Polarised mho distance relay

New approach to the analysis of practical characteristics

L. M. Wedepohl, Ph.D., B.Sc.(Eng.), Graduate I.E.E. Synopsis The use of the polarised mho distance relay for the protection of high-voltage lines has become widespread. Up to the present time, the relay has been thought to be of limited use in the protection of short lines, owing to its relatively small reach for arcing faults. However, recent practical tests have shown that the actual performance is considerably better than that predicted by theory. A new analysis is therefore developed in this paper which shows that the polarised mho relay has an offset characteristic, in the case of unbalanced faults, which encloses the origin and hence enhances the relay reach in the direction of the resistive axis. The degree of offset is a function of the source/line impedance ratio of the system to which the relay is connected. It is shown that the theory developed is in good agreement with results obtained in practice. It is shown in an Appendix that the theory also covers the cases of crosspolarised directional relays and polyphase impedance relays, both classes of relay having an offset characteristic. The paper concludes by discussing the implication of the results. It is noted that the polarised mho relay has most of the benefits of the reactance relay, while retaining the advantages of being inherently directional and insensitive to load currents and power swings. It is also noted that, by using this method of analysis, the reach for lines with series capacitance may be predicted. In these applications, it is customary to specify reactance relays2 or differential schemes of protection. The fault-arc problem is further aggravated .by the fact that the polarising voltage, derived from an unfaulted phase or a tuned circuit, may be out of phase with the fault voltage. Recent measurements have been made to investigate the sensitivity of polarised mho relays to faults with simulated arc resistance, and it has been found that the results are not consistent with the present theory. The relays are found to be capable of operating in the presence of fault-arc resistances which considerably exceed the values predicted by simple theory; the situation improves as the source/line impedance ratio increases. As a result of these measurements, a new analysis of the polarised mho relay was developed, and it is the purpose of this paper to describe this, together with presentation of results and consideration of their practical implication. 2 Introduction In the past two decades, the use of polarised mho distance relays for the protection of high-voltage transmission lines has become widespread, because of their inherent property of being simultaneously an impedance and a directional measuring element. This type of relay is associated with a number of advantages and drawbacks, and these have in the past been used as a basis for assessing its merits relative to other schemes of feeder protection. It is inherently directional and has the virtue that of all distance relays it is least sensitive to power swings.1 On the other hand, by virtue of its constrained characteristic, it is rather insensitive to resistive components in the fault impedance and is, for this reason, of limited use in the protection of short lines, when resistance due to fault arcs may be appreciable compared with the line impedance.
Paper 4665 P, first received 2nd June and in revised form 27th October 1964 Dr. Wedepohl is with A. Reyrolle and Co. Ltd.

List of symbols VR> Vy> VB ~ phase-neutral voltages of red, yellow and blue phases, respectively, at relaying point '/? W> h = phase currents E = phase-neutral generated voltage on red phase /j = positive-sequence current /2 = negative-sequence current / 0 = zero-sequence current K, KX,K2 = relay constants Zn, Znl, Znl = relay impedance constants 6 = angle of Zn ZL = positive-sequence line impedance ZLO = zero-sequence line impedance Zs = positive-sequence source impedance Zs0 = zero-sequence source impedance
P= q=
z

solzs ZL0\ZL

120

Simplified theory of polarised mho relay It is well known that the characteristics of all distancerelay functions may be obtained by using either an amplitudeor phase-comparing measuring element. The relationships in the polarised mho relay are more readily understood by considering the operation of the phase comparator. Identical characteristics may be obtained from both comparators if the following transformations are observed:

sx = sy =
or

+ s2) - s2)

= Sx + Sy

S2 = Sx Sy where Sx and Sy are the operate and restraint input signals

to the amplitude comparator, and St and S2 are the two inputs to the phase comparator. The criterion for operation of the two relays is and -7r/2 < <f> < n/2 where <f> is the phase angle between 5", and S2. 525

PROC. FEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

The basic phase-comparator input quantities for a polarised mho relay are Sy = Vp S2=IZn-V where Vp is the polarising voltage and V and / are voltage and current at the relaying point. The corresponding inputs to the amplitude comparator to give identical characteristics are Sx =

operation, so that the origin is outside the relay characteristic, and there is no protection against terminal faults. The problem is solved in the polarised mho relay by making S\ = Vp, where V is in phase with V but not proportional

+1ZH-V) ~ (IZn - V)]

Fig. 1 shows the basic input arrangement for a mhoconnected phase-angle comparator. The two quantities which are compared in phase are 5 2 = lZn - V where V = / = St =
EZL ZL

Fig. 2 Mho-relay characteristic

zs + Z
EZ
L

to it, so that for terminal faults, when V = 0, phase comparison can be effected. In this case,
S'2 = Zn ZL

zs + ZL
E(Zn -ZL)

s2 =
-7T/2

where Zp is a vector of constant magnitude but in phase with ZL. The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 3, from which it is

*s + *L The criterion for operation is that

vw-

-D(
n

A/W z
(i

Z..-Z,

'

cr Fig. 3 Basic polarised-mho-relay characteristic

s,-v

phase comparator

s 2 -iz n -v

Fig. 1 Basic connection for mho relay

The relative phase angle between St and S2 is not disturbed if they are multiplied by the same quantity, i.e. {Zs + Zj)\E. The two vectors to be compared in phase are therefore
S[ = ZL S-i = Zn ZL

The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 2, and it is clear that the locus of ZL is a circle with Zn as diameter. In practice, the mho relay is not suitable as a directional element, since a finite value of Sx is required in order to effect 526

clear that phase comparison of Zn ZL with Zp is the same as ZL, because these latter two impedances are in phase; consequently, the 'polarised mho' characteristic is identical with the 'mho' characteristic, except that the origin in this case is a well defined point. The problem is in selecting a suitable polarising voltage Vp, and three basic solutions are adopted in practice. Vp is either derived from the fault voltage V through a resonant circuit tuned to system frequency (memory) or from an unfaulted phase through a suitable phase-shifting circuit (sound-phase polarising); alternatively, a combination of part sound-phase and part faulted-phase polarising is used. The last two methods do not solve the problem in the case of 3-phase faults, when an unpolarised mho characteristic is obtained, and operation for close faults once more becomes indeterminate. In practice Vp and V are not in phase for terminal faults, because of the characteristics of the system, principally unequal source-impedance/line-impedance angles. By considering a number of boundary conditions, Ellis3 has shown PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

that, in most cases, a suitable choice of sound-phase polarising voltage gives rise to errors in phase of less than 15 between Vp and V. The effect of phase shifts between these two voltages modifies the relay-input equations to the following:

Zp and ZL have the same phase, and the angle between Vp and V is accounted for by the additional rotation a. From the relationship in the vector diagram shown in Fig. 4, it is

Fig. 4

effect shown in Fig. 5 is most severe in the case of short lines and low fault currents, corresponding to high source/line impedance ratios, and has detracted considerably from the appeal of these relays in this case. Warrington1 has shown that, in these circumstances, a reactance relay is more suitable as a distance-relay element, despite the added complexity of the arrangement, since separate directional elements must be provided. In order to verify these conditions in practice, a series of measurements was made on a practical polarised mho distance relay, and marked disparities between theory and practice were noted. The reach in the resistive axis for terminal faults was found to be greater than expected, and it increased as the source/line impedance ratio increased. These results are presented and discussed in Section 7. The reason for the disparity between theory and practice is in assuming that Vp and V are in phase or separated by a fixed angle a. In practice, this only applies when ZL and Zn are in phase. Deviations become progressively more severe as ZL moves around the polar diagram, and it is possible under certain conditions for a to equal 180. In the Sections to follow, a more rigorous analysis of the operation of the polarised mho relay is presented, in order to take this effect into account. In Section 3 it will be seen that, in the case of the polarised mho relay, the input quantities to the relay take the most general form, i.e.
5

Characteristic of polarised mho relay with phase shift between Zp and ZL

n2

+
Z

KZ

2 =

nl

seen that Zn is a chord of the mho characteristic, and the diameter D lags Zn by a and has a magnitude |>| = \Zn\ sec a. For a = 15, sec a is 1 035, which is a negligible increase. The polar equation of the mho circle is
\Z\ = \Zn\ cos (<f> 6 + a) sec a

Jt is shown in Appendix 12.1 that the locus of ZL at the boundary of operation of the relay is a circle, and a simple construction is developed which relates the position of the circle in the complex plane to the three constants Z ;il , Zn2 and K.

where <f> and 6 are the angles of ZL and Zn, respectively. The value of Z when (j> = 0, i.e. the relay reach in the resistive axis for terminal faults, is R = \Zn\ cos (6 a) sec a Engineers concerned with the application of polarised mho relays to systems are interested in the maximum negative value which a can attain, since this corresponds to a minimum value of R. Typically, d = 75, and, if a = - 15, R = 0. This case is illustrated in Fig. 5, together with a typical range of system impedances superimposed on the diagram, including the effect of fault-arc resistance. It may be seen that the relay coverage under arc-resistance conditions is rather poor. The

Analysis of polarised-mho-relay characteristic for phase-to-phase faults

The system is shown schematically in Fig. 6, together with the sequence impedance diagram. The operation of a relay connected between yellow and blue phases is considered.

boundary of system faults

AAAA-

AW

Zen

-A/W z,
AAAA-S AA/V ^2

Fig. 5 Polarised mho characteristic

6 = 75 a = - 15

z *-L

Fig.6 Equivalent circuits for system with phase fault

527

PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

The voltages and currents in each phase are

VR=E
^Y
V

= ^ E ^ d^ZL 2(Z? + ZL)

- Zs)

B = 1(7 S I 7 S^ZL ~ Zs) 2(Z + ZjJ

+ ZL)

These three cases cover those generally used in practice. The general characteristics for the three types of mho relay may be obtained in the manner detailed in Appendix 12.1. The signal S2 in each is the same; 51, takes the three alternative forms described in (a), (b) and (c) above. In order to obtain the general form of input signal S[ and S2, all input signals will be multiplied by the vector (Zf + ZL)lE(a2 - a) The input signals for the three cases then become (a) [ = K'2ZS K2)ZL

VYR = E[(a2 - \)ZL VYB = E{a2 - a)Zj(Zs

IY = E(a2 - a)l2(Zs + ZL)

IB = Iy

IY-JB

= E(a2 - a)l(Zs + ZL)

K'2)ZL

The measuring signal for a polarised mho phase-fault relay is S2 = Uy ~ lB)Zn VYB which, in this case, is S2 = E{a2 - a)(Zn - Zj)l{Zs + ZL) There are three possible practical alternative choices for polarising voltage: (a) combination of VYB and VR (b) combination of VYB and VYR (c) memory circuit associated with VYB. VBR is not used in practice, because the vector position is such that inductive phase shift is required to achieve the correct phase relation with VYB, and this raises practical problems. There are no further advantages to be gained by this choice, and it will not be considered.
3.1 Derivation of polarising voltage for phase-fault relay element

The three practical cases are considered below for the derivation of the polarising signal S}. This is a case of mixed polarising, where K2 is complex with an angle of approximately 90. For later simplification, we write K2 = j\/3K2. Kl is generally real and approximately equals 1. Substituting for VYB and VR and simplifying, 5, = E(a2 - a)[KxZL + K&Z, + ZL)]I(ZS + ZL) (b) 5, = K,VYB + K2VYR Kx is as before. For convenience in this case we write K2 = K2/_60. Substituting for the voltages and simplifying, 5", becomes
E(a2 - a)[KxZL + K'2ZL

+ (V3/2)A^3O^ZJ/(Z, + ZL) (c) S{ = K{ VYB This is the case of a memory relay, where K{ VYB is initially the interphase voltage prior to the fault, which then decays exponentially to the fault voltage. Kx may have a small angle, owing to the resonant frequency of the tuned circuit not coinciding with the system frequency. Tn this case, 5, = KxE{a - d){Zs + ZL)I(ZS + ZL) which is the signal just prior to fault occurrence. 528
2

Fig. 7

Polarised mho phase-fault-relay characteristics

a Polarised Kx KYB + ^2^R b Polarised /CIKYB + A^YR c Polarised KjEya (memory)

PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

The relationship between the three general constants Zn2 and K is given in Table 1. Table 1
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VECTORS Case
Znl

Znl,

Znz

by the relay characteristic. This interpretation follows from the fact that negative impedance in the forward sense and positive impedance with reverse power flow are normally identified. This assumption is not valid. In the case of reverse power flow, the relay-input equations change, owing to the new vector relationship between voltage and current. Typically, in case (a), the equations become
S[ = K'2ZS + {K{ + K2)ZL S2 Zn ZL

ift)

Zn

K'2ZS

K\ + K'2

(b) (c)

Zn
Zn

(V3/2)A^3Z, K\ -\- K2

The vector construction for this case is shown in Fig. 9. It may be seen that the characteristic is totally different from

3.2

Characteristic of polarised mho phase-fault relay

The relay characteristics for the forward direction of power flow in the three cases are shown in Fig. 7. In all cases, the origin is enclosed by the relay characteristic, the degree of offset of the relay in the third quadrant being principally a function of the source-impedance vector Zs and the constant K2. When Zs = 0, the characteristic always passes through the origin. The construction for this special condition for case (a) is shown in Fig. 8. By virtue of the construction for the relay characteristic, the diameter subtends an angle of 90 at the origin, which must therefore lie on the relay characteristic. Also shown in Fig 8 for the same case is

Fig. 9

Polarised-relay characteristics, case (a) of Section 3.1; reverse-power-flow conditions

that for forward power flow. In particular, the origin lies outside the relay characteristic, which is almost entirely in the third or negative-impedance quadrant. Only in the special case of Zs = 0 is it permissible to identify negative impedance and reverse power, since the characteristics for both directions of power flow are then identical. 4 Analysis of polarised mho relay for earth faults In this case, operation of a relay connected between the red phase and earth is considered. The sequence diagram is shown in Fig. 10.

2ZS

I 1
Fig. 8

Characteristics of polarised mho relay for case {a) of Section 3.1

a Z. = 0 b Z,= oo

the construction for the special condition Zs = oo in case (a). It is evident that the characteristic is a straight line through Zn perpendicular to K2ZS. From the foregoing, it would appear that the directional feature of the relay has been lost, since the origin is enclosed
PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

Fig. 10

Sequence diagram for phase-earth fault 529

/, = E/[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL] Where Zs0 = /;ZS and ZL0 = ?Z L K* = - Z,/, - Z / 2 - />Z,/0 = E[(2 + q)ZL]l[{2 + p)Zs + (2 Ky = [(2 + /,>**, + (2 + (1 - J p)Zj/[(2+ />)Z5 VB = [(2 + p)aZs + (2 VYB = E(a - a) IR=3E/[(2+p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL] In the case of an earth-fault relay, the measuring current is a combination of phase and zero sequence to give correct measurement impedance, i.e. Im = IR + [(Z i0 /Z L ) - l ] / 0 - E{2 + q)l[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL] The measuring signal in the case of an earth-fault relay is S2 = ImZn - VR = E(2 + q){Zn - ZJI[(2 +p)Zs + (2 In this case, there are four practical cases of polarising-voltage signal 5", to be considered: KXVR + K2VB, KXVR + K2VYB, Kx VR (memory) and Kt VR + K2 VRB.
4.1 Derivation of polarising voltage for earth-fault relays
2

i.e.

(a) S{ =

S'2=Zn-ZL (b) S{ = A / 3 ^ [ ( 2 + P)ZJ(2 + q)] + (Kx

S'2=ZnZL (c) S[ = Kx[(2 + p)Zs/(2 + q)] + KXZL (2 + q)ZL] (2 + q)ZL) It may be seen that cases (a) and id) are almost identical if K2 in the second case has a leading angle of 30, while cases (Jb) and (c) are similar. The characteristics for cases (a) and (Jb) are shown in Fig. 11. The general appearance is similar to that for the phase-fault relays. The condition for reverse power is similar to that previously described for the phase-fault elements, and the characteristics are not plotted for this reason. The same arguments regarding extreme limits of Zs apply, i.e. zero and infinity. In the former case, simple mho-relay characteristics are obtained and, in the latter case, reactance-relay characteristics. 5 Relay characteristics under 2-phase-toearth fault conditions Owing to the complexity of the voltage and current relationships, it is not possible to describe the characteristics in terms of the simple basic quantities as has been done in other cases. However, the following general observations may be made: (i) When Zs = 0, all characteristics are simple 'mho' circles through the origin.

s*> = zn ^
-60

(a) Sx = KXVR + K2VS Writing for convenience K2 = K2^ 120,

Sx =KXVR+K2VB

q)ZL + K'2{\ -p)Zs/ E[KX(2 + q)ZL + K$L + p)Z (2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL q)] + (Kx (2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL

120]

(b)

Sx = KXVR + K2VYB

W r i t i n g ^ = - jK'2,

_ E{2 + q){[V3K2V^:p)Zsl(2
s 1

+ q)] + (Kx

(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL
V F

(c)

(d)

Sx = E(2

- 60 + p)Zs/(2 + q)] + (Kx

(2+p)Zs

q)ZL

and K2 =
4.2

Characteristic of polarised mho earth-fault relay element

The input quantities S'x and S2 for the four cases are obtained by multiplying Sx and S2 by [(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL]K2 + q)E
530

(ii) When Zs = 00, the characteristics are straight lines whose angles of inclination are functions of Zs, as before. The choice of the type of sound-phase polarising is of some importance, since the vectors are subject to severe phase shifts. A danger exists when Zs is large that, if K2ZS is too far in the fourth quadrant, overreach for arcing faults will be PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

experienced. The basis for selection of sound-phase polarising described by Ellis3 is valid in this case, since the phase shifts described in his paper are in fact related to the effective position of K'2ZS on the mho characteristic. In general, the

(iii) S, = KXE S2 = E(Zn - ZL)I(ZS + ZL)

Oj = K.XZS -\$2 Zn ~
Z

K\Z^ L

The two characteristics are shown in Fig. 12. The angle of K'2 has purposely been exaggerated to show the lack of coincidence between Zn and the diameter in this case.

K2-K2' /90!

Fig. 11 Polarised mho earth-fault-relay characteristics

a Polarised S\ b Polarised S, -R

preferred choice of 'sound phase' for a phase-fault element is VB for a RY relay while the preferred phase for a RE relay is also VB. It is important to note that the RE relay measures correctly for both RYg and RBE faults. In the former case, the characteristic encloses the origin as in the case of the simple earth fault, while in the latter case the origin is indeterminate, because VB falls to zero with VR, and a simple mho characteristic is obtained.

Fig. 12 Polarised mho earth-fault-relay characteristics during 3-phase faults

a Polarised A i KK + ^ B T b Polarised K\ER (memory)

7 6 Relay characteristic under balanced-fault conditions

With the exception of the memory relay, the characteristics will be simple 'mho' circles, the origin being indeterminate. The diameter may not coincide with Zn if K2 is not real. The behaviour of a RE relay polarised from VB and the same relay with memory are considered below: (i) VR = EZJ(ZS + ZL) VB = aEZJ(Zs + ZL) IR = E\{ZS + ZL) (ii) S, = E[KXZL + K^ZL]/(ZS + ZL) S2 = E(Zn - ZL)KZS + ZL) Sx KXZL + K2'ZL

Practical results

s2 = zn zL
PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

Tests were carried out on a polarised mho phase-fault relay using the rectifier-bridge moving-coil principle. Polarising was as for case (a) of Section 4.1, and the constants of the relay were 6 (angle of Zn) = 60, Kx = 1-42 and K2 0 1 4 / 15. A set of polar curves is presented in Fig. 13. These were obtained by connecting a relay to a 3-phase test bench and varying the line impedance together with simulated fault resistance. The curves are normalised, in that all vectors are divided by Zn. It follows that Zs\Zn y is the systemimpedance range factor. The curves are presented for a number of such factors. The curves are not circles about the major diameter, since in this particular type of relay the criterion for operation is that the angle between the two signals S1, and S2 is 75 rather than 90, so that the relay characteristic consists of the arcs of two circles with the major diameter becoming a chord. If the reach in the resistive axis is critical, this effect could be taken into account. The theoretical curves are also given, and, apart from the disparity in reach in the resistive direction for the reason stated, the agreement between theory and practice is good.
531

Assessment of the capabilities of the polarised mho relay In the past, it has been customary to use polarised mho relays for relatively long feeders, while reactance relays have been preferred for short lines where arc resistance has

10

nominal angle 60

0-5

0-5

10

1-5

Fig. 13

Comparison between theoretical and experimental results

y = z,izn
O experimental theoretical

been a problem. This latter solution has not been ideal, because of the need for a directional-control element and an impedance element for preventing undesired operation on load current. From the analysis presented in this paper, it may be seen that, when the source impedance is large compared with the relay setting, the polarised mho characteristic is similar to that of a reactance relay, and the advantage of the latter becomes marginal. The condition of a very short line with arc resistance usually implies that the source-impedance/lineimpedance ratio is high, and it follows that the polarised mho relay has the virtue of automatically adapting itself to system conditions. Load current is not a problem, since, in this case of balanced current flow, the characteristic is the classical mho circle. Generally the likelihood of a 3-phase arcing fault is small, and the lack of reach in this case would not be a serious drawback. The analysis also enables an assessment of reach to be made for faults which lie in the fourth quadrant. This may be necessary in lines which have series-capacitor compensation, and in the past it has been difficult to predict the relay behaviour in this case. A further important point which should be noted is that there is only one point on the polarised-mho-relay characteristic which is independent of system conditions, i.e. ZL = Zn. In the past, in certain cases, the setting of a polarised mho relay for line angles other than that of Zn has been specified in terms of the simple trigonometrical equation Zs = Zn cos (9 <f>), where Zs is the setting for a line angle 9 <j> displaced from that of Zn. It may be seen from the analysis in this paper that this equation is not valid and that errors in setting may arise if this approach is used. If an accurate knowledge of the setting is required, the angle 9 <f> should not exceed 10. In the case of lines with series capacitors, this condition cannot be met and the setting becomes indeterminate. 9 Conclusions Owing to disparities between theory and practice in predicting the performance of polarised mho relays, a new 532

theoretical analysis was undertaken, the treatment being presented in Section 1 of this paper. The characteristics of the polarised mho relay for a number of well known connections are shown to have an offset in the negative-impedance quadrant in the case of unbalanced faults, thus providing added reach in the direction of the resistive axis. In particular, the reach for arcing-terminal faults is far greater than would be expected from a simplified analysis. Negative impedance and reverse power flow should not, in general, be identified, since the characteristic for reverse power flow is different from that for forward flow. It is shown that, for unbalanced faults, the polarised mho characteristic for reverse power flow is a circle lying almost entirely in the negative-impedance quadrant and not enclosing the origin, so that the relays are directional. The characteristics of crosspolarised directional relays are in accord with the general theory as shown in Appendix 12.2. For unbalanced faults, the origin is included within the relay characteristic for faults in the forward direction and lies outside it for faults in the reverse direction. In this case, the relay characteristic is a straight line. The polar characteristics of polyphase directional impedance relays may be obtained by the same general method (Appendix 12.3) and are in accordance with the results for single elements. The advantages of the reactance relay for short lines are not as great as may be expected from a simplified analysis, and the polarised mho relay may be favoured, because of its ability to adapt itself to the system conditions; i.e. increasing its reach in the resistive axis for arcing faults on short lines, whilst retaining the virtue of insensitivity to impedances due to load currents and power swings. If an accurate knowledge of the settings of a polarised mho relay is required, the angles of the nominal impedance Zn and the line impedance ZL should not differ by more than 10. The setting in the case of lines with series capacitance may be determined for certain specific plant conditions but cannot be specified in the general case, since it is a function of the system source-impedance/line-impedance ratio. Finally, it should be noted that the analysis in this paper is based on the assumption that the faulted line is energised from one end of the system only. The analysis in the more general case does not lend itself readily to a simple geometrical interpretation. In this case, it would be more appropriate to study specific cases with the aid of a digital computer backed by practical results obtained from a test bench. This does not detract from the analysis in the paper, however, since the main effect of an interconnected system would be to alter slightly the amplitude and phase of the voltage derived from the unfaulted phases and to include reactive effects in the arcresistance voltage, which is purely resistive in the simple case. The general form of the characteristic would remain unchanged. The comparison with earlier analysis is in any event valid, because this was invariably based on the assumption of a power feed from one end of the system only.

10

Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank A. Reyrolle and Co. Ltd. for permission to publish this paper. Thanks are expressed to Mr. F. L. Hamilton (Engineerin-charge of research), and Mr. J. B. Patrickson (Deputy Engineer-in-charge of research) for helpful discussions during the preparation of this paper, and to Mr. T. H. Potts for carrying out the practical tests.
PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

11

References

1 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN c.: 'Application of the ohm and mho principles to protective relays', Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs., 1946, 65, p. 378 2 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN c.: 'Reactance relays negligibly affected by arc impedance', Elect. World, 1931, 98, p. 502 3 ELLIS, N. s.: 'Distance protection of feeders', Reyrolle Rev., 1957, (168), p. 16 4 WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN c.: 'Protective relays, their theory and practice' (Chapman and Hall, 1962) p. 285

12 12.1

Appendixes General distance-relay characteristic The most general input to a 2-terminal phase-angle comparator is 5, = AI - BV S2 = CI + DV

and K and are not functions of ZL, AE must be a chord of the relay-characteristic circle. A diameter of the circle must be AF, such that ABF is a right angle, and therefore angle FBE is 8. Since A is also on the characteristic circle, FE must subtend the same angle at B as at A, so that angle FAE is 8. Finally, FEA is a right angle, since it is subtended by the diameter. This diagram provides the basis for a simple construction for the general circle. It is noted that ZL ZnX is a point on the circle; the vector diagram is drawn for this special case in Fig. 15. Here B and A are coincident, since Z,,, = ZL and

The relative phase angles are not disturbed if both signals are divided by BI to give

where ZnX = A\B Zn2 = C\B K= DIB ZL = VII

and A,B, C, D and K are, in general, complex. The boundary of relay operation is defined by the condition that S{ and S'2 should be displaced in phase by 90. The vector diagram is shown in Fig. 14, the vectors S[ and S2 being represented by AB and DC, which are at right
Fig.15 General vector diagram for phase comparator
ZL = Zn

Fig. 14 General vector diagram for phase comparator

OE = zn2\K

angles on the relay boundary. Since it is the locus of point B which is of interest, a point E is described, so that triangle OCD is similar to triangle OBE. The ratio between sides is OC/OB = K, so that corresponding sides of the two triangles are in the magnitude ratio K and separated in phase by 8, the angle of K. The corresponding sides EB and CD intersect at X, and the angle BXC is 8. By definition, AB and DC are at right angles; angle XBY is therefore 90 8 and angle ABE is 90 + 8. Since A and E are points fixed by ZnX, Zn2 PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

OC = KZL = KZnX. E is the same as before. The phase of the zero vector AB must be at right angles to DC ( = Zn2 + KZnX). The triangles OCD and OAE are similar, as before. A diameter is obtained by describing F so that angle FAE is 8 and angle FEA is a right angle as before. A new point M is fixed so that MA is equal and parallel to OC ( = KZnl), and G is fixed so that MG is equal and parallel to DO (=. Zn2). OH is drawn perpendicular to OA ( = ZnX), and it remains only to show that HF is parallel to MG and GFA lies on a straight line. This is done by noting that triangles OAH and EAF are similar (equal angles 8 and one right angle), and consequently triangles AHF and AOE are similar, since there is an equivalence in translation from H to O and F to E. However, triangles OAE and MAG are similar, and therefore MAG and HAF are similar, so that F lies on AG. The final construction of the general characteristic is shown in Fig. 16. Vector K is also shown for clarification. Since the construction will be used repeatedly in the text, it is worth while summarising the steps: 1 Vector Z nl is drawn from the origin. 2 Vector KZnX is drawn to meet the extremity of the Zni vector. 3 Zn2 is drawn in such a position that the extremity touches the beginning of vector KZnX. 533

4 Vector Zn2 + KZnX is formed by joining the beginning of Zn2 to the extremity of KZnl (and incidentally Z nl ). 5 A line is drawn from the origin perpendicular to Zrtl to intersect KZnl.

The characteristics are shown in Fig. 17, where it can be seen that they are similar to those of the polarised mho relay, except that in this case the diameter is infinite. The general characteristic is a straight line through the modified Zs

(1,0)

Fig. 16

Construction for phase-comparator polar diagram {general case) 6 From the point of intersection with KZnX, a line is drawn parallel to Zn2 to intersect Zn2 -f KZnl. 7 The vector diameter of the relay characteristic is drawn from the final point of intersection to the extremity of the ZnX vector.
12.2 Directional relays Fig. 17 Characteristic of crosspolarised directional relay
a RY fault b RB fault

'Crosspolarised' directional relays may be explained in terms of the analysis described for polarised mho relays. The analysis will be performed for one particular connection, but the extension to other connections is obvious. Consider a phase-comparing relay of the type previously described, in which 5, = IRZn and S2 = K y ^/90, this being the so-called 'quadrature' directional-relay connection. A number of faults need to be considered, i.e. RY, RB, RE and RYB. RY fault St = E{\ - a2)Zn/2(Z S2 = S[ = RB fault St = E{\ - a)ZJ2(Zs + ZL) V ^ S2 = S[ = Z w /-30/2 S^ = V 3 Z ^ - 3 O ^ + ZL RE fault Sx = Z,,/[(2 + p)Zs + (2 + q)ZL]
S2 = {a1 - a S[ =

vector, perpendicular to the modified Zn vector. Again the origin is included within the relay-operating characteristic for forward power flow and is outside it for reverse power, except in the case of a 3-phase fault, when the characteristic passes through the origin. For the cases considered for this particular connection, the characteristic rotates through 30, depending on the type of fault. This is a well known effect and is taken into account when specifying the angle ofZ.
12.3 Polyphase directional impedance relays

There is a certain class of relay connection which gives rise to polyphase directional impedance characteristics.1 The characteristics of one of these will be described below. The two input signals to a phase comparator in this case are = (IR - Iy)Zn ~ V, RY and S2 = IB)Zn - V
RB

RYB fault 5, = EZ,,KZS + ZL) S2 = V3EZJ(ZS + ZL) S[ =

534

The only practical realisation of this relay described in the literature4 makes use of an induction-cup movement, so that the criterion for operation is that Sx and 5"2 should either be in phase or in antiphase at the boundary of operation. The same characteristic could be realised with a cos <f> comparator, if a relative phase shift of 90 were introduced between the two signals. It has been indicated1 that a phase comparator with this connection gives correct impedance measurement for interphase faults between any pair of phases but gives no protection against 3-phase faults. However, the polar characteristic for various fault types is not described. PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965

The polar characteristic is obtained for the possible fault types as shown below.
12.3.1 Fault between phases R and Y

5, =

a2)E,
2

zs + zL
(1

n-

zL)
- a)(Zs + ZL)
+

It is clear that the chord subtends an angle of 60 to the right and 120 to the left of the chord. The diameter must therefore be the vector D = C/30 sec 30, where C is the chord; i.e. D = Zn + Zs. For reverse power, the diameter is D = Zn + Zs, and, as in previous cases, the characteristic lies almost entirely in the third quadrant and the origin is outside the relay circle.
12.3.2 Fault between phases R and B

-a )E[Zn

Z In this case, the two signals become, after manipulation,

-(XF - i) - Z L / - 6 0 It is important to note that the criterion for operation is Sj and S2 in phase or antiphase. If S2 is advanced 60 to become S2, the criterion for operation becomes 60 < a < 240 where a is the angle of S'2' relative to S[ and ^i = Zn ZL S2 = j Z a / 6 0 o - V 3 Z , / -30 - ZL The polar characteristic is shown in Fig. 18a. It is seen that the characteristic is an offset 'mho' circle with the vector

S\' = \Zn/ -60 - W*Z,/_+30 - ZL S'2 = Zn- ZL

The criterion for operation is, as before, 60 < a < 240 where a is the angle of S2 relative to S\'. The polar characteristic is shown in Fig. \Sb. In this case, the vector chord is

Applying the same reasoning as for a RY fault, the diameter is Zs + Zn, and the characteristics are identical in the two cases.
12.3.3 Fault between phases Y and B

In this case, the two input signals are 5',' =

-30 -ZL

-zL
where, as before, the operating criterion is 60 <; a <; 240. The characteristic is once more an offset circle through Zn, as shown in Fig. 14c. The vector chord in this case is

$Zn(/_6Q - /JW) - JV3Z,(/-3O - ^30) = iyV 3 (Z i + Z,,)

As before, the vector chord subtends 60 in the major quadrant, so that the diameter is Zs + Zn, and the characteristic is identical with that for the previous two cases. The characteristic for all phase faults for forward power flow is shown in Fig. )Sd and for reverse power flow in Fig. 18<?.
12.3.4 2-phase-earth faults

As before, a geometrical presentation of the polar characteristics is complicated, but it is readily seen that the vector Zn is on the relay characteristic, and it may be assumed that the main effect in this case is for the degree of offset in the negative-impedance quadrant to be modified, while retaining accuracy of setting in the positive-impedance quadrant.
12.3.5 3-phase faults

In this case, S1, and S2 are equal in magnitude. 5, is proportional to (1 a2) and S2 to (1 a), so that there is a permanent restraint condition; no operation can take place.
12.3.6 Comparison of the relay characteristic for different fault types

Fig. 18 Polar curves for polyphase mho relay

a b c d e RY fault RB fault YB fault General characteristic, all phase faults, forward power flow General characteristic, reverse power flow

It has been shown that, in the case of each type of phase fault, the relay characteristics are identical, with diameter Zs + Zn. The connection thus yields a true polyphase polarised 'mho' phase-fault element which is insensitive to 3-phase balanced conditions.
535

PROC. IEE, Vol. 112, No. 3, MARCH 1965