnfg khWf.
eh fhiy v egid ghnj. (dh thakhf khWf.)
2. th vD brhiy idKwhf vGJf.
wta dhf iwf
fLiu njKiwfis Ftjfhf wtadhf cUthsd.
tif dhfSF ilfis kLt Vwjhf VglhJ. Vbd,
Fl xU dhF xU iljh cL. bghUahk kdghl
brtij tif dhf KGikahf mfWwd. ghlgF KGik
dhf mikfKo. Kiw midtU Ugjf, egjf, kdiwthd
xwhF. kLnth gy UD ko xWik fhzgL. il
jhis ahntLkhdhY rghJ kbgfis rahf mfKo.
fbgh aufshY kl Ko. Kiw ilaF fhyK
kL br fhyK Fiw.
wta dhf Fiwf
dhjhfis jahf lfhy oF; MaUF fodkhdjhF.
vLJfhlhf gilnj bfhLfgL ilfS xWjh rahdjhf
UfntL. kwit rahdjhf njhwntL. cik rahdjhf
Uj TlhJ. wik glf Mafshjh jifa dhfis
jahf Ko. khztfSF rahd ilbjahoD VnjD xiw CJ
vGj thL. khztf gilghw bgUf thiy.
wta dhfY FiwfUD ko egfjik bgUf
Kiw njitahdjhF.
bkhghl wta nj_y bkhwid
vtifbyyh klyh vgJg f.
bjhlf g tif dhfis vthW
mikfyh vgJg thf.

150

mfta dhf
mfta dhf _W tifgL.
1. f FWil dhf
2. FWil dhf
3. fLiu dhf
f FWil dhf
tif dhfSF XU tha il vGjntL. xU fUij
iH xU bjhl vGj bjwjh vgij njja J gagLwJ.
vLJfhL: RblGJ vgJ ahJ?
FWil dhf
tif dhfSF xU g mjhtJ MW myJ VG thaf
il vGjntL. xU fUij sf gy thaf vGj bjwjh
vgij njja J gagLwJ.
tif dhfis jahgJ f vJ. cik jftf ilF;
ghlbghU midJ cslF; egfjik Fiw; bkh iHdh
kL ghfglyh.
fLiu dh
dhf _y bkhghl bkheil, fUJts, fUJf
itKiw Matiw kl aY. xU fUij FJ KDiu,
bghUSiu, Koiu vd J Kiwahf vGJtij njj dhfns
fLiu dhf MF. ynghJ _W myJ ehF gf il vGj nto
UF.
iwf
tif dhfis jahgJ vJ. j_y Fl brid
bjhFJ xGFgL vGJtjF thnggL. khzt jbkh wikia
nkY th brhyik, gaik, fUJ bjhl Mat g
bgW wJ sf th VgLwJ. khzt jid wid
gilghw wid maKo.
Fiwf
ghlbghUis eFJ bfhshj khztTl xuL dhfSF
eF ilbaG mf kbgf bgw thL. tif dhfis
kLgtfilna ntWghLf fhzgL. jdh egfjik UfhJ.
kLnth U btW Matwh cikjik khWgl TL.
ilaf neu mf njitgL.

7. wj nj gf
ey nj aikah gfshf FlgLtd:
Vilik (Validity)
egfjik (Reliability)
151

wtaghL (Objectivity)
vikghL (Simplicity)
ju msghL (Standardization)
rkghL (Equity)
xUikghL (Uniformity)
gaghL (Applicable)

Vilik myJ Kiwik jFghL

msjagL gid rahf Jakhf msl xU nrhjid
cjkh, mJ Vilik cilabjdyh.
vj nehffhf dh jahfglnjh mnehf iwntWtif
mikaiybawh, mdh VilikawJ vdgL. Vilik bgw
dhthdJ nrhfgL gid ju ntW vgid mslhJ. vLJ
fhlhf brhwid nrhgjfhf jahj nrhjid, mwid kL nrhf
ntLnka vzhw, brhntf nghw wfis nrhgjh Ujh,
mnrhjid VilajW. vdnt, Vilik bgw nrhjidahdJ nrhfgL
gid kL mslntL.
egfjik
xU Fl gid xUnj vjidKiw msjjhY khwhj
Kofis bfhLFkhdh. mjid mnj egfjik vnwh. nrhjid
xiw xU Fl khzt FGF LL bfhLjhY mF
ilf jik kbgfS khwhJ Ujh, mJnt egfjikahF.
egfjikia m Kiwf
m) nj - kWnj Kiw ((Test-Retest method)
xnu njid kWgo ilbtL el ilj kbgfis
xL ghfntL. VwjhH xnu kbg Ujh khztf nj
egfjik bfhoUwJ vd fUjyh. Mdh, kWnj elj ilbt
mfkhfhk ghJ bfhsntL.
M) iznj Kiw (Paralled Forms Method)
xnu ghl, xnu nehf, xnu jikahd uL dhjhfis xnu
khzt FGF, xnu fhy fl bfhLJ nrhfntL. kbg
khwhJ Ujh, mnj egf jik cilaJ vd fUjyh.
) btL gFKiw ((Split-half method)
xU ghlgFFa dhjhid U gFfshf bto gFJ,
uil jjahf khztfSF bfhLfntL. wF, Kd
bfhLj dhfis khztfSF Kiwkh bfhLJ, mtf bgWs
kbgfis xL ghJ, xnu kh kL Ujh, egfjik
Ugjhf cW brayh.
wtaghL (Objectivity)
klhs U btWf, cSzf, jDz, xUw rh
Maitfsh vjidKiw vjid njtf kL brjhY kbg
khwhk UF iyia wtaghL vg.
152

wtaghL wghf mika, wtagl dhf kLnk lbgw brj

ntL. kbg bjthf RlglntLk. llgl ilF
jUj ntL.
vikghL
nj mik vikahdjhf UjntL. khztf iuthf
Jakhf aghf vGJtif dh totik UjntL.
Maf kLtjF Vwtif vikahf mikjntL. jifa
mikbfhl dhfis vikghL bfhlJ vdyh.
ju msghL
khztfilna gntW rkaf w gf, gntW njthsfsh
nffgl dhfis bjhFJ, xneh njbjLfgl dhfSF
ju msghL dhf vdgL. xnu ju tF gY gntW gf
khztf xnu khahf il vGjToa dhfns ju msghL dhf
MF.
rkghL
khztf ntfkhf fngh, bkJthf fngh, ruhrahf fngh Ma
_tifdUF Vwtif rkkhf vGJtjF thgF Kiw mik
dhjhis rkghL cilabjdyh.
xUikghL
ghlgF midJ gFUJ rkkhd kbg mikkhW
dhjh bfhLgijna xUikghL vnwh. dhjh tif
mikFnghJ khztf vjbthU ghlgFia LlhJ, yfhJ gof
th VgL.
gaghL
nj elJ K vj nehffhf nj eljgLwJ vgij
lL, mnehf iwntW tif nj mikfntL. xU nj,
khztUF MaUF gadF tif miktnj mnj gaghL
jikahF.

8. dhjh mikF Kiw

dhjh eF lL jahjh rahd ilfS kbgfS
ilF. dhjh mj (Knowledge), j (Understanding), gagLJj (Application,) btl (Expression), ghuhLj (Appreciation) Kja TWfis bgUf
ntL.
mj
mj vgJ fw xiw id WJ wdhF. ft, fngh
idUJ ilaf jftif mikfgL dhfshF.
vLJfhL: ygfhuij aat ah?

j
xU br jikga miy j MF. ghlYF bghU
brhYj, fUJiu mikj, brh ea, bghU ea ciuj, bkh bgaj
153

Kjad Jbfhs vD wdh btgL.

vLJfhL: ehY uL brhYFW vD gHbkh TWtJ ahJ?
ehyoahU UFwS wj fUJfis jUtd vgij khztUF
bjFnghJ bra ilwJ. ehF mofis bfhlJ ehyoah,
uL mofis bfhlJ UFw vd bj miy j MF.
gagLJj myJ Ms
bgw mit bjhU NH vLjhStnj gagLJj MF.
vbfhl fiy TJ ftJ mYs TWfis flJ, mjnfg
khaiknjh tifgLnah Fa bghUjkhd Kiwfis gagL
m fiy LgJ gagLJj wdhF.
bkhghl brhbghU Eg, yfz fis gagL K
mahj brh myJ bjhliu J fhLj, f mik tir
Kiwikfis flj Kjad tif mlF.
btl
ya fUij Fghf Ritahf ciuF ghlkhF. ghl
fUJ, fgid, cz, brhea, bghU ea, brhyh, bjhluh Kja
fUJfis flJ btgLJj btl wdhF.
ghuhLj
ghuhLj vgJ bkhghl w TwhF. gil MbghUis
fL jh W mjid ghuhLj MF.
vLJfhL: lmo nehf vLjmo bfhgf vw bghGJ brhyhia
ghuhLj. nfhifaW lFjnz nt gGj gyh vwbghGJ mj
cUtf iyia ghuhLj MF.

9.dhjh jahF Kiw

njFa dhjhis cUthFbghGJ vitbait vgo nkbfhs
glntL vD tfhLjiy czJ totik nfjh tiu
myJ dhjh totik (Blue-print) vdgL.
Ma ftd bfhsjfit:

nj eljUF ghlgFia tiuaWj.

fhyK kbgQ jUj.
ghlgFfSnfw nehffis FLj.
nj lbgW dh tiffis Ko brj.
dh tiffSFa kbg tHFj.
dh iyf ftd brYJj.
dhjhis brikahf jahj.
dh totik jahj.
ilF vGJj.
ilfSF kbg tHFj.
dhit njbjLj ga F tHFj.

Kjatiw dhjh totikFnghJ Ma kd bfhsntL.

154

10. dhjh totik

kh dh totik goiyf jghlij bghUjtiu Ijh
tF ciueil, br, yfz, Jizghl vD gFf mik.
bjhlf tFf nfl, ngRj, goj, vGJj, bkhia MSj vD
gFf mik. ghl tiffSnfg kbg juntL.
vLJfhlhf,
br
ciueil
yfz
thbkh

30%
50 %
10%
10%
--------------bkhj
100
--------------F kbg tHFtJ vgJ Manu Ko brtjhF.
Ijh tF khztf bkhwid tsgjfhf gbdL
ghlf ciueil gF lbgWsd. ciueil ghlf W
yfz lbgWsJ. br gF f Fiwj msnt lbgWsJ.
vdnt, ciueil gFF mf kbgfS mLjgoahf br gFF,
yfzF kbgf xJfgLsd. nfl, ngRj, goj wid
nrhFbghUL thbkh njF kbg xJfgLsJ. thbkh
njFa kbgiz njnghJ midJ khztfSF tHFtJ
fod. mtnghJ nrhjid brJ tHa kbg ruhria vLJ
bfhsyh.
fhyK kbgQ
njFa kbgiz fhyij Manu Uzwh.
nehffis FLjY
mj
j
gagLJj
w
thbkhw -

kbg tHFjY
20 %
20%
30 %
20 %
10%
--------bkhj
100
-------F nehffSnfw kbg MaUnfg khWgL.

dh tiffis cWbrJ kbg tHFj

bkhghl njf bgUghY wta dh, FW dh, fLiu dh
vd mik.
vLJfhL:

wta dh FW dh
fLiu dh -

40 % (m)
40 % (m)
20% (m)
155

30 %
40 %
30 %

dh iyf
xU nj va, Rkhuhd, fod iy dhf fyjfglntL.
dh totik l jahj
Ko bragl midJ dh totik l mltizahf g
bragl ntL.
dhjh vGJj
dhjh ca got brikahf vGjglntL.
ftfgl ntoait:

gy bjj ehF ilf jUjntL.

nfhol l uj, u gF dh il mikantL.
bghUJf tif xUw Fiwthf kWw mjhtJ ilF
tif xuL ilf mfkhf mikantL.
ilF
dhit jahF Manu ilF jahfntL. wta dh
ilia FWdh il tifia mgona vGjntLk. fLiu
dhF Kakhd brfis kL RlntL.

11. dhjh l tiu

l tiu mogil jahfgL dhjh bkhj dhf 32.
mtW,
xU kbg cila wta dhf
uL kbgf cila FWil dhf
_W kbgf cila fLiu dh

20
10
2

dhjh dh vf xWKj KguL tiu wta dhfS

UgbjhWKj KgJtiu FWil dhfS KgbjhW, KguL
fLiu dhfSmikJ tU.
Ijh tFF dhjh jahgjfhd ltiu, kh
dhjhS vLJfhlhf <L jugLsd. khzt Maf
tiw efhJ dhjh ltiu jahfyh.

156

157

l tiu mogil jahfgL dhjh bkhj dhf 40.

mtW, IJ kbg dhF TLjyhf _W dhf bjiy
dhfshf bfhLfgLsd.
xU kbg cila wta dhf
IJ kbgf cila FWil dhf
gJ kbgf cila fLiu dh

25
11
1

dhjh dh vf xWKj UgijJtiu wta dhfS

UgbjhWKj KgbjhgJtiu FWil dhfS, ehgjhtJ fLiu
dhthf mikJ tU.
fj gnghJ nkbfhS myF njF dhjh
ltiu jahJ, mjFa dhjhis mikf.

12. kh dhjh
Ijh tF
j
neu : 2.00 k

cr kbgf: 100
1 x 25 =

m) bjGJf.

1. TjhLth :
------------------------------2. bjD
:
------------------------------3. Gjht
:
------------------------------4.
:
------------------------------5. btfhu
:
------------------------------M) nrbjGJf.
6. gHik + fhy ;
------------------------------7. fUik + U :
------------------------------8. ntWik+:
------------------------------9. cyF + msha :
------------------------------10. c + Xlkhd :
------------------------------) rahd bghUis vGJf.
11. muF :
-------------------------------------12. m :
-------------------------------------13. ehy :
-------------------------------------14. nf
:
-------------------------------------15. nrit :
-------------------------------------<) joj brhYFa vbrhyh nfhol lij uf:
16. f_y ------------fzFfis vjhf brayh.
17. kiHbgJ KojJ jiyt ngr ---------------------18. a kf ntWik
ntWik ---------------- thHntL.
158

25

19. fnsh f eyt mtnuh f ------------------.

20. Nafh ---------ky. Kiy a ky.
c) bghU ntWghL vGJf.
21. ku --------------22. ma -------------23. gid ------------24. fy -------------25. kd --------------

kw ---------------ma --------------giz -------------fs ---------------kz ---------------

C) mo wHhk vGJf.
2 1/2 x 2 = 5
26. Fah, vyhF vd bjhlF UFwf.
27. at vd bjhlF be sf.
1 x 5= 5
v) vitnaD xgJ dhfSF xbthWF W brhfSF fhk
ilaf. 9 x 5= 45
28. JiwKfij g WF tiuf.
29. Fkz, ytUF Mrd mJ mku brhdl yt th
Tad ahit?
30. gfiyfHff lhl uhjhUZzid vthW ghuho bgUik
gLd?
31. bgh eho wig sFf.
32. fwnjh Fzkhf tufhr TWtJ ahJ?
33. eyt at ngRF ctikahf TwgLtd ahit?
34. vJ milikahF vW tSt FLwh?
35. gh vjid tifgL? vLJfhLl sFf.
36. th yfz gwh brhbwhlUJ vGth, gaiy,
bragLbghUis vLJ vGJf.
37. me, jbraYF kdl Ta sfahJ?
38. tU gFia ca Wj Fl vGJf.
Xnfh j Jikahd Fubyh jDilaJjhdh jfh eh m
eLndh w th eh ngh mij rhngh vwJ
39. ehL eybgw - ghl gF kd mikriu mPiu ehL
fllh... mjdh eho iy vdth UF? J
vGJf.
V) Gs dhF U W brhfSF fhk vGJf. 1 x 10 = 10
37. c C eilbgW HhF L nto tFghaUF
zg vGJf.
myJ
fL fj lg fLiu to vGJf.

159

13. kL ga a fFG gJiuf

kL vgJ bjhlahf fFnfhfis msgjhf mikj

ntL.
bjhlf f kL khzt mogil wfis
edlij id btbfhzU tif mikjntL.
eLiy tFf vGJ njl, thbkh njF thgj
ntL.
Fiwanrhjid Ka lij bgWj ntL.
dh tiff gyjugljhf UjntL.
bjhlf f iy g kLKiw_y khztfmilit
nrhJ ma ntL.
khtl msyhd nj el bjhlf gf gY khztf
w milit nrhja ntL.
gf mfkL nrhjid bjhFKiw mikfgL
bghJnj kbgfS jjna tHfgLj ntL.

bjhFiu
a msLj, kLj g bjgLjgLsd.
ko tiffS gafS sfgLsd. mfko njit
bjhlahd ko njit FJ Jiufgld. wfis
kLj Fj sf wthahf bjgLjgLsd.
nj tiffS ey nj gfS RlgLsd.
dhjh jahgjfhd tKiwf MuhagLsd.

Ma

dhjh jahKiwf, dhjh ltiu jahj, l

tiuF Vw dhjh jahj Kjadga sffS TwgLsd.

160

161

162

iz - 1
jbkh fj
kh dhjh - 1
fhy: 3 k

cr kbgf: 100

gF - m

I) xbthU dhF W brhfSF fhk ilaf.

10
2=20
10x2=20

1. jhdbfhLF - brhiy J z ia vGJf.

2. nflh
F jifath nfshU
ntg bkhtjh brh
- vD brh jU bghUfis T, Fwgh brh vjifa
bghUis jUwJ vgij sFf.
3. gia goJ dhfSF ilaf.
fhdfJ fid fhdfy ntbwF fhz ayhJ. vjid
tothd iyf! vjid wkhd kyf! vjid Ritahd fhf!
vjid ghd gHf! mkk! fhdff mlJaj njhwij
fhif csK caJ nkYaJ brwJ.
1. g ika fUJ ahJ?
2. g lbgW mUbrhfis vLbjGJf.
4. <wh gfhgh MD braf
rhnwh gF id.
- Fwgh eaij sFf.
5. bjiy idKiw vLJfhL jJ sFf.
6. btiy nghlh - sFf.
7. efw vgij wef vgJ vjifa jikaJ vgij sf nkY
uL vLJfhLf jUf.
8. UbgabuhL gbjhif - vthW mikJtU vgij vLJ
fhLf jJ sFf.
bghFl
9.
- vgij J z TWf.
10. xjfh vdh ct vgif
ehf cg bfL.
- Fwgh gWtU mia sFf.
II) vitnaD IJ dhfSF xbthWF U W brhfSF
fhk ilaf.
5 x4=20
4=20
11. ngrhwiy tsf gw ntoait ahit?
12. Wfij vGJ wid tsf vjifa brafis nkbfhsntL?
13. Gs gFia goJ dhfSF ilaf.
KJ cs K x gh_oa gts wK, gh
kiwj gts wK, gh kiwj k JyfK, Til fj
s xngh eik _o bfhoUF mahik vD U
mfgLnsh.
1. g mikJs ctikfis vLbjGJf.
2. g lbgW mUbrhfis vLbjGJ.
163

14. Gs gFia goJ ciu eaij vGJf.

bkh vgJ kf gilJ fhF mabjhU fiy. bkhna kf
mit tsJ caJ fUahf csJ. bgwjh Kj
ntif j FHijl ngRj; mt mil bga k, FHij
ngir nfgnyna MF.
15. fFiw, brhda - brhfis J z ia sFf.
16. njhw, j, fhu- _W bkh _ljhF. ghit vLJ
fhLl sFf.
17. J bghWgiy; j
vjH bfhLth
fiu itHjh - mz
ifia vLnth
- ghl t czJ eaij sFf.
18. fhlF, nrto - brhfis vd J sFth?

gF - M

III) Gs xbthU dhF W brhfSFfhk ilaf.

10 x 2 = 20

19. mj brhfsa, gagLJ brhfsa tilna cs

bjhlid vGJf.
20. ghl VghL tiuaWf.
21. yF mahikah VgL iHF uL vLJfhL jUf.
22. bkbghU - sFf.
23. ngRw - tiuaWf.
24. mj brhfsa, gagLJ brhfsa - sFf.
25. izbkhf brhfsa bgUf vthW cjwd?
26. jtW - iH uoid ntWgL fhLf.
27. fw iH l ahJ?
28. msLj vwh vd?
IV) vitnaD IJ dhfSF xbthWF U W brhfSF
fhk ilaf.
5 x 4 = 20
29. ey ghll TWf ahit?
30. fgh bkhfis sFf.
31. ft bkhf bgWtJ FJ vGJf.
32. jhbkh fj bkhgwh Tl gid sFf.
33. fUju gnfgjfhd w FbjGJf.
34.brhfsa bgUF cf vitnaD ehid rhWl sFf.
35. xikahf iHfis rhWl sFf.
36. clgLbk iHia jf vjifa gfis tHF?
V) xbthU dhF IW brhfSF fhk ilaf.
2 x 10 = 20
37. gilghw wid tsf nkbfhs ntoa braf FbjGJf.
myJ
f tuyhW FJ fLiu tiuf.
38. wta nj iw Fiwfis sFf.
myJ
ghl Vgho afis bjhFJ TWf.
******

164

iz -2

fhy: 3 k

jbkh fj
kh dhjh - 2

cr kbgf: 100

gF - m

2=20
I) xbthU dhF W brhfSF fhk ilaf. 10
10x2=20
1. bghUa - rbrhiy bjG z jUf.
2. dy K wd zsK lz - ghit vLJfhL jJ sFf.
3. gh eybkyh ahD gfutnyndh?
M ghRitia eh msJ fhLnkh?
- br czJ eaij sFf.
4. gia goJ dhfSF ilaf.
clY ntL, csK ntL vW uil cukhf
ikahf fhgnj flikahF. ku thdsht cau ntoajhf
Ufyh; Mdh jh nt%a kiz kwJ thH KoahJ!
- g ika fUJ ahJ?
- g lbgW mUbrhfis vLbjGJf.
5. brjhiu Jdh - J vtif tHF vgij s, uL vLJ
fhLf jUf.
6. idbjhifia vLJfhLl sFf.
7. mfthiu jhF ynghy jik
fth bghWj jiy.
- Fwgh lbgWs mia sFf.
8. gifafJ rhth va ma
mitafJ mrh jt.
- Fwgh czJ fUij ciueilgLJf.
9. bjhlfiy ngrhs ngRwid tsf gw ntoait ahit?
10. xgh Ritfis sFf.
II) vitnaD IJ dhfSF xbthWF U W brhfSF
4=20
fhk ilaf.
5 x4=20
11. ey fij gfshf mP TW fUJfis bjhFJiuf.
12. fij vGJtjF Kndho brafshf gw ntoait ahit?
13. tU gF eilwig sFf.
kd vgJ bgUghY bkhah mikjJ. kd tsF Vgnt
ngRnth bkh ts bgW F. kf midtU bkhF
Mauhf csd; khztuhf csd. bkhia tsgtU
kfns; bkhah tsgtU kfns.
14. gia goJ dhfSF ilaf.
btsjh mJnghtJ btbeUgh btJnghtJ murfsh
ifgwgLtJ bfhLf bfhLf FiwJnghtJ ftfhf eik
mRgJ ghJfhgjF Fj tUjij jUtJkhd brt
ekh vneuK UgjfjW.
1. gF ika fUJ ahJ?
2. vJ UgjfjW?
3. g mikJs mUbrhf ahit?
15. kW xwJ cW xg
tikF dkh g khF. - ghit vLJfhLl sFf.
16. KFiw, bghUza - brhfis J z vGJf.
17. tU gia goJ dhfSF ilaf.
165

Xuwila LfKj Mwila kfwhd gynfho cfS kf

wna wjbjgJ vyhF bjj cikanwh? Vbd, Mwhtjhd
gFj kf wbaLj cfF ngusdjh mikjhnghy Vid
WF mikaiy.
1. g ika fUJ ahJ?
2. g lbgWs mUbrhfis sFf.
3. g czJ br ahJ?
18. tU gia goJ ciuwig sFf.
ciHfhk cthH vtUF cik Uf TlhJ. Ul ciHfhk
wUila ciH gaid bgW thwh. mjdhjh mt rKjhajh
btWfgLwh.
vfhy ciHfhk c thnth vtU
btWfgLt.

gF - M

III) Gs xbthU dhF W brhfSFfhk ilaf.

10 x 2 = 20

19. ghll - tiuaWf.

20. xUbghU Fj gy brhfSF gybghU Fj xUbrhYF vLJ
fhLf jUf.
21. khztfl fhzgL vGJiHfis fisa vjifa
eltoiffis nkbfh?
22. mt mf nfhgf glkhlh - tha cs iHia Ro
fhuzij FLf.
23. vGJ iHfbsyh ttot iHf iy. rhW jUf.
24. xa jlR vwh vd?
25. f f aikahikia sFf.
26.FHijfSfhd izajsf Ijid FLf.
27. fijghl sf jUf.
28. wta njit cUthFbghGJ gwgl ntoait ahit?
IV) vitnaD IJ dhfSF xbthWF U W brhfSF
fhk ilaf.
5 x 4 = 20
29. ghll, ghl, Ma - bjhlid sFf.
30. tbyGJ Fj njitia vLJfhL jJ sFf.
31. gybghU jU xU brhiybfhL vthW brhfsa bgUF?
32. FHij yag sFf.
33. fj bkbghU gaghoid sFf.
34. isahLKiw vthW brhfsa bgUF?
35. ntWik vthbwyh iHneu thsJ vgij rhWl sFf.
36. uil gF ehlh gaghil sFf.
V) xbthU dhF IW brhfSF fhk ilaf.
2 x 10 = 20
37. ngRw tsF tKiwfis tf.
myJ
ghl gfis tf.
38. nj tiffis s tiuf.
myJ
j iza gfiyfHf braghLf FJ fLiu tiuf.
******

166

iz - 3
mfkL brKiw g
mfkL kbgf: 25

t.
v
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

jiy

kbgf

Kj tFKj IJ tFtius ghlf VnjD

xiw kL brj
brhfsa bgUF tKiwf - bjhF jahj
ghlbghU sf, yfz fj Matfhd Jiz
fUf jahj.
brh isahLf jahj.
Fl jiy ciuahLj, ngRj - g brj.
Fl jiyf fij vGJj (2)
Fl jiyf fij vGJj (2)
Ijh tFF myF nj elJtjfhd dhjh l
tiu jahj.
fLiu vGJj (4)
Ijh tFF VjhtJ xU ghlF f eGtf
jahj (Power Point Presentation slides)

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

1.

fUjuF - uL jiyf elJj - g brj

20

1.

ciy njf

20

1.

dht jahj
m) j ts - gF - m) bkhw tsj
M)
- gF - M) VnjD X a

20

bkhj kbgf

100

F: bkhj kbgf 100 I 25 kbgfSF khWf.

167

iz - 4
ghit f
1. MWKf ehty,

2. udrghg, lhl .

- f nj,
rhjh g, brid - 14.

3. lhl ybgh bryg,

- tsU j,
mUnzhja, brid-14.

4. R buoah, e.,

- fijaDgt,
irt jhj g fHf,
brid.

5. njjhr, lhl .

- fij vGj ntLkh?

Uky ggf,
UKo ef, Jnr-605 001.

6. eluh# is,e. & kyh, r.,

- iH M - bkh fj xU a
ghit,
bja bkhf gW ika,
ikN, 1981.

7. guRuhk, j.

- g khztf j iH M,
KJ btpL,
Jnr, 2005.

8. gukt, lhl brh.

- ew yfz,
gL ggf,
mzh ef nkF, brid-40.

9. gHntY, Kidt .

- j fj Jik nghFf,
fy ggf,
xuj ehL, 2005.

10. bghnfh, Kidt

- j fS jtyhk vGjyh,
Jth ggf,
brid, 2000.

11. kzit Kjgh,

- f fiybrh fsa mfuh,

kzit gnf, brid-40,

12 ---

---

---

e} fhoif ciu
irt jhj g fHf,
brid.

- bjhfha - bra,
nrdhtiuaUiu.
irt jhj g fHf, brid
*****

168

iz - 2

dhjh - 1 l tiu, Ijh tF -j

fhy: 3 k neu
ghl myF/fj
nehf

mj
(20)
(1)

ciueil (50)

10

br (30)

F(5) f(10)

j
(20)
(1)

5
1

157

yfz (10)

F(5)

gagLJj
(30)
f(10) (1)

F(5)

f(10) (1)

cr kbgf: 100
w
bkhj
(20)
(90)
F(5)

f(10) (1)

F(5)

20

f(10)

thbkh (10)
bkhj (100)
F:-

15

- wta dh
F - FWdh (100 brhfSF fhk)
f - fLiu dh (200 brhfSF fhk)
( ) - iwFF cs vf kbgfis FF.
flfSF cs vf dhf vifia FF

25

11

iz - 2

dhjh - 1 l tiu
cr kbgf: 100

fhy: 3 k neu
ghl myF/fj
nehf

mj
(20)

j
(20)

161

jbkhw (40)

ghl VghL (6)

brhfsabgUf(10) 0

gagLJj
(30)

1(*1)

w
(30)

bkhj
(100)

1(*1)

2(*1)

10

(*1)

(*1)

(*1)

5(*3)

caiywf (12)

(*1)

iHM
FiwfisjY (10)

(*1)

1(*1)

j fj jft
bjh Eg (10)

(*1)

(*1)

2(*1)

(*1)

nj kL

bkhj (100)

2(*2) 1(*1) 2

4(*1)

1(*1)

20

F:-

2(*3)

- Wdh (100 brhfSF fhk)

kbgf - 2
g - g dh (200 brhfSF fhk )
kbgf - 4
f - fLiu dh (500 brhfSF fhk )
kbgf - 10
( ) - iwFF cs vf kbgfis FF.
( *) - eru FpL cs vf bjiy dhfis FF.
- flF cs vf dhf vifia FF.

10 (*6) 2(*2)

iz - 2

dhjh - 1 l tiu
cr kbgf: 100

fhy: 3 k neu
ghl myF/fj
nehf

mj
(20)

j
(20)

jbkhw (40)

ghl VghL (6)

brhfsabgUf(10) 0

gagLJj
(30)

1(*1)

w
(30)

bkhj
(100)

162

1(*1)

2(*1)

10

(*1)

(*1)

(*1)

5(*3)

caiywf (12)

(*1)

iHM
FiwfisjY (10)

(*1)

1(*1)

j fj jft
bjh Eg (10)

(*1)

(*1)

1(*1)

(*1)

nj kL

bkhj (100)

3(*1)

F:-

0
1(*3)

3(*1)

- Wdh (100 brhfSF fhk)

kbgf - 2
g - g dh (200 brhfSF fhk )
kbgf - 4
f - fLiu dh (500 brhfSF fhk )
kbgf - 10
( ) - iwFF cs vf kbgfis FF.
( *) - eru FpL cs vf bjiy dhfis FF.
- flF cs vf dhf vifia FF.

3(*1) 1(*2)

20

10 (*6) 2(*2)