What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic

!"#$%&(')*'+,-.& /*"#*'1032#465.78#9;:;<=?>6@1A#BC5D9;:
EF+G 9;H5 GJI 5 E 2#>6BKMLONPH>6QSRUTV>BC5.WCKJ>465 G HXY Z> G H5R: G 5D2#@[9;5 GMF]\^_a` "#bdceCf ^ ')g \
* ^ fh d$ /ij"#'k \l#m#m#l nh/-.op$* g3qr'+b _ #stouC* _ ';g l#m#m#l#\
v hn"#&C$-D'pop$* g3iw"# ' _6\x ys \ ')*'; ^_ *'+nhCPs
%z"#**{|O "#z /- CffC} gaC')gC"#%~#"#&CP
z]%+k
&y
% % +#%
&y
+ C +
&y
C C#% +
&y
hy%Czk
&y+
!u+
C
&y
##uu+
&y
z +.ky %
&y
&y
C + z +
&y
u ] Czu C uu +%
&y
.]P
f "# g *C,"#'; $ ez h')("#$n ';eh ^ ^C_ "# _ *C*fs
%z';"# 'ph'+*'+hg ^ "#hUC"# gCD*%,z ^ Cz%$6C*&'
_ h s v f$n b' _ f%"#gC"#gC "#u"eC"#&%gCD* "# "# _ *r6C*&'+- ')C
opJ&ah*'k$* '; "#bUC"# gCD*%,"#66f'+"#&C';nCh,*f';}ff
^ /"#ff(*&a6C*f%/C"# g *C,"#fgCC';%& $z-D'kC / a&%"#
b'; "#ff _ b' _ *'+"#& ga _ n&n,'kn*d&aC"#&g *C,|r6*
h6 $"#Cb'+C}Os{ *"#*'u*')h &" &C'+"#fC$ n/"#h*&-."# g
*C,& "#! "#b/"%'k!$*"#6,C$h%gC'+zC-,$* 'u _ n&$#s x ^ gC%
} ^ "#6gC')C(C$C"#&%gCD* !')*')h "#&%"#(')g3';')C' \
6C u}& a"1n6nhCa- x { C"#&%gCD* h "#"#') \ "#$6C6f%
} $ ')z|r"#*f-. C}$* ' ^ f'+z"# ^ &'ph**'+
"# g *C]s
op"#&gC';"#(qy ^ 6 ` h';*&C'; ';"#' _ o/s $opC*&'pq _ h
'kg"#~#"# ]ce '+"#f
s s $ 'kCgC'+"#$g
G F H >6I @15 :;A B G FKJ9;5 :G >I)H >6I A#9;5 5.G @ L#9 GJI; G 4X5 HG >6 H` c
"#g"#gh] ')hhC';
s l s $'+6"#f v "#f _ nh]
F >6@1A#B5 9;:u46: G 5 2#@19;5 GJF] 9;:;:k>:u46H46KJ< I;GMI; HCB@19): GJF 46K 4K X>: G 5 2#@ I qy "#' _
ce'+"#f
` s s l qy-D&}"#'k g'; gCh?') #yqr*"#&C

HXBC4kX9 I ` s s
I KJ9;46@1
')CgC'+"# g "#gC"#gCn] '+"#f ` C"#( C' _
4HC5 GJF]I ` s s l
*';"# g3q _ h hh ')C6hij"#"#gC$
I <#H F 2#:k>6H GJ 45 G 6> H,s
ce'+"#fr'+# v fgC'; \` ngC \ "#g"#gC

v
"#fz _ C')u"# ;' "#h ` '+"#f~#$ ^ ' \ |*&% \ C"# g
*C \ "# g *C{n&"#"#') \ C
g '+"#"#f '+C} \ gC"#'kg \ "# \ C
b '+} \
')f"#&b/';')C' \ ')g3';')C' \ ')
g3C \ f* \ '+}Os
t ]C.]]

f%';-.6C* 'p _ h zC- $d- C';$"#&C$" ^ ,C"#& gC *
"#'+& $&ysh{ ')z"#') \ }b' \ ')$"#';" ^ f _ - }hC')6- "#f3- C'+"#&%
" ^ C,]s /-.& /- } ^ CzC$ /n ^ \ fC"# gC C,op$* "#&C ^_
"#,qy&' ^ ~ \ fCg3!C-,*';]s z*"#*'p" '+"#fC$ n/"#h*&C"# g *C"#'; DC"# gCD*% ')"#- ' "# "#bz"')66C&C
_ n&$ ^ fg,s x ,6Chn&C-, ')UfChf _ 6C&d*"#'; #s{ /'+h
qy&C \ ?C%g ';')' \ *"#gC l# \ hhnz /*f6"# zC-,hg
-&- ') !')C gan&'+"# g- C'u ^ "#ne*'+"#&C-."# \ h ^ &'+"#6 C \
f&*f%6"# "#(bh%Ps x ,"#fn &"# ^ "#Cg')(-D'+"# &
#u+h+u#%+% #
}a C-,"#n'+g3'kC{g3';')' \
"#
s{
ulps
relative error
hd*"#';,n6nh& x { "# g *C,h "#"#') \ } 6 ^ 6Cg
'+"#*f _ "#66* ^_ $'k"#fC "#')}"#'k$"#-D"#6 ')'+#s x f3% xD
h "#"#')( /') g3 d- C' ^ "#he*'+"#&%s Uhhn-.&
h "#"#')$';"#}Ca& "# ';"#fa& qr&C \y PC g '+'kC' \ a*"#g l# s
e ')*"#'+n6nhu 6 ^ &}C"#& gCD* "#$& ehg
C-,b"#';C"#h*6 -.6C* 'p _ h #sy*z 6f{/h ';6 C$h,ngC \
C*&$~#g36C*f'+z"# (|*&% "#fg,s
x
"#b/&'+( "#bC("#g3h "# $&" ^ C,"# g *C,}%& C,"#fn
gbg3')"#hC} _ /h "# $&"#')/&'; \ n*6"#ff _ n6U& n&6"#
bfb/C& g3C'k/$*f6"# ( "#$f$&"#' _ 6"#ffs Ch
|*f"#"#&%u "#"#')e6 ';"#f O& "#a"#')g "#b ^ agC')C*$
"n&%6"#ff
{ ` "#f \ ha& "#! _ 6"# ^ /nC**d-,n')s x
*"#'+&f"#' \ /*')C-DzC-,$"# _ -.& U& C')$z"#**"#'p& %zn&%Pst /

C-!"#6 *')C-,"#'+(} &
_ ^ fC} "U*')C-,C{%6f \ &
"#**"#'+z$"# f _ -DffC}%g3& /n&"# ,C-, / ')Ss

P P
qy~#gO f _ "# _ 'k"#f ^ '+ "[ ^ '?- ^ ')')"#
"#**')|r"# /')*')n "#&CPs v f CgC & 'k/"#')/ f _ "# _ gC'+ \
Ch,*')g'+"#z /')hf,-. g'p6C* "# 6"# ^ /n&C')d$# ^ &s x
6C ';"#n \ gb$"# _ |r( ^ 'pC- ^ \ Ch,6"#ff"# z}& 'k"#f ^ ';
}f%f*')6/"# & & "#,"#C ^ /|"#&f _ ')*')n dh%g3& "#,"# _
^ #s ')- C')1 /'knf!C-,"C"# g *C!"#f6f"# C$n!C- & ^ 1')C
$C')'u a ^ "#3 /')*')n "#&CPs{ z')C ga'+')'p&
6 "#';"#6 ';%h - "# ')1C-,C"#& gC *,6C*&"# CPs Pf"# b ';')'p"#(1f*
C$*"#g l## h'; ^ C},"#n')us
qy6/$n!C"#& gCD* !"#f6f"#&C "#bU'kC%g3'+')'p"# _ }" _\ C
"# &'p-.& ^ "#he"#';%& $&e*'+"# ')6/"f%& f ^ ,C')/'kC g
';')C'u "#6hn"#' _ { "#,h C$""#& $/& 'kCg C,& zn6 Ps
ce"#'k ` g& C$*"#g l## hhn.XB46:;LOgC \ ""#-.'){6 ga
';')C'u} $n ^ ';"#& ga }a"#' ^C_ ^ ';sce"#'kdgC%&}')/6Ch%'k
h-6 f _ *C'; "# ^C_x i& "#{ l#m## {"#"/g"#'){gC{ & [{ ^ f
*')6na- C';"#a q _ h Sy ["#')6 &&'kDhgf*')6%hC"#f')"# _ "#$"
g"#')(g D\ "#(') 'kC d"#ff|rh g3"# $ /fusr}a|r"#*f
"#')/gCb$ affn&'+"#&/ /&f% _ C-,g"#')(g&s
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
x h "#"#')(g- '+& 'u "# n!')'+g3 /n/-."g"#')(g+s x

gb"#$"#fg'+ -D'p"# \ h ^ &'+"#6 C \ f&*f6"# \ bhC$"#
h"#'ke')C \ "#$')'kp& "#*f%$&"# Cu*')C6e eh"#$')hf"#p& "#
"#fg'+& Ss \ } $"O*'kCg';"#z$b(- ')CC/"# / a"# ' \
')hf -.& ^ "#heC*';"# z}ff ^ / /n"#/b' _3^ !%- ^ C $"#
h**'+,& x { h "#"#')s zg')"#&f _ h%*fz /*C'; g3C-,*')g'+"##s
& 'pnzC-, *')h/n*66"# C$"#')/gCb$ # |"#&f _ ?C
*';"# C$*"#g l## s

qyb';"#f--D'),')*')n&"# C-.'k"#f ^ '; "#b ^ $*')*Ch \^ ^C_

- "#'p /Ch,}{f _ h( /"# g *C,')*'kn &"# CPs fC"# g *C
')*'kn&"# Cz "#b/" ^ "#h
D} $"#f}" _ "#hh( ^ /b "#("
l e"# 3A
l s
*')6nAs x e ^ 'Ps l ')*'kn &"# l s #
xU"#A
# \ & & 16%"#f ^ 's l 6"# ^ 1')*')h &|"#&f _
^ !"#**')C|$"#&f _3l s l # ll # l6l # l6l # ll # ll l

ys x $g';"#f \ ""# g
\ } 'kL L#L
*C ^ 'P}ff ^ ')*')h 3"#
L L#L
L
Le6"#ff%&
I;G XH G F 46HL e"#( "#Ag #sij')/*')6nf _

L L L
L
')*')h
/ ^ '

! " #

$&%"
d0 + d1 + + dp 1 ( p 1) e , ( 0 di < )
('
l#
U&'+ p>6465 G HXY A#> G HC5.HCB@1TV9;:u}f%f ^ /h( a"#$"')"#f ^ 'p "#,6"# ^
|"#&f _ ')*')h ($ /-D'+"#,'pn6nhCPsy}a 'p*"#';"#$&'+
"#hn"#&d} $C"#&g *C,')*')n "#&C"#'k/ /f"#')gh,"#(n"#ffn
"#ffC}" ^ f%z|r*C \ 9 p"#9 #snqr 6& 'k"#')
*nh ^ f%zng"# \ "#
l *Chn ^ f/|r* & \ "C"#&g *C, ^ 'p6"# ^ /(%

9 e.9
*),+- *)0/ 132
*),+-
.)0/ 1
log 2 ( e max e min + 1 ) + log 2 ( p ) + 1
4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? > @ A C = 8 B < E F G H IJ K L MG L N 8 C O L IK J P Q MF K G R IH N S TU 8 @ V ; 8 8 C O W > B C : > V ;> = 4X ` Z a 5
b 5 c A D= @ O V d < O e f g > B = f @A < 8 C O U > ; ;O < B @< B 9 S G J HIL L G 5
k
#u+h+u#%+% #
l2
^ \ } 'k "#f
- C'p}s
l - C'. hg ^ ]sh{ *'kh6CgOC$*'+&"#
')"#')&}')"#n } _ "[')"#f ^ 'Pg C ^ |"#&f _ ')*')h &" ^ f%"#

"C"#&g *C, ^ '+s{ /Ch,$h "# ffn&'+"#& ^_ &
6$"#f ^ 'ps l s v f& gC ! "#z" /6$"#f')*')n&"# C \ ^ "#' _
"#"# ')*"#& g')*')h "#&%Ps6 }
\ ^ 'Ps l f%
h ';%6 f _a^ &}&}aC"# g *C, ^ ';"#(|"#&f _ ')*')h " ^ f ^_
'C-{ Ss v f%n6CCh "# C3 "#{"U')"#f ^ '%!-!'+"#gC \
"#, \ " ^ hCf /b"#f%/f"#')gC'p& "#
C'un"#ff'p "# l s
s

ijn!C-, *"#*'phhnznhU&a /'+h,')"#hCPs C}b' \ ^ ';
"#,"#'k/C,C-,'+"#gCU}ff ^ /hnh( #x _ *"#gC l#m#m "#
#` C'+"#f~#( ^ '+ C$*"#g##s
),+-
&m
)0/ 1
f"# g *C,')*'kn &"# Cz"#')/C,6nh"#';%f _ s C'u|r"#*f \^

l P"# l s #
l P'k*')h{s l s x -{& ef"#ggC%pC~#') L
s l
/
"# l# " ^ Cb \ & /')*')h "#&%zn"#( ^ /HC>:;@146K GJ 9;Ls

l C';$"#f~# \ } f/s l
l C+s
"# g *C, ^ ' l s #
\ A
\ 9
l "#(9
O& ')/"#') l# C';$"#f~#("# g *C
^ '; \ "#h C} g') ` l s6 ^ f "#h "#'+C6C';')h*C3 ^ ';
} n/hg6"#(% l s #s?'+g3 "#,""# g *C,')*'kn &"# C ^
C';$"#f~#("#z /')*')h "#&C$s1-D'+&"#&f _\ 'kn&'+6 C
"#z,$*nh ^ f/&a')*')h,~#'k v "# '+"#f}" _ ')*')h,}
l s
\ h/& z*')h'+b& /- "#6, "#,& /$'+6"#f')'+g3
Cg"#&b/')"#f ^ ';6C';')h* /f|r6Cg';"#* %C'k{'+g3C-, '
^ ,f \
"# g *C,')*'kn&"# C#s & /|*C,h ')("
"#!"# z& "#!Cf _ l b"#fz"#'k/"#b"#f" ^ f/- C'un1"#|*C \ h 6/
h ^ /')h'+b( a'k*')h,s

n
!
n
*),+o-
*)0/ 1

qp
)0/ 1 %r"
&u
ts
C&[& "#&
%a"/"# g *C ^ '%p*"#';C-{& eC "#&C \ "#-- ')
- ')C "U"# g *C!f *f _ *'+"# Ps{ 1"# gC-!

_ ^ f n Cf
^ /f"#'u-D'kC& / &|r+s C'u|r"#*f \ & /|r*')hh% s

l
l
s
bfbzCf _ "ngf/"# g *C,f%&*f%6"# Ps
rv
4 5 c A D= 8 = = V 9 < = @A < V = V 8 ; 8 B B 8 C j < 9 < C @ ] A < B< @A < < 7 : > C < C @ D= = @> B< O @> @A < ;< ?@ > ? @A < = Dj C Dw d 8 C O 5
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
k
zy|{~}r,}|
# y# u%

, (
qy6/')Cg3'+'kC'pz ') !"# g *C,6C*&"# \ ,z%*C'; "#
"#b/"}" _ &a"#n')/& %z'+'kC'+sopCh'p /"# g *C,- C';$"#!}
l "#(A
\ } $}%ff ^ /h( ')gC C, h6 CPs x -, /')hf,C-,"
l \ "# (& /"#h}'u} $$* d&

"# g *C,6C*&"# C$s l
/*')hC$%s # l \ ,6f"#'p "#,& %z$'+'kC' ^C_ &$ /f"#n

l \ & %
*f"#Cs6qyf"#'+f _\ - ')"#fC ^ 's # l l##m ')*'kn &"#s l
$'+'kC' ^C_ s l##m $ /f"#n!*f%"#6s x $g';"#f \ -, /"# g *C
^ 'pL L
L
hd&a')*'kn 6\ $,$'+'kC' ^C_
L L
L

&z$ 1f%"#h!*f"#s 1 ';
}ff ^ /h("#zh C'+& "#

ulps
- C' z& /f"#h,*f"#s x -. /')nf,C-,""#f6f"#&C$ /"# g *C
^ 'p"#')n,&a /6C';')6,')hf% \ ,n&ffg ^ /';')' ^C_ "# $"#Os
s v C& 'p}" _ a"#h'k/ /%-- ')6 ^ &}$"C"#&g *C, ^ '
ulp
"#( /')"#f ^ 'p,"#**')|r"# g3:k9)KJ45 G 8#9u9;:;:k>6: \ } %6 $h%*f _ &
-&- ') 6 ^ }$ /&} ^ '+z%b ^_ /'k"#f ^ '+s C'u|r"#*f
l
/')f%"#&b/';')C'u$ &(} $"#**')C|$"#& gas l l##mO^C_ s l
s # l##m ys l l##m

s ## s

$%r "

\ ^ h'+b/ "#,} "

ra6C*&/ /')f"#&%b/'+'kC'p& "#,'+'kn* z ws
ulp
')"#f ^ 'pz"#**')C|$"#& ^C_ & U6fChh,*Chn ^ f/C"#& gC *, ^ '
\ & /';')'p"# ^ /"#f"#')gC/"#s #sss #
\ } ') z /%gC
L L#L L#L
r \ & ')/"#')/A &$ /ngC "#(C-, /C"#&g *C, ^ ' \ "# (A
%&-.& /ng"#(C-, /'+'kC'+s{ z'+')'p y

stqr

%$
4 5 C ; < = = @ A < C V 9 e B = 9 8 ; ; V @ > ? B 8 C j < D C @ A D =
?8 = A D> C ] D;; C > @ e < d > C = DO @Dd < 5
b 5 < @ ^ e < @ A < > 8 @ D C j : > D C @ C V 9 e 7 D 9 8 @ < = ^ 5 c A < C Q Q Q D = < V D 8 ; < C @ @ >
^ ^ V ; : ^ 5 \ < < S P R I G M F S H G H IF J IQ P ? > B @ A < O < w C D @ D > C > ? V ; : ^ 5 _ 9 > B < 8 d d V B 8 @ < ? > B 9 V ; 8 ? > B
9 < 8 = /V B D C j B D = ^ ^ /V ; : ^ 5 6 O 5
x
#u+h+u#%+% #

^ ';C-, /- C';L L#L

L#L
"#ff "#b/ /n"#/" ^ nf%&U'+')' \^ , "#b

\ /')f"# b/'+')'p';"#g ^ &}
b"#fz "#,';"# gC ^ &}
"#
"#( r
st "#, \
%$

%$
"

p
1 p 1
--- --- ulp ---
2
2
2
%$
x $*"#'+&f"#' \ /')f"# b/'+'kC'p6C';')h*C ga ws f*(6"#$b"#' _3^_ "O- "#6 'pCs z-D"#6 'p6"#ff( /Qz>6TVTVKJ9 qy& g
a& /f"#')gCh,C-,
y
"')"#f
^ C " ^ b \ }/"#$n" _ .
"#,}
^ 'pz')C( a&
6fChn"# g *C ^ ' \ e')f"# b[';')'p"#f}" _ ^ C ^C_ \ } 6
'k-D'+')(&a"#@14 F 2 G HC9u9;A I;G KJ>6H,s
x a& e|"#$*fe" ^ b \ & e')f"#&%be';')'}"#1s # l##m ys l l##m

s ## s x C')'?
"#b(n $h$"#ff ^ '+ \ /')f"#&b/';')C'u%zC';$"#ff _ }'+& $"#"- "#&C'
l
\ } & 6"#n
r
s # sn{ & 'kf"# b';')'
}Cf ^ /|r*'knh("#]s # l##m ys l l##m# s # #
s l s
%$
rv
raffn&'+"# /& U--D') ^ }$f%*z"#d')f"# b/';')' \ 6Ch{'p /')"#f

l s s x !"#**')C|$"#& ^_
\
^ '
'+')'ps
l s # l s U
s 1|"#{b"#ulps
f1
[')f"# b1';')C's s|!6Ch%'& x[$* "#&C
*&(b"#f/%
m# s #\ } f/ /6C
m sm
l 6st x/'+'kC'pz } s
\^ ,& /')f"# b/'+')'ph ffs s /';')'p"#n')(

&$
fulps
"#')gC' \ b$ Cg $ /')f%"#&b/';')C'u /h"#$Cs x gC'+"#f \ }ulps
$ ^ "#n/
\ "|d'kf"# bU'+')'p|*'knh(
6"#} ^C^ f ^_ "- "#6 C'uC-,*
s
ulps
v b';nf _6\ "#"#&CD " ^ b
h C} \ "[|r$';')C'?-s
'knf

ulps
s
"')f"#&%b/'+'kC'p& "#,"#$} ^C^ f ^C_

Un,"#&';"#f}" _ &a"#n')/') g3';')C'u

s C'p|r"#*f%
')g3 /"#')h,C"#&g *C, ^ 'p6C';')h*Culps
"#';')'pC-,fn
"#$C'u"#f ds
s C}b' \ } $"# "#f _ ~# ga /')C ga'+'kC'p6"#n
^C_ b"#';C- C';f"#ulp
\ ')f"# b/'+'kC'pz" ^ & 'p"#h'ks v gC(%ffh '+"#&C$C pp ["#"#f _ npC3*"#gC# sVqr
6"#3Cb')h "# e [-- C-{'kC g
/"#')n!C"#&%gCD* ! ^ ' ^C_ & /} ^^ f/- "#&C'uC- \ ';')'ph "#
C-,- C';$f"#}ff ^ / gC &'p"#6 z} $"n"#ff s
&m
f _ & 1')'-!"#g 1-!') g';')C'-! 'kn \

"#
" _3^ /h( &')6 "# gC" ^ f _6\ n6/ _ -&- ' ^C_ "#!$n,"- "#6 C'uCulps
- s C'
\ & "#,"# z "#

|"#$*f \ } $"C"#&g *C, ^ 'p$';')C' ^_ H
/ ^ 'p-.6C&"#$"# (g&fg H,s x -.& /'kf"# ulps
b/';')'p"
6C*&"# C$H \
6C "#"# (g
fCg
H!s
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
,

/ d-.6C*&g3 /-&- ')6 ^ &}&}aC"# gCD*%, ^ ';
&a6C*&/ /%-- ')6U|r"#6 f _ "#( 'kCd,&a /"#')h,"# g
*C, ^ '+s zb' _ |*nb/%-, /C*';"#-&- 'pgC')"#&f _ h~#s
v hng3A
l e l s
l e}Cf ^ /6"#ff"# ("#
\ s l#

<
.<

r
l
s l#
l
s ############### l
l
s l m#m#m#m#m#m#m#m#m#m#m#m#m#m###

l ystP"# 'p& "#ng3"#ff h/g \ C"#& gCD*

} 6 $')C s l#
"#')}"#')/C';$"#ff _ *'+"#&C$"|( ^ 'pC-,g #sqy**Ch/ "#,

^ 'uC-,g&C*,zA \ "#(& "#!} $& /h$"#ff'uC*';"#(h -D&('+gC \
g&"#')/h$*f _ h"#'kd "#**Chd&a')g s{
l u l s
l
^ $
s l#

<
.<

l
s l#
s # l
l
s l#
/"#h}'u|r"#6 f _ 1n"#1"#z-,& 1-&- ') 61 "# ^ $6C* |r"#6 f _

"#( 'kCstr"#C/"# 'p|"#*f l s l m s m st ^ 6C

<
.<

l s l
l
s m#m l
s # l
"#(%
U6C';')6,"#h}'u%s l##\ na& /$* (-&- ')6/-&- ^_ #
ulps
}')Cg3$b' _ g C} ^ "#("#$ /';')C' ^
pm
&
I;G HX$4u' >465 G HXY A#> G H5&6>:;@[45,Q
G 5D2A#46:;46@19;5 9;: I

4HCLOA 46HL F >6@1A#BC5 G HX$L G 69;:k9;H F 9 I
B I)G HX$AL G X G 5 I; 5D2#9u:k9;KM45 G 8#9u9;:;:k>6:u> 5 2#9u:k9 I BKJ5 F 46H3TV9u4 I KJ46:X9u4 I

Y s
&n
v
<
l s #
')f"#&b/';')C'uC l & /|*')hn ,<O6'+z}
"#
\ } ')
l s 'k/<O "#zAOgC "#ff"#f& st /|r"#6
.

-&- ') 61 U,<

s C}b' \ } 6C*& g 1"#h}'ngaf _ A
$
m
#u+h+u#%+% #
&m
g& \ /';%gC Ch,g,-.<g&h -D&d-&- \ #

" dha& /
6C*
-&- ') 6/
s{ & U'+')'p
l# \ "# ( /')f%"#&b

';')C'u
l#
l s
$
$& $

$
$& $

l \ "#
\ ')f"#&b';')C'."# ^ "#f"#')g"# ')hf \ "#}
^ m &$f"#')gC'+s '.&* "#C '.}" _\ }

\ "# C " ^ Cbzn }
"# ^ '?- "# "#&g&ufg l

fCg D
Asn{ "# \ "#ffC
/Ag z& U'knf,"#')/}')g qy**Ch/ "#, /| ';"{gC,"#(
g"#')("#gC"#%h, zn "#&% "zXB46:;LL G X G 5 st "#, \ & /n"#ff'p ^ 'p
l gC \ "#(& $& 1'knf!C-! /h ^ &'+"#6 $z') A
')6"# A
g&s & "gC"#')(g \ /*')bz|r"#*f ^ $

<
_
l
l s l
0
l
s m#m
s l# l

"#( /"# h}'p|"#+s $"ngCf%/gC"#'kdgC \ /')f"#&%b/'+'kC'p-.&

')hf," _3^ /gC')"#&'p "# \ "# ll s #m s

<
.<

l sl
l
0
s # l
l s l#
l
%z')& l # \ $*"#'kd} $ /6C';')6,"#n}'p- l l s l#\ - C'p"')f"#&b

';')C'-ps # #\ } 6 g')"#&' "#
s # s x g';"#f \ [')f"# b1';')C'C-!&
sij')/*')6nf _6\
')hf,"# ^ /Cf _ hf%gC f _ f"#')gC'p "#
&
|4HCLO<46:k9,'p>645 G HXYDA#> G H5,HBC@1TV9;: IuG H346>:;@[45,Q G 5D2A#46:;46@19;5 9;: I 4HCLOA 46HL G
I BCT5 :;4 F 5 G >H GJI L#>HC9uQ G 5D2AtL G X G 5 I G 9>HC9{XB46:;LL G X G 5 5 2#9;H35 2#9u:k9;KJ465 G 8#9
:k>6BHL G HX$9;:;:k>: G H35D2#9u:k9 I BCKJ5 GJI KJ9 I;I 5 2#4H s
%z ')}ff ^ /*')b$ PC{g ';')C' C$*"#g# s v

f(& /" ^ Cb/ C'kh "#d<6"# ^ /*Ch b/C'pgC"# bs
0 ,0
Uf"#h,h&C$"# ^ /n$"#';~# ^C_ h" _ g3& "#!}& !"OgC"#')({gC \
')f"#&b/';')C'u$ &(} $n ^ ';"#&%g3&} "#' ^C_ "# & z"# ^ /b' _
f"#')gCs x C '.}C') \ & b"#f"#&C- "# _ |*')hn "# g"n ^ ';"#&%
C'."#"# CC- "# & } C**n&h%gC 6Cf3')hf "')f"# b';')C'
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
haf"#')g/& "#,4KMK /%gC z"#')/$"# gfh C') l# s $h ^ ';"#6 g

"#' ^C_ "# \ e$nng"#g&p3& [*'+"#p"# 6 3"#$"#6f
"#6 '+s{ 'k/"#')/ }a-.6"#ff"#&%Pt6"# "#h 'kC* e"# ^ gC?s
=?465 4 I 5 :k>6A#2 GJFF 46H F 9)KJKJ465 G >6H36'+} $ /C*';"# z"#')/n ^ ,&a')g
';')C';s C'p|"#*f/$ /"#{';"# -D'+f" \ & U|r*')hnT e,4 F 6'+#s
U"# &T e"#d#4 F "#')/h ^ ! a'kC g3';')'+h/& _ "#')/
')hf -.C"# g *C,f *f"#&Csqr**n/ "#,& _ "#')/') (
"#')hC"#&g *C ^ ' \ "#$hO"#')"#6'+"#&e&}
s _
ulp
"#')eh ^ &'+"#6 \ 6"#ff"#&Ca"#a6"#he"# _ C-& e"#66';"# egC%&p&h"#**"#' \
f"#b%g ^ d"#f _ g z "# "#& ^_ ')C ga'+')'+s 6/
s C'u|r"#*f \ h'pT
s # \
-&- ') 6/%gC , "#b/"#$'+')'p-."# _
ulps
l s # \ "# F
4
s s{ /|"#!b"#f/C-,T e,#4 F Os # m s ,T ')C ll s
"#(#4 F 'kC z l6l s l#\ 6/ /"#f"#n}'ps l } $"#$'+'kC' ^C_3
\ b& gC l6l s l6l s l %z|r"#6 f _ "#f ds l s /h ^ &'+"#6 (
ulps
')6/"# _ ';')C' \^ !'+"# 'u|r*Ch( /';')C'u%&')C6d$ /"#';f%'
f&*f%6"# #s
~m
9;H G XH F 4H F 9;KJKM45 G >6HC6'+?} h ^ &'+"#6 g|r"#6 f _ C }"#&%&s x - e"#a<
"#b/a') g3';')' \ & ^C_ C')-.& /h ^ &'+"#6 C$ /} $"
g"#')(g \ & /{-- ') # _ "#"b' _ n"#ff'kf"# bU'+')'p fnz "#$ s
- C';f"U& "#!| ^ 6"# "#h ')* 6"# 6ff"# $6"#hC ^ 1'k"#'+';"# gC
f$"# /& /*'k ^ f s v gC"#6Ch{'p /"#'+"# -D'+f"
b + b 2 4ac
b b 2 4ac
r 1 = ---------------------------------------, r 2 = -------------------------------------2a
2a

b 2 ac
\ &
b 2 4ac
Cz ,bfb/""#6ff"# C$"#
s C '?"# a n ^ ';"#&C ae- - C';$f"#u}f%f

b2 4ac b
"#b/"6"# "#h ')* "#6ff"# CPsra"#bC( \ f&*f _ /';"# C'u"#
C"# C'uC-,: ^_
b b 2 4ac
4 5 ` i C > @ ` 5 \ D C d < 5 4 5 b X b 5 ` Y i @ A < B D C @ ? V ; : 5 b X b D = ` Y V ; : = 5 6 O 5

#u+h+u#%+% #
"#dh$f"#';f _ - C'p: ^ "#

#
2c
2c
r 1 = --------------------------------------, r 2 = -------------------------------------- b b 2 4ac
b + b 2 4ac
x\ $$* g3: h ga-D'+f%" }ff%bCfbU"
"#
b 2 ac
b>0
6 "# 6ff"# ?s ')- C'k \ h/ # - C'p6C* g3: "#(D -D'p: s & / '
"# \ -,T ( \ hU -D'p6C*& ga: "# ( # - 'p: s

z|r*')hh% < u?"#C ',-D'+f" "#| ^ ?"#&"#n&')* "#6ff"# CPs

x C'k"#66';"# b"#f"#& "# e< 3< s ,1f "#{';"# p- C';f" \
z%*')b(- C';h ff "#z"n ^ ';"#&% \^ ,," ^ g$"#6ff"# C$C"# z}& !')C ga'+'kC' \ ,""#&"#n&')* Cs _ { ') \ &
')f"#&b/';')C'u .<z"#,$n! s{ /h"#$/&';/C<sijf *f _ g3 }
"# z}& "h$"#ff')f"#&%b/'+'kC'p'knf z"*')6,} $"Oh"#ff'kf"# b

';')C'uDh ?g '+')' *"#gC# # s
n2
x a')'? O"#b$ - n ^ }a|r"#6"#$6C* $b"#f \ & -DffC} g

C&"# C$hs ')"# .<C&& /|"#!%-- ')6U- "#(< \
<
\ \ "#
C& z6C*&3-- ')z ks s \ }& ') g';')C' snqr$f"#';f _

C /6C* ("#%&C \ $f *f6"# C \ "#dbn \ 'kn*6 bf _ s v ff
6"#*"#&[& e$* $b"#f[C-{"/- &C \ "#p 'q /! s }'
6"#n/- 6 z"#d&'+"# "#f"# "# 6"#f "#&% / 'p|r"#6,b"#f

"#$f "#
v f& gC
<
< z"#|ff,"#**')|r"# & e _ \

"# g *C, ^ '; "#d<g , hfb ^ /"#**')|r"# Cz ahC
')/"# &%
"#
s C'u|r"#*f \
"#
g ^ /|r"#6 f _ C }
x
y
x
y
6$"#f ^ '; "#!"#C ^ /|*')hn(|"#&f _ ^ "#' _ s x $ 6"#h \ b
gC
<1p"1gC$"#**')C|$"#&Ca 1{< \ 6"#3 "#be"1 gCe')f"# be'+')'
\ "#dha& /"#b"# "#g/-. (< .<
6C*"#')( a& U&';/|r*')hhC
x y
Cb' _ C{"#p'+"#"# rsqr[6C*& g < /!< " ^ C{ [h"#$
"#C,C-,}'+3"#z*&%g e _ \ ,zf"#';f _ /*')- ';')(-D'+& %
6"#ns x gC'+"#f \ }b' \ 'k*f"#gO"[6"# "#h ')* p6"#ff"#&C ^C_ " ^ g
,}'+& } f/%-, /|* h/f"#')gC ^ 6"#n/& /*,-D& ^ !
t2
4 5 _ ; @ A > V j A @ A < < 7 : B < = = D > C O > < = C > @ d 8 V = < 8 d 8 @ 8 = @ B > : A D d d 8 C d < ; ; 8 @ D > C i D @ D = = ; D j A @ ; f ; < = = 8 d d V B 8 @ <
@ A 8 C D ? x y > B x y5
C @ A D = d 8 = V C O D C j B = i e V @ 7 f A 8 = > C ; f @ ] >
= DC d < @A V C O DC j B d > 9 9 D@@< O ] A < C d > 9 : V @DC j @A < = 9 8 ;; ? 8 C O O > < = C > @ 8 ??< d @ @A < w C 8 ;
= V e @B 8 d @D> C 5
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

"#f}" _ "#$"#**'kC|%"#&%Ps ,f"# g3""#6ff"# C$ ')f _ D"#z&

"#'+"#&%- C'+f" z}'+ } f%/b$-. /"# ""#'kU,|r"#6]s ')Cg
u*"#*' \ }ff ^ e"#hn& "# eC"#&g *C*&p O"#3"#fg'+& "#')
|"#,"#( "#,& /'knf z"#')/6C*&d"#z"#6'+"#&f _ "#*nh ^ fs

[|r*')nhC {< zC'k["#6'+"#&[} 3')}'; &3"#p /{< < {^ 6"#h

"e"#&"#n&')C* p6"#ff"#&C')*f"#} " ^ gCs | *')h C')
')n& ga|r"#*fC-,- C';$f"#| ^ g36"# "#h 'kC* e6"# 6ff"# & "#!"#
^ /')}'+ &$ a| ^ , f _3^ g$6"# 6ff"# ?s
U"#'k"C-,"O&'+"#gf/6"# ^ /|r*'knh(')6 f _ $ ';$zC-, /f gC -.&
h{4 \ T \ "# F "#
A =
s ( s a ) ( s b ) ( s c ) , where s = ( a + b + c ) 2
F sn{ I
qy**Ch ';%"#gCfb' _ "# "# \ 4
T
4 \ "#3 &'+ I 4
$,st # n ^ ';"#& }a"#' ^_ ^ '; \ U-.} $" _ "#b/')g
m s \ T
F
';')C'+s C'|"#*f \ -{4
s \ & a [6C';')6b"#f[- I % m s #1"#
R s ##ssss b$ Cg $ /6C*&(b"#f/C- I m s # %z';')' ^C_ Cf _
\ /6C*&db"#fU-R s # \ "#$'+')'p-
s
ulps
ulps
')eu"[}" _ &'k}'; -D'+f"1 # nO& "#}ff') ';a"#6'+"#&e')nf ub

- C'p"#, ';"# gCfOz"# "# l#m## hs x ,
( a + ( b + c) ) ( c ( a b) ) ( c + ( a b) ) ( a + ( b c) )
A = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------, a b # c
4
x{
F]\ n*f _ ')"#1& ^ -D')["#**f _ g # s x
- 4 \ Te"# F {n"#&%h- _ 4
T

h ';"#g - C';}"#')( a6 3& "#, /'+gC "#(h%zC-, # "#d # "#')
"#fg ^ ';"#"#ff _ 6"#fkst[ng3& /b"#fzC-,4 \ T \ "# F " ^ Cb/gb"*&
"#')"-.s #\ } 6 l
$'+'kC'p"#(6 $$')/"#6'+"#&/ "#& U'+h
ulp
- C';$f"s
v f &
gC - C'+f"e # % C'k"#6'+"#& "# # - C'. |r"#*f \ }Cf
^ / 6 / aCC} } }
ff # *'+- C';$zgC'+"#fks

#u+h+u#%+% #
&
2#9u:k>6BHL

G HX$9;:;:k>6: G H F B:):)9)LQz2#9)H3B )I G

H X
,5D> F >6@1A#BC5D95D2#9u46:k9;4> 45D: G 4HXKJ9 JG I 465
s # # 46HL
@1> I 5 6l l A#:k>8 G L#9;LO5 2#465 I BCT5 :;4 F 5 G >6H GJI A#9;: 6>6:;@19;LQ G 5 24XB46:;LL G X G 5 9
5 2#45 I B46:k9p:k>6>65 I 46:k9 F >@[A#B5 9;L5D>Q G 5D2 G H l y

s

ulp

U6C & "#,9

s # ,b'+&"#ff _ b' _ "#&"#f"# g *C
n')z "#,9
_ h Ss 'p|r"#*f/}
\ A
s # #\ "#(}
A
gC ?s

l \
x h "#&$ &zfC1 ') U& "#{n6n 1')f"# b['+')'u-!"#$|r*')hn \

'+h C( "#! /|r*')hhC$6C*&(hg3"# g *C,"#';%& $&ys
x $*"#'+&f"#' \ /')f"# b/'+'kC'pz"#&"#ff _ -.& /|*')hn

q 1!D 4
F]
F] D
6"#h[C-!& 16 ^ ';n$["# ')[C-! # \ 3 [n&"# {C-!& C')}1}ff

n"#ff _ h" _ 5 2#9 F >@[A#B5 9;L8#4KJBC9u> 7('+"#& 'p "#$}'; g3,7(} $')6f
C&"# CPs
'+'kC' ^ "#'k/h"#f%f _ C*nh$h rs x & / '+6"#f|r"#*fUgCb

" ^ Cb \ 6C*&b"#fC- # s #\ 6C*"#')} "[ ')b"#fC-s ## l#
- C'p"')f"# b/';')'pC-,s \ } 6 $fh "# ll s /$"#$')"#hC$- C'
6C*& ga'+'kC' ^ C, agC,*')6h ^ ^ ,'+"#& 'p b';- _ "#

/- C';$f"Cz ,6C "#$';%6"#f*') ^ fs
v
"#f|"#$*f/C-,"#|r*')hn& "#,"# ^ /')}'+ &&an ^ g

\ } 'k
6"# 6ff"# z l
s |*'knhC$"#'+h$"#6"#f
x1
6"#ff"# C#sopCh%'u*Ch g l #b' _ " _ a" ^ "#3"#6,& "#
"#'; z"#"#"#f&')h,'+"#&/C- \ 6C*C({"#f _ s x -.H
# "# G
s #\
2 1

/"#C,C-,C _ "#6f"#&d"#! /d-. _ "#'p l # ( 1 + i n ) n 1

-------------------------------in
Cff"#';s x -, z$* (ng
"#(A
# \ /')hf, # ##l# s
6C*"#')( /|"#!"#n}'uC- # ##l s #\ "n6')*"# _ C- l s #s /')"#hC

G rH3bCfb"#g l
- C'p& /*'k ^ fz"# _ ahs{ /|*')hnC l
s ## l# # #\ n /fC} ')' ^ zC- G yH3"#'k/fCh]s z')C ga'+'kC'p
G yHa'+"#h( a& UHC $*C}'+s
"#*f%(} l

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

1
2
1 / !&1#"
G rH 6"# ^ /'k}'; "#9

\ } ')
U&') ^ fhC/|r*')hh% l
- C'Ph$"#ff s "#**')"# h
C}& *') ^ f &O6C* f% l
\ $} 6 6"#h/ /*" _ ^ $ # ##l# s #\

"#**')|r"# C$f l
} 6 $%zC-- ^C_ #s l "#db$fnz"#6'+"#&U& "#& / ^ bC- C';f"s
b' _ "#6'+"#&f _\ "# C'kh }
'k/%z"}" _ &a6C*&/f l
}f& "#6"#'k l#m# #]s z-D'+f" _ f # ##l s #\ "#6'+"#&U&a} &}
6

$
p
C')"#nh$z "# "#**')|r"# f &a}%& l r

s
ulp
zC,6fCh/ af l
*') ^ f,hCfbz& "#!} Ozn"#ff \ l
^ "#h l
"#fn! / - C';"# C$& /f%} ')' ^ zC- s "#, \ &
z ,6fChU&a z"#&"#fb"#f/}

6C*&(b"#f/C-.f l
s
& %
KJH t
x1
GMIpF >@[A#B5 9;LB I;G HX5 2#9 6>6:;@1BCKJ4
2&
f l
6>6: l
6>: l
x ln(1+x)
--------------------------( 1 + x) 1
5 2#9u:)9)KJ45 G 8#9u9;:;:k>6: GJI 465.@1> I 5
=1
1
'
3 A#:k>8 G L#9)L I BCTV5D:;4 F 5 G >6H GJI A#9;: 6>6:;@19;L

--4
Q G 5 24XB46:;LL G X G 5 9 (s l# 4HCLOKMH GJIuF >6@1A#B5 9;L5 >eQ G 5 2 G H l r
s
Q2#9;H3

ulp
^ ,f _ &')h g3- C'

\
%z- C'+f"}ff}'+3- C'u"# _ b"#f/Cx1 s
} 6 $} ')/6"# "#h 'kC* "#6ff%"#&C$C66';z%$& /"#%b/- C';$f"f l
v f& gC & /-D'+f%"" _ h _ n&'+C \ ')/"h$*f/|*f"#"#&%- '
} _ }'+#s
'+ ef l
"#
( 1 + x)
x ln------------------ = x ( x )
x
sV [f- "#- "#6 C'
2
[}ffh-&- '
6"# ^ e6C*&$|"#&f _\r^
'+g "#$- "#&C'
f l
"f"#')g/'kC{g3';')'p} $"#g l s C}b' \

z"#f$n,6Ch "# \
h 6/f l
stqra6 "# gC g Ohfg f _ }ff , ')6/6 $'+')'+s x
C& 'p}C') \ -
f l 2
6C*&
k
\
x x
&m
6C* g
x ( x )
s x z ')/"b"#f/- C'
#u+h+u#%+% #
}f%f ^ /"gCd"#**')|r"# &
- C'p}
"#
x + 1
"# ^
"#6'+"#&f _ {
')/h"#$f _
"#f l
s
l#\^ "#hU& l
|"#&f _
U'knf zC-, h6 C$"# ^ /n$"#';~# ^_ h" _ g3& "#,"g"#')(%gC
g"#';"# &"#66';"# _ } $"#' ^C_ *')6nf _ C}"# &"#')/h ^ &'+"#6
^ gC36"#ff"#&C sqrC u"1-D'+f%"1& "#gbp"#6'+"#&e')hf&p6"# ^
')}';%& $ "#b/$6 g 'u '+6"#f"#6'+"# _3^C_ hg ^ %gC
6"# 6ff"# C}b' \ & /*'kC6'k/Cf _ }C'+C-,n ^ ';"#&%z*'+- C';
ng3"g"#')(g+st /*'+6/C-,"OgC"#'kdgC,C, gC \^ 6"#h/,')f _
')')z"#g3 /"#'p ^ ,}{']s C'p" ^ ,C ^ f/*')hC$"#{' \
/"# "#f6Ch,fh& "#$ s 'p *'; \_ C(gC"#& U" ^ f _ &a';
"# _ "#fgC'; h6 $"# /- C';$f" # - C'p6C* g3 /"#')"O-." ';"#gf
s v f gC Ch,C';6C* '; "#b/"g"#'k
"#( /|r*')hhC$f% l
g \ & ')/"#')/"- } n6 "#zop'+" _
_ h "#,a]s
(
*),+( .- ,
$C"#&%gCD* !C*'+"#&C"#'k/{/} $"g"#')(g \ & _ "#')/C,"#

"#6'+"#&["#p-{& _ }'k[6C*&|"#&f _ & 3')$ ["#'kn"# g
*C, ^ '+s *';"# z*'+- C';d$ "#'p}f%f ^ /"#ff(9 #4 F 5 KJ<
:k>6BHL#9;Ls /|r"#*f/$"# f _ *'k{g3 C'kh }z "#,"h gCf
g"#')(gC,}f%f,"#f}" _ zgb/|r"#6 f _ ')(')nf #s 1*'kbzh&C
g"#bhb';"#fC|r"#*f-"#fg'+& "# ')')"egC"#'k3{gC C')'. }C';
*')*'+f _ st h&C$gb|"#$*fzC-."#fgCC'; $z "#,'k'kU|r"#6
')g,s
qy-D"#' \ & /%&C$C-,')C ga "#zC ^ $gb?s? g3

h ';"#%gC - C';}"#') \ } $ /|r6* -. C} a'kCd "#f- }" _ 6"#hn- C'
|"#$*f \ h f l s ')( l ' l /h6 CfC-, Cg ,b l
g&pa "#f- \ f& g \l#\ \ \ ')$} \ "# #\y#\r#\y#\ym ')$*y&
l s }f%(') ( l st z } ') g3}C'; ` g&"#f *$
op'+*C';"# M v
6C* ';s v C& 'ph Cf-.& Cg ,h" _ & "#,n6
^ '; g "#') "#f-D}" _O^ } }*Chh ^ f')g \ & _ h f
')(C} "#f-, / /"# (') (*(& /C 'u "#f-]s /}" _ C-, ^ "# g
^ "#b'p ')')/ "#,& /'kC{d'knf, "#b/&f"#h,ngC "#

0/
1
2/
$3 465
4 5 _ ;= > d > 9 9 > C ;f B < ? 8 = F R R P HM R F J Q P Q 5 6 O 5

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
k
g ^ bPsn l s ') l e';"# '. "# l ^ 6"#neb?s 6 C h/ Cz% ^ n \ 'kCd*C'p'kCd&ab ?h'p"#(z& l#m##
C-- 'p /- CffC}g3')"#hC$- C'p*')-D';'+g3'kCd&ab?s
& 7
8 9)5
4HCL<OTV9,'u>465 G HXY A#> G H5.HCB@1TV9;: I; 46HLL#9 HC9:9;& :<;& :9 < <
:=>& :=@? < < < 46HL 46:)9u9#4 F 5 KJ<:k>6BHL#9)LOB I;G HX$:k>6BHCLO5 >e9)8#9;H 5 2#9;H
l s
9 G 5 2#9;::=A&6>:u46KJK H3>6::=B& :<~6>6:p46KJK H

l \ A
ra6f"#'+- _ 'knf \ 6Ch{'
f

_ "# (
l l s #s # \ < s #]s## # s l s l#\
l s ##\ :D
')g3* \ & /n ^ 6C :C
:D _ l s l s ## l s ##\ "# ("#6 h6hnbUb"#fU -:='k"#n ^_ s l#\
f:=
m s # sV1'') b \ :=P"#f}" _ l s #sV{ |"#$*f
hgCgh z "#,} $hg3& /'kC(*(')f% \ $* "#&C6"#$g';"#"#ff _ ';-D

*}"#'k \ } ')"#z} $hg3')( ab$ / C'kh" _ z 6"#
"#**Pst ')gC , /')h,C-, *"#*' \ ')( b$}ff ^ /hs
/"#**f"#&C$C-,|r"#6,')g3C6';$$f *f/*')6n"#'; $ ys
')/"#')/ } ^ "#h%"#**')C"#6 &a g 'p*')6h%Ps /"#**'kC"#6 'k*')h &
"# g *C, ^ ';ng3"b' _ f"#')gC/ngC "# \ } 6 zn&C')d$"#
"#'+';" _ -.}C') \ "#d6Cz /')C&%z-D'p"#*f"# g3& n/ ^ ';
"#hn ^ f _ f"#g"#gs /h6C("#**'kC"#6 ')*')h & g 'u*'khC$C"#&g
*C, ^ ';"#z"#"#';'+" _ -.')"#' _ "# g *C, ^ '; \ } ')/"# g
/f zC-, /"#'+';" _ &/*'khC$')6Cb'+z / g $*'khC
"# g *C, ^ '+s x ,z hd"#**')"# $ "#,}ff ^ /n6nh( ')s
U"#b"# "#g/-.h%g3"#$"#';'+" _ -."# g *C, ^ ';& "#,,"# ^
6C(*C'; " ^ f _ " g $fbff"#g"#g \^ ,,')')z|r"#6 f _ ')
"#'+& $&ys
1 _ &$f *f"#&C& _ n& ')*')h g"U*'){6 _ "#"/n \

} ')/"# $h"#d "#& /n"#/*')6nC$"# "#(<s{ 6"# ^ / ^C_
_ \ & /|"#!*'kC!% #<
h*f%& g "#d<s '+ g
(| "#(<
<
<
,<
#<
#< Ms x - U"#(<U "#b1A ^ !hg"# \ & 1h"#z}ff
\ < \ < #"# ^ U'k*')h (ng
"#fha "#b/A ^ !ng"#*'kCb( "# \
Ay ^ #s Ab \ ,"# _ ("Oh*f &%g!st / ^ '
hs
.6"# ^ /}'; &"#z /nC- hs
P"#
s
]s A \ & zn*f/n*f & ga$& C(}J,}C'+!s
:E2 F
:E :E2:E :F2 :F :Eq2 :F :F
:E2 F
qGF :E :E :F
:C :D
:C :D
:HJIKD

:HL
:H:IND
:HML IMD
4 5 O A < C C Y P Z i 7 Q X 5P Z i 7 Q 5Z Z Z 4 5 i 8 C O 4 5 5Z Z Z X 5P Z 5 c A B B J U Y P Z 5

x
#u+h+u#%+% #
v 3
|r ';" ^ "# \ }b' \^ [gC"# ^C_ h gg"#&be ^ '+#s C'|r"#*f \
#\ "#
\ A
s l l6ll#\ /6"# ^ [h*f"#
s l6l "#
]s ### l sV 'k[
C')/& "# /}" _ n*f," ^ '+s v n*f & ga$& C( "#,"# _ &
6C*&{ ` C' l#m##l \^ ')')$') "#"eh%gCfgC"#')3g+s
3:E
:F
& V
8 9)5!A/TV95D2#9'u>645 G HXY A#> G H5{A#:k9 F+GJI;G >6H Q G 5 2/5D2#9:k9 I 5 : GJF 5 G >H5D2#465!A GMI 9;8#9;HQ2#9;H W
46HL/4 I;I BC@195 2#465'p>645 G HXYDA#> G HC5{>A#9;:)45 G >6H I 4:k9?9#4 F 5DKJ<1:k>BCHL#9;L 2#9;H G s&j*y# GMI
2#46K z5D2#9A#:k9 F]GJI)G >H :k>6BHL#9;L/BA{4HCLU@X&
u lt F 46HT9 I A#K G 5!4 I Y&:EqGF Qz2#9):)9
:EZ& @ @ :F[& :E 4HCL19;4 F 2:\ GJI :k9;A#:k9 I 9;H5 46TKM9PB I;G HXw*y#
T G 5 I >A#:k9 F]GMI;G >6H
l \ A
\ T
s ##\ 4
rah/ C} & %z ')}C';z"#$|r"#*f \ f
s \ "# F
s #m sV 3T 4 F ')C ["#'kn"# g *C{ ^ '
l s #\ 4
F
l s #\ "#dha /6C*&(b"#f/C-,T
Os ## \ } %f/T
T
s1ng3 C'k }'; /T

s s ## \
4 F Os #s z"#$'+')'p-.
ulps
4
s ?s # #\ "# F
s s # l#\ T ^ 6Cs e,
s
s ##
s ## s "#6
l s zs l##
h"#dz|r"#6 \ nT
s ## ###\ } 'k/ /nzf-D
s # (s
s # l#
s #
b"#f"# ("#! *%+sqyf"#'+f _6\ 4 F
s e, s
l s us ### s ## ## s "#ff _6\ h ^ &'+"#6 g& h[&}n';&'+ ^C_ &'+

s # l
gbz"#$h "# 1-D'uT ,4 F -,
s #
s #### l
s ## \ } $z 6"#f
/|r"#6 f 'kC{d'knf]srah C} & "#,{ ')

'k"#ff _ ')')z|r"#6
s a@
#\ @
')g \ h'?A
\
\ "#
#\ "#$@
#s
x -,n ^ ';"#&C$*'+- '+(} $"ngCf%/gC"#'kdgC \ $D@
l^ +s
')- C') \
O"#
\ #C,'k*')h " ^ f/} A #
:E

:F

:F
t2

^]
[
v "["#f|r"#*fC-|"# ') g \ h'P{b gO@ ^C_Ol s6 ')hf% "
\
"# g *C, ^ 'p& "#,}ffgC'+"#fC ^ /"#f&a@a l s
f&*f _ g3@a l ^C_3l }ff'+"#6fhf _ ')h ')/@ \ *')b(|r"#6,')g

^ gns v 6 "#ff _\ "/')eg';"#f- "#6De "# "# p ')s [*'kCC-
gC \y^ 'k"#'+uC 'kh $3h a "#fu"#ah*"# "#&qr&C \
x qr "#"#') \ C$*"#g l##m s
& _
0a2#9;H
& G z@
&( \ (Md 5 2#9;H @
:k>6BHL#9;L
.` a`cb H?M<
'
4HCL/H4:k9 G HC5D9X9): I Q G 5D2 k@
46HL/H2#4 I 5 2#9 I A#9 F+G 4K n>:;@

H
H (@ A#:k>8 G L#9;L p>645 G HXYDA#> G H5,>6A#9;:;45 G >6H I 46:k9u9 #4 F 5DKJ<
e&
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

&n
qy6"#fg ^C_ "*C}'pC-, }a "#';$fh \ h/,6 "# gCf _ /|r* \
H "#n6"#f1@
C{ 1h%gC6"# s x @arH \ & $h6"#f1Hah "#{

HJIKD e H
HJI f H
l s{ \
h "# 1
@ sqy61@ "#zAUhg"# ^ \ ! "#"#
--2
Ch,C ^ , a& /'+g ,-.& ^ "#' _ * +sop "# gC ga /ngC-.@
"#'+fh \ ha"#nh$/& "#
s
x-
W
H \ a*'kCbU& / C')')')h }g3& "#

m#
1
nq m --4
"#, ^ "#h/@ "#z"#,Ch l^ !'+g ,-.& ^ "#' _ * \ naH
')( @asy"#f} $ / "#f-D}" _ 6"#n/}
hgH
}ff
ig
1 \ / "#

--4
\ zfC}D')' ^ ,}"# \ ha
h 6/ / "#fh"#f(@ "# @
(
fC} C')' ^ !-, 1h"#f@ %"#fns \ "#f- }" _ "#hz}ff') @as
jg igA HJIKD

.
g
\2 d
HIKD
D
g gl k H HJmnD
e
,@
D
H
o g YkHIKD
2 u

ag
ig
\ "#$f%
l sVrn&$"#& H
\ ';n
qy**Che "#
s
s
{@
q
6C*&
ay
.@arH \ } ') "#$C( gC']sqr/H
q
3 "#(
H ( \ ,h ^ / "#,H
- C'un$/
AY, \ "#

nN 2 p + 1 m = ( 2 p 1 k + 1 ) N 2 p + 1 k m
q q = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n2 p + 1 k
n2 p + 1
ok

/ '+"#&C'u%z"#$ &g' \ "#(n6

l rDHC
s v hn
\
H
(@ \ "#

q
g
HGmpD:I u
% $%r" ,
gk@[YDHq
g
@1Y H
H Y
H
q
$ q % $%r"tqs % $&%" r q 1
n2r

---
W
n 2

#u+h+u#%+% #
C \ ,z- "#6,"#$C( &g'+s

6"#n
h$f"#' s ,
%zh " ^ f%h m# "# (*')bz / C'kSs
4 5 > @ D d < @ A 8 @ D C e D C 8 B f i u d 8 C C > @ < V 8 ; q 5 6 O 5
p1
1
---------------------
p + 1 k
n2
\ 2 Md z')*f"# ^C_ \ 2 ds
\ 2 d"#')/- "#'+& 'p"#
U& C') Cf&';/-D'p"# _3^ "#n \ "#zfCg3"# (
v
g zf"#')g' \ C}b' \ $"# '+zC-, /-D'+
- "#'+& 'p"#*"#'++s
/"#')/} "*n &a"#n}'p& Uh \` Cz,$"#& 'u-. ^ "#n
"#'+& $&e*'+"# ')6/"f%& f/C')/'kC{g3';')'p "#$hh"#' _
U"#h}'p& "#!%!C"#& ' \^ "#n/"#66';"# ^ "#nC*';"# C " ^ f/
*')Cb/ "#,- C';$f"#"#'k '+')6 $ /n h/ _ "#b/"Oh"#ff'kf"# b
';')C'+s op"#6ff%"#&C C$*"#g l##m n6nh(nb'+"#f"#fg'+& z "#,')')
g"#')(g& *')C/6C';')6,')hf $ hhs x -.& /*, a& Ch
- C';$f"#"#'k/ ^ '+'k*')h g3*'kh/"#n') \ C}b' \
^ CC-, ')"#( ^ 6C/fnz ')h g!st /')"#hC$ "#,&
^ g$"#6ff%"#&C .<"# ^ U6"# "#h 'kC* e- "#(<"#')/Cf _
"#**')|r"# Cp n$e$"#h')"# & _ s "#6'+"#&[C*';"# Cp"#')[h-Df
b$ /- "#/-.|r"#6,"# " \^ 6"#h/ _ " ^ f/z ah " ^ fh |"#
')f"#&Cn *f Chhnh C'k "# s6 n"#')h-Dfbb' _ C"# gCD*%,b"#'+" ^ f/ f _ "#$"#**')C|"# C$ ahC/"#6 "#fb"#fs
v'w$xt y
] P
')/"#')/ }a-&- 'k xD n&"# "#')z- C'p"# g *C,6C* "# ?s x {
# Uz" ^ "#' _ h "#"#') "#!')')
\ A
#U-D'uh%gCf/*')6h%$"#(A
[- C'P ^ f*'khCd xDl#m## ]s x "#fhOh*6% *'k6nf%" _ C C- ^

l ["# fC
"[h gCf"#C ^ f*'k6nCPs x {# e"#f%f} '
[C'
# \ Cz ,h*- _ C}C"#& gCD* ! ^ '+z"#')/d ^ &OopC _

,"#fks l#m# #]s x ,CzC,'k')/"*"#'; 6f"#'pb"#fU- 'pA \^ ,h "#(,n*6
6Cn&'+"# zC$ /"#ffC}" ^ f/b"#fzC-,A-D'ph%gCfU"#(C ^ fU*'khCPs{
'+
777 E 5 4HCL#4:)LO}ff ^ /n(} hhng3*')*'+&%6C$& ^ C
h "#"#')#s
%zn&%*'kCb%z" C'p-.& x h "#"#')s "# $h ^ h&C$%h6hh

C/"#h*!C-.& /n&"# "#')("#(} _ ,}"#6fs x !%zC,& /*'+*n/ z*"#*'u a"#'kg/ "#, xD h "#"#')( ^ n!*Chn ^ f/C"#&%gCD*
h "#"#') ^ ,';"# 'p&a"#6*,& /n&"# "#')("#zgb"#(*')CbU"#
')6 &a zhs 'p- ff "#fz hf, /n&"#"#')& hfb x
l#m## opC _ ,"#fks l#m# #]s
b 5 < ?@ 8 = 8 C < 7 < Bd D= < @> @A < B< 8 O > ? @> e 8 = < = > @A < B @A 8 C b 5 6 O 5
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

0 .- ,
{o|n}
x!
l s "#hU&$%z C} "# z|r6 "#g/"#
%zf"#'u} _3x {(# "#ffC}
l h*"#ff _ "#**')*'+"# /- C'u"#f6f"#&C'; \

3" ^ C, ^ ';s1hg
} ')/ /')hf%!C-,"# $C*';"# C$h*f" _ ^_ /"#f6f%"#&C'u%$6$"#fks
')/"#')/hb';"#f')"#hC} _3xD(# O'k'k& "#!%-, ^ "#n/z l \

h ^ /s ?f"# b ';')'p"#d[f* C$*"#g l## C(C/')"#hCP
')hf uC-'+')'"#"#f _ hu"#')e6 a g &'}
u ^ 6"#ne"1'kC g';')'
C-s
} ^C^ f ^C_ "1- "#6 C'?C} a$* $"#u"1')f"#&be';')' \ "#$';')C'
ulp
"#"#f _ h"#'kU"#fCh,"#f}" _ zn*f'p} ^ "#n(')f%"#&b/';')C'+s v ')f%"#&

l##\
')"#hC$ "#&aa}%& & /-&- 6 b/*')hC$-D'pf"#')gC ^ "#hsopn'
l 6C*"#')(
A
\ A
s $ _ n&$z "#b/ ^ &-.hg6"#us
\l# z')*')h "# l s lll

\
op h'u /6C* "# $C- l# s
l##\l# %
"# l# "# l s l6ll
sqr l# |"#+s }b' \ }
l# \ } ')/W3& U |"#"#f%gC,- C' l# s l#

')*'kn&d"#zW
l# \ } 6 "#f _ C ^ %!'+')+s x gC'+"#f \^ "#n l# "#

')*'kn&d"# l
fCh/*(&a ^ & \ ha "#,"*')6n-.A |r6$"#fg&6"# "#bU"#

--D6 be*')6h%a"#ufC} "#u#A11'+"#& '& "#aA ^ "#' _^ #sqr%6ef"#')gCeb"#f%
l# -D'? u _ h Sy f _
C "#b he*') ^ f%$ \ } _ x i Cn
x i CC}- C'ph') \^ ! ')/"#')/&}a*nh ^ f%/'k"#ns /'+h,6')"#h

l##\ A
s
|*,'+"#gCstqrgf/*')6nC$C$ / _ h Sy "#
ngC "#$'k%'ku# ^ #sqy6e& un O# ^ \ uf"#b 1^ %&

- C' [|r* "# [- C' [hg ^ +sV{ & ["#gC &[-!')*')n " ^ f
&m
:~
&m
^ ';'+"#gC- ')C" ^ C

6 " ^
6
8 srag,"h$f"#'
16 2
16 2
22
|*,'+"#g/}
O}Cf(')') m^ &C-,|r* \ f"#bg3Cf _ #
^ -D'u& 1ngC%6"# s }b' \ !}"# h!*C&C!& "#{}

l##\ &
[
--D6 b*')6na6"# ^ "#uf} "##A[
l[^ #s b}C'+h \ }
*Chh ^ f/ g"#"#$| '+" ^ ,C-,*')6n "#|*f"# (f"# 'p& %zn&% D\ h

"# / "## ^ &-.*')6n&a6C*"#')/}& "';"# gC/C-, l
#
^ - 'p

l# "# s
m
v C& '.*nh ^ f|r*f"#"# - C'. Ch%g

l# "#&U}& h - g,s
"#g3 }C"#&%gCD* ! ^ '+ \ -, 'u|r*C z"#'k/-&- ') \ C/-.&

hg6"#{z}ff "#b/& ^ /h -D&( a"#/& /';"#|*C zf%/* \ hfC}g
l##\ A
l _ n& \ "#ff& ^ '; ^ &} l "#
C}a& C*';"# ?s x
l# "#b[ [n"#[|r*C \ "#hn - g')')} "# g"# _ -

#u+h+u#%+% #
* D T l *Chh ^ fe*"#'+uC-{h 6 ^ '+u-D'kC ph]smC}b' \ a

\ A

_ n& \ & n/ ^ '; "#b/|*C z'+"#gg3- ') a \ "#
h - g3z')')(-D' C-, l *"#'+#s

x $Ch,C'+$ "#')}"#') \ /*'+- '+"#/g"# ^C_ "#b%g3"h -D,- 'p"

h ^ h!C-!C*';"#{zgfgC ^ f \ "#n& /h"#ff} ^C^ f1C"#z!
*')- ';" ^ f ^ "#hs v C '?"#b"# "#gCeC-hg

1u "#& ')ep"1}" _ &g"#
"#$|r&'+" ^ %!C-,ng"#6s qy6UC"# gCD*%, ^ ';"#'kU"#f}" _

C';$"#f~# \ /Ch!ngC%6"# ^ !C-, 1ngC "#%z"#f}" _ l#\ "#( 'k/
a')"#hC$ }"#h /" ^ ,C-,n&C';"#g/')*')n g3+s C';$"#&& "#!h/ &'+6
"#')/h"#d&a "#b/"2 G L#L#9;H ^ +s x ,}"#z"#f')"# _ *%&d, fC"# g *C
'+"# Ca*"#g l# 1& "# p'k')p"1h*6%"#f6Cb &Ca- C's e$ C
gb$ ')/}"# "#,"#$|*,C-,9
l "# ("ngC%6"# (C-,"#ff~#')C
tp Q
')*'kn&C
1.0 2 emin 1
\^ ,'+"#& 'ps
xD# engf*')hC6C# ^ &uh g l[^ -D'P hg \re^ &u- '
1|r*C \ "#(# ^ z- C'u 1ng"#s C}b' \ ,hz" { ^ \ h
1hg"## ^ &z A
# \ b& g !hga f _ # ^ #s
&m
&Jt}Jon
x h "#"#')(z-D'p-&- '),*')hChgf \ C ^ f \ hgf
| \ "# (C ^ fD|r s x # \ ngf/"#(C ^ f/*')6h%
6C';')h*d'kCg f _ } "#,Ch,"# g *C, "#')}"#')/*')b#stqrgf
*')6nC6*"engf# ^ }') \ C ^ f*')6n&}U6Cn6 b# ^ %
}C')#s | *'khC3p"1- C';$"#& "#-&- ';p"#f"#n"1f%& fe|r&'+"1*')6n
"#(|r*C,';"#g/ y" ^ f ` l# s
+] u
, kk {~}#n,}}
Format
Parameter
SingleExtended
Single
t
t
2
Double
l tt
DoubleExtended

l tt
>
lt
45rcAD =8:*:.<n8nB=@ >A8<w*Br=@oe<<nC,:.V*e; D =A.<Oef>; O*e<BjT 4Xh`na i8; @ A.>V*jA,WCV*@ A0 T 4rXnY4ra i:*8j<b44 8n@ @ BD eV*@ <=
@ AD =D O<8&@ >W>CBr8OpV.=<.5
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

+] u
, kk {~}#n,}}
Format
Parameter
SingleExtended
Single
9
t Q

| * yV}J J
^ J&
y';3"tC}J J ^ J&
Double
DoubleExtended
l tt
l tt
l6l
lnl
lt
tm
lt
x h "#"#')(Cf _ h*"fC}' ^ (C$ C} "# _ | '+" ^
| $*')6na*')Cbs6{ e$ "#ffC}" ^ fC ^ f | $- C';$"#
hC&%z')- '+'kd&a"# #Y T G 5 6>:;@[45 \ b$ gC & U&" ^ f%/h C},h%g
#m^ %&s /')"#hC$ "#, "#')}"#')/*f$&"# CzC-.|r (*')6n
C';$"#ff _ J,n/" { ^ \ "#dha}Cf(h '+"# 'u "# #m^ #s
&
Uh "#"#')(* z /$n!$* "#hC$|r&d*'khC \ $"#Cg3

')6C"# CO'; gU ^ f*')6n \t^ n&')Cgf _ 'k$gU "#
@1A#KJ9;@19)H5 45 G >6H IPI 2#>BCKJL I BA#A#>6:;55 2#9P9 #5 9;HL#9;L 6>:)@145 F >:;:k9 I A#>6HL G HX5 >p5D2#9.Q G L#9 I 5TV4 I;GJF
6>6:;@1465 I BCA#A#>:;5 9;L
/C&b"# - C'u|r&{d*')hC$$z-D'kC"#f6f"#&C'; \ } 6 $}ff

C- &n*f" _Ol [g& \^ n l [g& &'+"#ff _ s _ {h*f" _ gOCf _Ol [C-&
l g \ /"#f6f"# C'u"#**"#'+&a /n'p"#" #^ f"# ^ | "#,6C*&
|* "#f \ 6Ch \ rs l g&-."#6'+"# _ s C'p& /6"#ff"# 'p&
6C*&/-D&CfCU|r* \ fCg3"#( }& l %gC z} $')"#hC" ^ f
-6 _6\ u"1- } | ';"1g&u O}C';} Ps x nJ "#') O$"1h*f%
'+"#&C"#f|*')hn$ "#!"#**'kC|%"#&zf%ga} "#$'+')'uC- # z$& 1f"#n
*f"#Cst 6C*& ga} l g zgb"#$"# h}'p6C';')6, l g&s _
*%g3& n/| ';"Og& \ & U6"#f6f"#&C'p*')n z"n*f/$f&
/*'+"# '+s
45r_,dd>BO*D C.j@ >W8A.8nC.i<7o@ <C.O*<O :.Br<dD =D >C,A.8n=h@P&eD @ =>?=D jCD w*d8COe<d8nV*=<@ A.8n@ ] 8=@ A< ] D O<=@o:*Br<dD =D >C
8dBr>== ] AD dA,d8BrBrf:.Br>:.8j8n@ D >C,d>V*; Oe<O*>C.<>C,@ A.<
C@ <;nYY` ] D @ A>V*@oD CdBr<8=D C.j@ A.<dfd; <@ D 90<lT W8A8C
4rXnYYa5

#u+h+u#%+% #
r
| &d*')hC$& x { h "#"#')(n';b"nf"#'p- 6 ?s x !" ^ f
$ngf/ C'
f ^ '+"#';% -& f _ $* /"# z a} $" ^ ps
ulp
C ^ f *')hC \ gbg3& /h'pC-, n/f ^ '+"#';%"n*f/$f \ "#f _
"#,"# $*'+ b/*'+"#&C \^ /,"h$*f/f&*f _ C'p"#$bC6"# -.fg \
')&'+"b"#f%/"#6'+"#&/ a} $" ^ ps
s C}b' \ } h g
ulp
| (*'khC \ ,*C'; "#, $"#C/n')/& "#!%&hUz ';"# h*"#'),&
/n']s C'p|"#*f \ "6"#ff"# ' \ -, / &'+"#f')*'kn&"# C$C-,"
n*f" _ db"#fUzC,') ( /n"#/*')6n"#z /n*f" _\ & &
')hf,C-,-D'; 'p*'+"#&%}f%f*(C$ / %$g z"#d"#**"#'
*'k&" ^ f/&a /n'+s
&m
raffn&'+"# /| (*')6n- '+ ' \ 6Cn'u /*') ^ fC-.6Cb'+& g

^ } xDd# hgf/*')6nC$"#({"#fks x "#ff _\ ngCf%/*')hC
^ ';}ff ^ /*';%&(}%& $Cg $gC zn& "#!} $ /6$"#f ^ '
z')"# ^ "#a \ & 1h gCf/*')hC$ ^ 'u6"# ^ /'kb'ks x ,&'+zC! "#
m "#fg z"#')/Cg $ a'kb'u"ngf/*')6n ^ "#' _ ^ 'uDh
"#' _ & ` "#fopCb';h% *"#gC# # s $b'; g3""#f
^ ' ^ "#O& ^ "#' _ 'k*')h "# \ "e')gO'+')'P"#h"#f%fC"# l
- "# "#f \^ "#h/%!}ffgbU& /}')g3"#n}'+s ')/"n&"#&C$} ')
ulp
| (*'khC$b "#f-D'p"#$-&,"#fgCC';%& s $ngf | (%
"#b"#f" ^ f \ "b' _ h '+"#gC - C';}"#')( d|n&- C'p6Cb'+& ga"O6"#f
^ '?&O"[ngf*')6h% ^ "#' _ Cs '+h')"# m {"#fgC u"#"#
\ g'+g3 /6$"#f*C]s ')Cr" ^ f ` l#\ A
gC'
# \ "#(n6
l a
l \
s
"# ^ [')*')h |"#&f _ hgf |r&{usV|{
/"#**')*'+"# /*}' l hn"#' _ &an6"#f as{ z}ff ^ /"6C ^ "#&% |*CC- 6$"#f ^ ' \ g& '?} *Ch CC- * f
l \ $ "#fh
C} gC ')(6%"#f*C]sop$* l
&s x - kZ
')*'kn&d|r"#6 f _\^ 6"#h l

\ "#
3 s "#ff _ f&*f _ D'
b/-.A ( "# l
&s x -.& f"#n!C*';"# C$C/|"#&f _\ $
6fChn ^ "#' _ ^ 'p')b')us "#' _ ` "#fopCb'+hC C
*"#g# n C}p } [f"#h{f *f _ C'b |r"#6 f _ sV p- C' kZ
l \ & h- ngf | - C';"# " ^ f m %gC "#f ^ '; ^
l \
6Cb'; $&& efnh ^ "#' _ ^ ' ks s|"#&f _ ')C s x - kZ
h gCfD|r (C!Cg $-D'p /" ^ Cb/"#fgC'; &a"#f}" _ 6C* /
|"#&f _ ')C ^ "#' _ b"#f \^ ,ouCC l#m# #.h }z "#,,zCg
g"#'+"# & "# b'+hCC- ^ "#' _ O6$"#f"# ^ "#6}ff')6Cb'?
C';g"#f ^ "#' _ ^ '+s
&m
k
: :~
: k
Yk
D~
D ~ D ~ 2D ~g * g :~

g *g
*g *g W
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

x,
- C ^ f%/*')hC$h**C'; \ & $ /"#fg'+& " ^ CbU}Cf ^ /')$
C ^ f/*'khC$'+"#& 'p "#$ngf | \^ ,&ab';,C ^ fU*'khC
" l# g!{"#f ^ 'u"# ^ "#63}f(')')/& / ^ f |r&{
- C';$"#+s
o n J
qy6/ /|r* !"# ^ /*n&%b/C'u gC"# b \ n$/ dn ^ /6 n
')*')h, zngC?sr}a$ {zC-,')*')h g3hg( ^ '+
"#')/hgPy"#g&/"#( }CJz$*f]sqygCPy"#g / / _ h
n- C' [ngC-! [hg6"#3 xD -D'+"# #VC ^ {n& Cf
/hg \ /'kn!C-, ^ z')*')n! /"#g /C-, / ^ '+s / }CJ
6C*f$,'k*')h "# zC- $n(&g'p"#'; rs x & h \
\
"1 ^ '?% '+"#gD
l u')*'kn & ^C_ n"#ffn gC"# b
^ 'p& "#,6Cg'),&a,Cfa s
: I D : I D
xD^ "#' _ h "#"#')C n 'PC-& n$ C 'k*')h&

|* \^ ,h "#(nz"OT G 4 I 9;L')*')n&"# CPs x $ /"#h/C-,ngCf%
*')6n \ } ')/ /|*C,h ')( ^ \ & ^ "# l D- C'uC ^ f
*')6n, l ## s "#,& z$"# z "#,z /b"#f/C-, /|r*
k
^ ';*')&"#"#3 hg &g' \ & 1|*C{C-{ 1C"# gCD*%
^ '?
l s uuC- a6"#ff$ eBHCT G 4 I 9)L19 #A#>HC9;H5 On& gCh a- ')C
k
^
"#n(|*C
s
tp
l "#
?- ';'+g3 r" ^ f ` l *"#gC l#m#l#\ hgf/*')6n "#9
9
l s{ /')"#h- C'u "#bg k9
(9 Pha "#,& U'k*')6"#f-.&
tp Q
g tp Q gA tp
h$"#ffh, ^ '
}f%fC!Cb'+}s v f& Cg $, ')/& "#,
( 1 2 emin )
')6*')"#fC-, /f"#')gn, ^ 'u}ff';C} \ ';} h"#ff _ fh
h'+z "#b';}s "#h C$*"#gC l#m |r*f"#( "#,9
l nd- C'
')*'kn& ga \ "# qy*6"#f /"# & C$*"#gC l#m# }ff ')6/"h/-D'
l s x xD h%gCfU*'khC \ "#& "#, ^ %"#h(|r* &';"# gC
9
^ }$9
l
l #\ } ')"#z / ^ "#n(|*C
l
l "#(9
^
#
\
'+"#gC &}$U"#
} "#')1|r"#6 f _ 1 g"# b1 ^ '+ "#!6"#
^ /')*')h (ng ^ #s
tp 2
k
tp Q
tp Q
#u+h+u#%+% #
tp 2
|n#n}
x h "#"#')(')')z "#,& /')nf,C-,"# C \ h ^ ';"#&C \
f&*f%6"# "#(bh% ^ /|"#&f _ ')Cs{ "#, \ /')hf,n ^
6C*&(|r"#6 f _ "#( $')Cd&a /"#')h,"# g *C, ^ '
hg') Ob s ce"#'k ` g& C*"#g l## *C C& "# $* g
/|"#,--D')/'phC-, }aC"#&g *C, ^ '+z"# ^ /b' _
|* hb/} & 'p|r* &"#')/h ^ h "#&%"#ff _ --D')]s "#!n6
')6(g"#')(g \ } 6 *'kCb/"*'+"#6 6"#f}" _ -.6C* g
-&- ') 6} f/g"#'+"# %g3& "#, /')f"#&b/';')C'u%zn"#ffks C}b' \
6C*& ga}& "h%gCfUgC"#')({gC,}ffC,"#f}" _ zgb/& Uh"#/"# h}'p"#
6C*& ga /|"#!')hf,"#( $') g,s _ ')6g3"h(g"#')
g,"#(" ') I 5 GJF 6< ^ \ -&- 'kz"# ^ U6C* ("#, f _ "f &f/$')
6Ch & "#} "ngfgC"#')3g \^ 'knf& n"#"#- z{-- ')6
}')/6C*&d|r"#6 f _ "#( 'kC ceCf ^ ')g l#m#m #]s{ & Uh "#"#'k
6"# ^ /$*f (-6 f _ s
&m

/')"#n- C'u$*f&f _ n*6- _ g3 /')hf -."#'; e*'+"#&C&
*')Cb/ /*C'; " ^ f% _ C-,n- }"#')s "*')g';"#Cb ^ }&}
"# "# ^ C $h**C'; xD "#'+& $& \ $-."# _ '+"# /')hf
-&- '; \ {n ^ ^ 6"#heC-{hC- }"#') ^ gC \ -D'kC -&- 'k 6p3"#'; rs
v C& 'p"#b"#&"#g/C-,*')6n/h*"#&C$ "#,,"#C,"#h'p&a')"#hC
" ^ C,"# g *C]s ')C-Dz" ^ C,C"#&g *C,"#')/ "#')(Cg \ }& C
"#bg3&a"#f} $f&*f%/6"#h"#';%hg3- ')Cf&%*f/C%zC-."#'; rs
h,"#z &g'u*')CgC'+"#6"# ^ /*')b$ ^ /6C';')6 \ n"#$C"#& gC *
*')g';"#$ \ "#f Cg $} "#,z*')Cb$%$ "#,6"#h/%z "#,& /'kC{g3';')'pC /')nf,h"# n6'; "# ^ #st C'k"#$|"#$*f/C-,n6 "*')C-]s
n[*')C- "#')["#[$6 "#h'} 3 [C*';"# ^ g')"#n " ^ C
"#')/*')hf _ n*6us 6/"#$"#f%gCC'; z*')Cb& ^ /'+'),- C' xD
"#'+& $& \ ,}ff}C';36C';')6 f _ C$"# _ "# /n**C'; g3 xD
h "#"#')s
)' } l#m##l . "#*')*Ch("#|rC- C'uC"#& gC *, "#,f/Ch,C-,

|%h g"# g *C{ "#')}"#')s C}b' \ *')C- & _ n& 6"#C{b'+- _
/"#fg'+& zC-.h6 C \ op"#ff"# *"#gC l##m "# \# |r"#6 f _ PC{
*';"# C$*"#g l###\ } 6 $')')/-D"# '),*')h,C$"#ff "#')}"#')Cs
'; '+') \ ')C}J"#|C"#')/C'k/$*f|& "#h$*f _ g
C*';"# z& ^ 1*'+- C';$|r"#6 f _ "#( $') s{ z*')Cbg3& C')
- ')C ')}Jz"#|rCzh"#ff _ $')/-&f,& "#$*')bg3 "#nh$g
C*';"# z"#')/|"#&f _ ')Cs
m
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
k
')1% !$*f&/"#gC')!C$} "#!C*';"# Cz"UC"#& gC *,h "#"#'k

h f%(6Cb'+s x "# &a ^ "#nC*';"# C \ \
"# \ xD
h "#"#')("#fnah*6z "#,h"#')/'kC \ ')"#{' \ "#(b';n ^ }

gC'P"#3"# g *C ^ 6C';')6 f _ ')Cs x "#fnU')') "# 6Cb'+hC
^ }$ &'+"#f- C'+"#&"#d6"#f ^ /6C'+'k&f _ ')( |r6*,- C'pb' _
f"#')gC/ ^ '+ sfh $"#diw'+"#'1 l#m## , "#b/*')*Chd"#g3'
*')6, /fn,-.*'+"#&% "#,"#'k/*')6%hf _ h*s{ _ / "#
} '*')C&"#')[6C*& xD "#'; $ \ ["#f"#n}'6"# ^
/}')Cg,s C'p|"#*f/h$z"#')/"n*6"#f6"#h/C-.'p*')& \ "#d&
l
l l l
\^ ,C$"$"#6
h D
|"#&f _ "#f& l
} xD "#'; e& /$* (')hf,}ff ^ / l

s x ,z*Chn ^ f/
6C*&/ 'u*'kC&&a}& l
} $fh "#')}"#')/ "#$, "#C
ulp
*f%$,"- "#n!$f *f'/z'k 'p"#(zfn l#m## ]s
I ~ C 2 :~ C
:~ C
I~ C
IC
I~ C ~
v f f /C*';"# z$ &C(& /h "#"#')("#')/')')d& ^ U|r"#6 f _

')(|r6*,6Cb'+hC ^ &}6$"#f"# ^ "#' _ s /'k"#nz "#
-6,"#fgC'; - C'u|r"#6 f _ ') g3"#ff /C*';"# Cz"#')/C} \ |r6*
6Cb';h%Ps C'u b'+hC \ ^ n!C}-&,"#fg'+& z*'kC
')hf & "#,"#')/hf%gC f _ }C';n/& "#$|r"#6 f _ ')CdOopC l#m# #]s
x h "#"#')(CzC,')')/&'+"#h "#f- 6 z ^ /|r"#6 f _
') ^ "#h/C-.& U5 46TVKJ9u@14 69;: I L G KM9;@1@14rstr%ffh '+"#& \ n**Ch _ ("#')
"#g3" " ^ f/C-, /|r* &"#f- 6 &a*f"##s{
s sqr f( ^ /') ( s O' s x -.|* l s #
|* l s #
6C*&($')/"#'k- ff _\ ^ 6C s s v ( s #s v d&
s ##sqy6/|r* ';"#n6 "#f \ 6Cf(ga"#' ^ &'+"#';f _ fCg ^ -D')
m L#L#Ls
n&gn g3} & 'p|r* l s # % s #
#L#L#LC' s # m#m#m
%C*'+"#6 6"#fC Uh*- _ & "# & z*')6nC- ';"#n6 "#fC- 6 ^ &
h"#$"#-& _ }')6C*&& *'k6nC"# ')Cs v '
"#**')"# $}f ^ / ah*- _ &'+"#h "#f- 6 Cz"#fgC'; "#ff _ s
'k/{,"#**"#'p ^ /"h%gCfU"#fgCC'; & "#!}'+C}ff"#6')nz"#f%f
"#')}"#')/"#')6 %&6 ')#stP"# C"#f"#**')C|$"#&C \ o `[x o \ e"#(f"#')g/&" ^ f
s J
4 5 \ > 9 < 8 Bj V 9 < C @= 8 j 8 DC = @ DC d ;V O DC j DC C O V d @ 8 = > C < > ? @A < e 8 = Dd > : C = 8 B < : B< = < C @< O e f W 8 A 8 C 8 C O
< ;8 C d T4X Y Z a 5
b 5 W DBd A C = = De ;< @> d > 9 : V @< DC C O V d @= @> ] D@A DC 4 V ;: DC A 8 BO ] 8 B< DC > C < : 8 B @D8 ; : B> O V d @
: d d f d ;< 5 c A < 8 O O D@D> C 8 ;;f C < < O < O A 8 BO ] 8 B< d > 9 : 8 B< = @> @A < 9 V ;@D: ;D B @A 8 @
=: <<O 5
5
D = 8 C 8 d B > C f 9 ? > B > > B O D C 8 @ < > @ 8 @ D > C D j D @ 8 ; > 9 : V @ O > ? d > 9 : V @ D C j
@ B 8 C = d < C O < C @ 8 ; ? V C d @ D > C = @ A 8 @ V = < = 9 > = @ ; f = A D ? @ = 8 C O 8 O O = D 5< 5i C = 8 C O O D D = D > C =
TO 8 ; @ A O 8 O O D @ D > C 8 ; ; f C < < O < O A 8 B O ] 8 B < d > 9 : 8 B < = @ > @ A < 9 V ; @ D : ; D B @A 8 @ = : < < O 5 O V = < O > C e > @A @A <
C @< ; Y Y ` 8 C O @A @> B > ;8 h Y Y Y 4 5
x
#u+h+u#%+% #
"#')/& 'k/-&- '),& "#,"#'k/h(-D'p6C*&g3 ';"# h6{ &"#fC

6C *C';"#' _ $"#6 #s "# $"#**')*'+"# /- C'u"{-- '),6f"#nzC-. "#'k}"#') \
"#("#,*')h,angf/"#fgCC'+& }C';"#66* " ^ f _ Cb'p /}U';"#g/C6';'), "#')}"#')s
,
$
hC/C"#& gCD* ! "#'k}"#'kUb' _3^ %!*"# ';$')*')h z"Ob"#fdC"# g
*C, ^ '+s x i q _ n& r "#$|r"#*fU-.& %#s $ /C& 'p "# \
v

'kn'+bhC ^ ,*"#& '; ')*')h,h*"#f ^ '+z"#ff
:k9 I 9;:;8#9;L>6A#9;:;46HL I s z"OgCC ^ "#63&a /o ` o # # \ } $ "# ^ ,*"# &'+
- C'p& /n*6"#f"# &% x `[ x x "# x x x !s
Y3 4c5
x { n&"#"#')$6C&%u u ';"# C"# "#

u [>54 1B@[T9;: "#
NaN
#s & !"# _ n*6"#f"# & \ 'k/%zagC(}" _ a "#f
|*&%"#fh "# zf/ "#C ga /n"#')/')C!C-."gC"# b/ ^ ' \ C& '
"#$" ^ C'+&g3$* "#&CPs1' x i q _ h Sr ! v \ /- "#f
"#6 C$'kn*n/ $* g3& /h"#')/')C,-."g"#&%b/ ^ 'pf/
')hf & [*'+ gC-!"#3'+'kC'nh"#gsVqy61b' _^ !*"#& ';')*'kn&"
b"#f( ^ ' \ /')&';b"#fU-.h"#')/')C,n ^
hC/C"#& gCD* ! ^ ']s x & /6"#hU-.q _ h Sy ! v \
4 = 2
'k '+s x xD "#'+ \ "
z') '; d$ h "# ?s
NaN
x h "#"#')(h* /- CffC}g3h*"#fb"#f h/y" ^ f ` D \
\ "#|*f"#
C';$"#f~#3 ^ '+ \
"#
')C'k "#
NaN
NaN
$ / |r,h&C st h/n*6"#fb"#f"#')/"#ffd} $|r* &l C'9
'u9
l D!}"#z"#f')"# _ *C (C! "#!U "#z"#|r* !9
l# s
tp Q
M2
t Q
, kk[ l
+] u
Exponent
9lp Q l
9
9lp Q l
9l Q
9
9l

9
9@p2 l
9
9lp2 l
Fraction
0.f 2 emin
l s
Represents
O"t
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

NaN
r'+"# "#f%f _6\ /$* "#&C$C-,yC'
"# ^ &')"#&d"#z"#
1
')6Cb'+" ^ f/'+')'p} %6 $"#h"*&"# C$ a "#f+s }b' \ & ')/"#')
|"#$*fz} ')/,"#h h/- C'p"6C*&"# &a /$n6 "
h "# CPsopCh'p"n ^ ')& /& "#!& /~#'kCzC-."- 6 \ h" _
sr'+"# "#f%f _6\ ~#')'+z')')/& /n'u %*,"#$ ';b"#f4 \ T
zero(f)
C$} 6 $ /-D&C$ ("#(Cb'p} 6 & /~#')a 'u}ffn"#') Ps
\ \
"#, \ /h ^ ') /%z"#ff("#
s v C')/n-Df~#')a{'
zero(f a b)
}Cfd,')')/ /n'u a*, | ';"%- C';"# CPs z$')/g';"#f
~#')'pzn*6"#ff _ "#**')C*';"# /- C'p6"#ff"# '+ \ } ')/,z"# '+"#f
h$*f _ C _ "- 6 \ "#("#}C}"#'kd&a $ "#b/&an*6- _ /C"#Ps
C}b' \ ,z"# _ ah/} _ Ch,~#'ka';')')/"C"#Ps{ /~#')
'uC&}C'; ^C_ *') ^ g3 /- 6
"#,b"#'+Czb"#fs x -,,*') ^
f
- C'"Ub"#f1&n1& [C"#$- \ 16C1- C'
%gC !}ff $* [yU'
~m
\ "#& 6C* "#&%}Cf3 "#f \ hh"#'+f _ " ^ C'; gO ~#') g
1
*')h#s
%z*') ^ f"# ^ U"#bC
^C_ ')6g3"n*6"#fb"#f/6"#ff
\ "#
NaN
\
h*- _ g& "#& $* "#&CC-|*'knhCfr["#
*')6
1
NaN
'+"#& 'p& "#$ "#f g,s v fn!C-.hC/C-, /h "# Cz "#,6"#6"#h/"
"#')
NaN
gb$%$r" ^ f ` s{ $}
*') ^ zC hU& /{"#%$C- \
zero(f)
f
\ "# & 1~#'k'u6"# &s "#! \
6C1- C'
}f%f 'k '+
f
NaN
zero(f)
p *n - C'"#g"#3'+'kghs 3& p|"#$*f[3 \
"# _ &anU} "#, /')nf,C-, ^ g3"
} $"#$C')"#' _ C"#&%gC
NaN
*C, ^ 'un Cf ^ sqr**n/& "#! /"#fn&"# ,C
f
s x -,L \ &
h Cfd'k '+$"
stqr
return(-b + sqrt(d))/(2*a)
f
NaN
\ "#
\ -& n C-"
L 3 \
u"
}ff ^ "

sqrt(d)
NaN
#u+h+u#%+% #
-b + sqrt(d)
NaN
NaN
"#("# _ C 'u ^ 'p"

sqyf"#'+f _ -,C/C*';"# (-."bhC
NaN
\ & /C&,n f ^ U"
C*';"# z"
s x $g';"#f \ } b'p"
NaN
NaN
NaN
*"#'+&*"#&$"OC"# g *C,*'+"#&C \ /')hf,z"#C '
s
}{~cll}{~l
+] u
Operation
2
|
NaN
NaN Produced By
2&
NaN
&}
i<
b3
v
C& 'p"#**')C"#6 $ a}'+& ga"O~#')ahCfb'p "#,nJ,'k%'k/ /h'p&
*!"UC"#% h/hg"#f#s 1~#')D{'ufn&"#ff"UngC"#f "#f'
}"#zb"#f"# d&n/ zC"#"#
- C'pC"# gCD*%,|r6* C#st $f
'+"#h"#a|r6* C \ &')Cf}f ^ e')&'; & e~#')hCfb'+s{ e*') ^ f
} $ "#**')"# $ "#,b' _ f"#g"#g/ "#"-&- '),& (C-. "#fg
hg"#f -., "#" d"#!"#f%f \ "#dha, "#a *U-.*'+&" ^ f _ s
x xD(# \
z"#')/-D&'k*')h ("#"# g *C, ^ ';} $
NaN
l "#(C~#')ahg6"#s x *f "# "#')/- ')/&a*
|*,9

_ h {* !-D'+"# $ /hg"#s z& ')1zC!"
\^ ,';"# 'u"O} Cf/- "#$f _ #s "
"#d"#$C')"#' _ C"#&g
NaN
NaN
NaN
*C ^ '?"#')6C ^ % \ ')hfh Cf ^ eh"#e"#
C*';"#s
NaN
\ / _ h D*
z-. /')nf,C-,"fCg36C*&"# C$"
NaN
-D'+"# hg6"#3}ff ^ & - C';"# C "#}"#g';"# 3}
/'+h
& /6C* "# }"#gC'+"#&s v &"#ff _6\ & ')/"6"#b"#,&
NaN
/f"#h,n&"# ]s x - ^ C $C*';"#"#')
\ $ /')hf,}ff ^ / /NaN

\
^
^
n

,,g ,C /&
& "#!}"#zg'+"#&(';n+s
tp 2
NaN
NaN
#:ll
h,"#
*')b/"}" _ &a6C /"O6C* "# } |r*')hnf
NaN
y'
"#')/6C ') \ &%*')Cb/"}" _ &a6C U} $"#
1
Cb';C}C6'+#s{ z%z6 h"#- 'p& "#$h%*f _ ') '+g3 /f"#')gn
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

')*'kn&" ^ f/ ^ '+s v "#$|"#$*f \ 6Cn'u$* g

2 + y 2 \ }
x
l \ A
m# s x l
l \ &
\ "#$9
"#$<
}ffCb'+C} \
l sqyf"#'+f _ < \ "#

"# ^ /')*f"#6 ^_am s m#m
(< }ff"# $Cb'+C}
l sqra /"#f')hf,}ff ^
'; \ "# ^ /'k*f"# ^C_3m s m#m
tp
: C

: R
G R
9.99 10 98 = 3.16 10 49
C
2 :
\ } 6 ';"#n&"#ff _ }') g! /'+'),"#h}'
: C
l s x xD "#'+& & \ & ')nf C\ "#u< \

< "#
s
x2 + y2
\ } %6 aun"#- '? "#a') '; g"#aC')"#' _ C"#& gC *
qyO e"#f')hf
^ 'p& "#,C} ')/"#'p& /6C';')6,"#n}'+s
Ubn-. ^C_ ')hf&"

s v C~#') ^ 'pb ^C_ \
NaN
\ l y
C}b' \ ') '+ _ l y
s /')"#hC$-D'p /n&&%
#%- 6
"#X
"# "#**')"# hC/f% \ 6 6X f%
\ & n X
l
"#b["# _ b"#fs '|"#$*f \ } n
n /"#X
l !6C \ 6 6X
"#
s {} n
s & C g-!yU"#&
f%&gh "# C-"[C&- }Ob' _ h"#f%fC ^ '+ \ yef3';*'kn

"# _ & g!sV p3 xD n&"#"#') \ y1')hf%&p3"
s } F
\ 6
NaN
F]\ 46HLzX \ & 6 X
\ - C'u"# _ "# "#f _ e- &%-,"# (g,s x

X
- 'ph"#ff \ n X
\ ';}h/ 1f%!
sqy& xD
<

\ "#pf g"# F
h "#"#') F y
sV [hg3*pCa [hg
C- F "#(O$ /n"#f}" _6\ ha& "#, l r

\ "#( l rD
s C"#
+
^ "#h/C-,Cb'+} "#(g &g
^ 6"#h/Cn&gn ^ }gC & g
bhC ^_ ~#'k ^_ 6 6g [n&"# "#gpD} 3}ff ^ [n6nh3 "#f
$n6 f%"#gC *"#gC l s /Cb'+} "#g3}ff ^ /h,$ /';n,6"#h \
/bhC ^C_ ~#')a"#g3& /h6Cs
&
3 n
n
3 n
n n
3 n
U')f/- C'u ';$g3 /')hf,C-,"#*'+"#&C$ "#, "# _ "#"#

C*';"#(n*f')*f"#1 _ }& $"U &1 ^ ' U"# &"#1 1f%{"#
st
\^ 6"#h
s/qyf"#'+f _6\
\ "#
lim 3 x = 0
x
\ n
s 3& [f%nJ|%h \ e')hfp"
}ff ^ ["

NaN

NaN
r" ^ f ` O*"#gC l#m#m "#z"#{&C"#f|r"#*f s{ z"#g')z}& &
')"#hCg3nd&af/ "#,yh Cf ^ /"
s
NaN
\ & /b"#f/-, / &')1|r*')hhC$

$"h ^ |*')hn$b"#f"# &"
NaN
"#fha"
s x $ 1"#h1C }b' \ & /b"#f1C-,& /|*')hnC$gC ^ 1"#
NaN
C'k "#' _ "# g *C, ^ ' ^ 6"#h/C-,';ff l

s ')/z"
&m
4 5 g D C < : > D C @ z _ ; @ A > V j A @ A < O < ? 8 V ; @ D C

6 6 6 8 B D @ A 9 < @ D d D = @ > B > V C O > ] < O C V 9 e i D @ D = : > = = D e ; < @ >
d A 8 C j < @ A < O < ? 8 V ; @ = < < > V C O D C j U > O < = > C : 8 j < b X

#u+h+u#%+% #
*'+"#6 6"#f|r"#*f/ "#,"#zh/C-, /';f- C'u%% _ "#';%& $&ysop h '

l# s{ p" ^ "#- C';$f" \^ "#h[CCf _
6C*& g [- &% y
} ff
\^ , _ "#'+& &e}%ffgb

,b';C}} %zf"#')g'p "#
emax 2
/}')Cg3"#h}' ^ "#hU!}ff _ f( \ ';"# 'u "#" ^ 'p"#' l s
l# 6"# ^ /')}';%& $"# l r
st *')Cb(|r*')hhC
C}b' \ r
}f%f ,b';C}*')"#&')f _ "# ^ "#h/C-, _ "#'; }ff "#b/
l y
l
6C';')6,b"#f/}
l y (
s C, _
')')z" h,- C'

"#'+& $& \ & /|*')hn l r
\ } $C, f _
"#| ';"Oh ';6 C \^ ," _ "#fhan')*,"**fst |"#$*f
ffh ';"# z"g';"#f- "#6 \ "#$f _ & "#, _ "#'; e- $"#b%z /
- C'ph*6"#f6"#n/6 Cg C}b' \ - C';$f"#( ^ /6"#')- f%f _ %h*&(
l# s
"#/h'k/ _ aC! "#b/n*'+ ^ "#bC'u"#, _ "# r
n 2
t2 I D I D
nt2
nt2 I D
t2

n 2
J~
tp Q
'ka')*')h & ^_ /|r*C,9

l "#("~#')ahg6"#stqr/
hg ^ ,6"#$ "#/&}a--D'),b"#f \ ')/"#')/&}a~#')C \ "#d s x -,"
n&&%3}')e"#e} a$*"#'; g 1"# $ \ h*fe&n&pf
if (x = 0)
}Cfd "#b/b' _ *')%6 " ^ f ^ "#bC' \ * gaC$ /ngC- s
x
xD n&"#{"#'kd6C*"#'+hC$n "#
\ '+"#& 'p "#$
s
v f& gC !}f ^ U*nh ^ f%/"#f}" _ z agC ')/ /hg$C-.~#') \ xD
h "#"#')(Cz ,ah!s "f%&*f%6"# 'pbhC$ bCfb"hg
~#') \ /h"#fhg$';f"#**f _ $$* g3& Uhg$C-, /"#n}'+s{

\ "# y
s x -.~#'kad, "#b/"ngC \ & & /'kf"# C
l y l
/}f%-D"#f Cf}
s 1'k"#n "# l y "# l
^ C& ')nf, \ "# l y')hf

\ /ngC- C';$"#&C$ "#bg ^ fn+s
e}" _ ')h&C')e& e _l y l

/p&Cf _ "#be eC $C- _\
C}b'p "#,}Cf(')hf,$ /n"#h 'kC6Ch6/C-,fCh%g3& /ng$C"#$Cb'+}("# _ s
2
2
2

v C& 'p|"#$*f/C-, /n/-.hg(~#')a6C6'+'+C} "#(- 6 C

"#, "#b/"Oh _ "#, \ h6 "#zfCg!s x x { "#';%& $& \ ,z "#&';"#f
efCg
"#fg /& ^ ["
}
$sqy**Che "# 1')*')h p"
NaN
h$"#ff g"# b/ ^ 'u& "#, "#z'+C}( ~#'k!s "#Cz h%gC(~#'k \
}f%f ^ /g"# b \ nf%g36"#') '+$"
s }b' \ -. 'k/}'kUahg
NaN
~#') \ /fCg3- 6 6Cf( ,n&gn $"#'+C}dgC"# b/ ^ '
- ')C \ "#(}f%(& ')- C')/ "#b/ ') '+$ s v C 'u|r"#*f/C-,"- 6
} 3"1n6C _ "#~#')p& ehg -D&C \ } a')&';p engaC-{"

^ '+s
Y
~m
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
') ^ " ^ f _ & [$n{ &')h gh1-,hg~#'k6';$6C*f|"#'+ rs

ra&"#/"n*f/|r"#*f \ 6Ch'p /"#
6'+&"# f _ &';/}
1 ( 1) =
s x -
"#
1 = i
s{
1 z = 1 ( z)
l#\ / ^ b%6C*&"# C$gb

s{ \
1 ( 1) = 1 i = i
{ /*') ^ f6"# ^ / ';"#( /-D"#6,& "#!n"#')/')C,

1 z 1 ( z)
f&Db"#f \ "#& ')}" _ &nf6 b"#fh "# 6C C
/ 'k/$*f|*f"#s C}b' \ h"#'kU'kC,6C C-,"OTV:;46H F 2 F B5
6Cnh g3-."#ffg"# b/')"#f ^ '+z|fd- ')6Ch'+"#&%Pst
f"#b /*') ^ fC-,} "#,&aa- C'u / g"# b/')"#f ^ '+ \ } 6 "#')/G \ } ')
-D'+
s6qrg~#'kO*'kCb"e*'+- }" _ &')hCfb
*') ^ fSs ^ '+zC-,
&m
2
- C';
t2 G 2
"#b/ /hg
( i x)
"#( ^ '+-.& U- '+
C& 'ph{/-.& ^ ';"# 6 $, "#b/& / 'phg

- C';$f"#- C'u$* g
"#63
G D C$
s x - "#6 \ /"# '+"#f
}f%fgC%b/ h/')hf&s
1 z = 1 ( z)
D l G hD l
( i x)
t2
G l G
s x-
l
l G y D l#
G \ l
l y l
G D\ "#(n
\ } f
sU xD
1 z = 1 + i ( 0) = i
1 ( z) = 1 i = i
"#'+& $&e*')h';bz _ -D'p"#ff sqrC/$')/hC* n&%6"# d|"#$*f
"#')/gCb ^_ z"# "# l#m## ]s v f Cg $n&gn g ^ } "# ( "#
"#b"#&"#g \ 6"#C66"#n "#ff _U^ -Dh%g!s '.|"#*f \ ngC ~#')Uh ') _
l
l r< \ } 6 a-D"#fh}
')f"# C
<
["# <
s C}b' \
xD 6C$& /6{d& "#! /"#b"# "#gC-. f~#g3 /h%gC-.~#'k

C&}gC (& /h"#b"# "#gCs

2
J a|nt J' aJ}

tp Q
l \ A
op h''+"#f~#C"#& gC *{ ^ ';}
\ "#9
m# s
s #
l "#<
s #l
l "#**"#'P ^ *'+- 6 f _ C')"#' _
^ '+
"# g *C, ^ '; \ } 6 "#'k/$')/ "#$"-D"#6 'pC- l f"#')g'u "#&
l
h$"#ffh,"# g *C, ^ ' l s #
sU _ "#bU"h ';"#g/*')C*'; _6\
#u+h+u#%+% #
I R
&I
p
l
C}b'
<
Ob$ Cg
< { /')"#hC$& "# e<
s
s
l &Ch"#ffC ^ 'k*')h 3"#"eC';"#f%~#3 ^ ' \ "#3hn
^ /n ( a~#'k!s C}%*C'; "#,z, a*'kn';b/& /*')*'+ _
&(<
&m
Y,<&(
x &Jb' _ "# _ a"#g/}'; g3 /6C/- '+"#gC$ \

\ "#d $f"# 'u "#bg3"*')CgC'+"#-D"#f/ a"
if (x y) then z = 1/(x-y)
h*';CpbhC ^_ ~#')!sr'+"#6gC} ^ guf%Ce pp- ';h ';"# g"#&%
6Cng,s $"$')/* %fn* 6"#ffbf \ 6C*&'ph6/ |r ^ CCC-D&
*C,! "#,b& g $%!6';') f _ *'+"#6 6"#f a*')b/f"#')gC/*')CgC'+"#
6C';')6 \ ngC g3*')g';"#}%& & /%"-.*')bg3& C- ')nf z%
^ &'p6Cs 'p|r"#*f \ ')6g3 b"#'+"#& /n-Df \ b$-.& _
"#')J!gCg3& ^ /h("#*"#'+!C-,"O*'kCC-]s f"# g *C,6C/ h,f/"# _
C& 'p6C, f* "#b/*')Cb" ^ fU- "#6 zC$} $ * s C'p|"#$*f \
} "#"#f _ ~#g3- C';$f" #D\ ,}"#b' _ f*- f&aC} "#
y a< 3
<
/!<sVqr$f"#';f _\ }g& "# l &';["#p}'; g
')f" ^ f1C"# gCD*%{6C["#n'+s x -!{Cf _ ';[-D'Ch! ^ '; \ {"#C

^ /h( a*')b/"# _ g!s

xD n&"# "#'k$nu '+"#f~# , ^ '+ \ } %6 agC"#';"# l D\ "#u}f%f
"# 'ph- f')f"#&Cs _ "#')/& /Ch,6C 'kCb'+h"#f*"#';,C-, /h "#"#')
"#*'k ^ " ^ f _ "#66C -D' [fCgf" _ 3g &g # U"#**')bsVijn{ gC
*';-D'+"#/ "#')}"#')/ "#,6f"#$z ^ xD *"#& ^ f/C,h**C'+
C';$"#f~#( ^ ';')6 f _\^ ,'+"#& 'p ';"#*} 6Chg3C'
*')6gC';"#f% \ "#f"#b% hC- }"#')&Ohf"#& x n&"# "#'ks
U" ^ (C';"#f%~#( ^ ';g ^ "#63 acef% ^ ')gw l#m## ,"#d
\ & /ng"#(Cz , "#b/& ^
b' _ h*fs $ /|r* !%z9
l \ A
l
"#(9
m##\l s #
afg'
C';$"#f~# \ ha "#,}
l
/h$"#ffh,"# g *C, ^ ' \^ "#hUs m#
"#fha"C"#&%gCD*
^ '+s
tp Q
t Q
I R
I R
4 5 c A < f 8 B< d 8 ;;< O L J F R S G M DC Y Z P i Q P J F R S G M DC ` Z P 5

b 5 c A D= D= @A < d 8 V = < > ? > C < > ? @A < 9 > = @ @B > V e ;< = > 9 < 8 = : < d @= > ? @A < = @8 C O 8 BO 5 B> j B 8 9 = @A 8 @ ?B< V < C @;f
V C O ] > ?@< C B V C C > @Dd < 8 e ;f = ;> ] C A 8 BO ] 8 B < @A 8 @ V = < = = > ?@] 8 B < @B 8 : = 5
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
')/"h$"#ffn"#g3}

O"#(" % ^ , ^ g3h \ n6/"
^ '?}& a"#a|r* -{9

}ff"#f}" _ u "#b"1h%gC6"# g')"#&'? "#aC'
"#f l s ^ "#h/C-.& /%*f!f%"#{g ^ ]s /nf%&%znf"#'p "#
n3&')*'kn \ "# 3n"#'+~#3y" ^ f ` De*"#gC l#m# sn |r*C
9
ph&'k*')h '+"#f#sVij')e- C'+"#ff _\ -{ ^ %&p3& eh%gC6"#
\ T
\ "#( /b"#f/C-, /|r* !9 \ $}
fd"#')/T \ T \
T
} ')"#} 9
9
9
l#\ 1 ^ ' ^ g')*')h l s T DT
9
l#\ / ^ ' ^ g3')*'kn&dzs T T
T
st l $
\ C,9
|*, ^ "#n/'+"#f "#b/"#$|r* !C-.9
l s
l Q
tp Q
#D
#HIKD
#D #HJIMD

D HJIKD mD
2
tp Q
l Q
I
I
l \ A
s #
l "#$<
s #l
l
?6"#ff& |"#$*fC \ 9tp Q
m##\

*')h "# ^ gC gC-{ pn6 Ps 3C';$"#f \ / 6Qps x ,"# _ b';- _ "#, l "#f}" _ f{

tp Q
tpW Q
} ng3gC'+"#"#f';C}Os
emin
emin + 1
emin + 2
emin + 3
emin
emin + 1
emin + 2
emin + 3
# y# u%
,{}n{{~ }n'o}ol, l}l,{~
gC'k ` ffn&'+"# C';"#f%~#a ^ ';sh z * ^ '.fz zgC')

h }zC';$"#f~#(C"#&g *C, ^ '+#sC 6/ /g"#* ^ }$O"#(
h$"#ffh,C';$"#f~#( ^ '
e min s x -, /')hf!C-.""# g *C
1.0
6"#ff"# C$- "#ff a& zgf- \ ,zn ( a~#'k!s ^ C& ^ 'pf
h }z} "#, "#**} '+"#f"#')/"#( /n!C-.C"# gCD*%
^ ';s gCf- ff%d \ "#d} & U'knf,-."6"#f%6f"# C$fh
\ ,z')*')h ^C_ /"#')h,C';"#fks
"#
1.0 emin
C';$"#f~#( ^ ';"#')/"#( a& U ^ 'uf \ & /h*"#g ^ &}
"# "#,C"# gCD*%! ^ '+zb"#';$"')gCf"#'u}" _ "# "#6,h*"#gz"#')
'u /n"#/fg& 'p-&- ' ^C_ "- "#&C'p- s C,C';$"#f \
h*"#g3" ^ ';* f _ 6 "# gC- ')
#u+h+u#%+% #
p + 1 emin
&
emin
\ } 6 $%z"-D"#6 'pC-
\ '+"#& 'u "#$ /C')';f _ 6 "#gC ^C_ "- "#&C'uC- s 6"#n/-. \ $"# _
& "#,"#$ "#b/f"#')gC/')f"# b/'+'kC'p- C'uC'+"#f~#( ^ '+zfn/

/'+} & 'kn f%("#')/}ff ^ "#bd$ ';"#g/} gC'+"#"#f
{'+} hs
p 1
"#fg'+&
& C,g';"#"#f'+} \ & Uh*f%/|*')hn Y,<O6"#$ "#b/"b' _ f"#')g

s #
l ,"#
')f"#&b1'+')'u-D'u '+"#f~#(*& \ "#z}"#zh$" ^ Cb/- C'
s #l
l hs "#')gCU'kf"# bU'+')'+z"#$ "#**b} ,6"#f%f"#&C \ "#
<
/- CffC}g3|r"#*f/n } ` $f l#m# #]sopCh{'pbg3 }a6C*f|

G T1"# F
G Ls U ^ bC- '+f"
^ '; \ 4
a + ib
ac + bd bc ad G
-------------- = ----------------- + ------------------
c + id
c2 + d2 c2 + d2
h-- '+z-D')& /*'k ^ f& "#,-.& 'u$* !C-, / %"#&C' F
G L%
\ /- C'+f"}ffCb'+} \ b$ Cg $ / "#f')hf

f"#')gC'p "#
emax 2
" _3^ /}ff}& %$';"# gCs v^ & 'u$& C(C-,$* g3& /C& z
n/qr$& J- C';$f"
b a ( d c)
+ b ( d c)
a--------------------------- c + d ( d c )- + i ---------------------------c + d ( d c)
a + ib
-------------- =
c + id
a + b ( c d)
b + a ( c d)
--------------------------- d + c ( c d )- + i -------------------------------d + c ( c d)
I R 2
I R
l6l#
if ( d < c )
if ( d c )
I R 2
I R
v **f _ g3qr$& J- C';$f" a l

GJl
rD
l
G
l gC%b&
6C';')6,"#n}'p-.s }& gC'+"#"#f';C}Os x _ f{zs }& h &a~#') \

"#a';')'?C- l #
s x % _ *6"#f- C'?C';"#f%~#$ ^ '+ Og"#'+"#&e';'kC'
ulps
^ C- C'p"#'kg$ &"#ff /}" _ C}& l s |
emin
*)

, . ,
"#|r6* "#f%&Cf%Cbn ^C_ ~#')U'.Cb'+}C66'; x {

"#'+& $& \ e- "#fu Of%b'?"1')hf%"#$6C s _ *"#f- e- "#f
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
k
\ "#
')hf "#'k
- 'py"#
-D' l y"#(Cb'+}Ost /*')6 g
NaN
h&CgC"#b|"#$*f} ')*')%gO- ') "#|r6* } h-D"#f

b"#f}"# z')"#hC" ^ f& g U{s "# _ |*&%6'; \ "n&"# "#g
p"#fhn]s x *f%$&"# Cp-{& xD n&"#"#')$"#')e')')$ *')ben';
} $"O}" _ &a')"#("#d}'+&/ /n&"# "#gCs /"#gz"#') n& _ & "#
C6/n \ _ ')$"#$n!&%f|*f%6 f _ 6f"#')srh g3 /"#gC& Uf _
}" _ ah gh l r \ } $"g/%% _ - ')C"#$Cb'+}s
qy 6C g3|r6 C$& /-D"#6/C-,|r6* C$6C Cz%zC
l# s
"#**')*';"# s #x % _ C$*"#g l#m#m gC"#b/ /|"#$*f/C- y
\ & 1C "#&C' \ ')nf ga"/"#f "#n}'C-! \ }

v f gC - C'u - C';$f" /*') ^ f"# ^ /nf%b ^_
D\ 'k}'; g3" _ C,"#f}" _ znf%b/ /*') ^ fSs
')}';%&g3,"# l r
xD h "#"#')$h ')gf _ ')6C$u "#%*f "# p"#ffC} &'+"#* "#f%'+
^ /h "#ffs{ $} $"#|r6* C$C6'; \ /&'+"#* "# f'u%z"#ff
n&"#C-!h& g ["#g!s [b"#f[') '; ^C_ [&'+"#*$ "# f'}ff ^ [h
"#& /')hf,-.& /*'+"#&CPs x ,& U'kn*n ^ f% _ C-, / ';"#* "#f'p&
'uf"#'uC'ph,& /h "#&z"#g '+}n \ & Ub"#fU-.& U"#g3"#ffC}(
^ / us
emax 2
&C&"#f%f _ }')g,s
nt2 I D
x h "#"#')(bz|r6* Cz%& f"#hn#Cb'+C} \ ';C} \

bhC ^_ ~#') \ b"#f(C*';"# "#( |"#+s{ ')/z"n*"#';"# /h "# "#g
- C'p"# $f"#h-.|*&CPs{ /"#%g3-.& U'+h,& 'k/|r6* zhf-D
b{ +s x b"#f%*'+"#&C6Cb'+ h "# ufh r" ^ f ` [C*"#g l#m#m#\
"#("# _ $*"#';n& "#!%bCfb""#sU /-D"#f,')nf,C-,"#*'+"#&C
\r^ & e6Cb'+he ')s
"#6"#nu"#b"#f$|*&C% O') '+"
NaN
$C/C-, /C*';"# z a"#$C*';"# C$"
\ /')hf,"
^ ,
NaN
NaN
b"#f(|r6* ';"#ndfnz /C*';"# C$"#fhan"#&n /-.&
6C Cz%$r" ^ f ` C$*"#g l#m#m s
{~ o kk
+] u
Result when traps

disabled
Exception
yb')}
'; }
JbCJ ^C_ ~t'k
x
#u+h+u#%+% #
'
:p
2 emin
'!';3"tf
Argument to trap
handler
I
'ky#
'ky #
* ')"t
{ k
Result when traps

disabled
Exception
b " f
"
| "
'
:p
* ' "
Ml}n,{Gp{ }o{~
l s ll
ll
Argument to trap
handler
'
{~}r }nr{~ tkx {~}0l{~ r
2 emax
/ |r"#6,|*&%$';"#n(} $ /')nf,-,"C"#& gCD* !C*';"#

l \ A
l s |r"#6 \^
C,|r"#6]s x $
O _ h \ s
s
l# s OzC,|"#, h 6/s

l# s #D\ "#('+"#h"#$ |"#
s
s
s
|*&%Ps "#' _ & ` 6"#fop b';nC C*"#g# n6hh"#"#fgCC';%&

"#,h& /|"#,|*&CPs v n$"#' _ -. ^ "#b'pC-,"#ffb
|*&%gCb$r" ^ f ` Ds
')/"#$$*f "#&C$%hh/6C6 (}& & /- "#6, "#,& /|"#

|*&%z'+"#h(na-D&Ps x -.C"# g *C, "#')}"#')/CC, "#b/"#gzC zC} \^ ,n&"#d&'+';* z /C*';"# g3 _ h ahg"#f"C"#&%gCD*
|*&% \ & /n,-.|r"#6,|*&C6Cf ^ /*') ^ bs{ zn,6"# ^
"#b ^_ "#b ga /n&"# "#gC"# "# ^_ hC- &}"#')s /';n! U"#
|*&%z'+"#h \ n,& /n-D&}"#'kU"#g3- C'p& /"#**')*'+"#&U6f"#h \ "#d&ff
"# g *C, "#')}"#')/ a"#h3C--.& "#,f"#h-.|*&Cs "#ff- '; '
|*&%}f%f';$}& , &'+')*& ga /C*';"# g3 _ h Ss $"n'
')h& "#,h "#&z"#g \ & / "#')}"#')/"#na') " ^ fs
J||n;J}
/ ^ bCn/- C'u ';"#*( "#f'+z- C' ^ "#6}"#')($*"#& ^ f _ s f(
"#{|*{& ^ [" ^ C'; } 3|r6* C6'"#3n&"#f%f"/ '+"#*$ "#{f' "#
" ^ C'; & /*'kC6n#s zh*"#ff _ n-Df-D'p6C} $"fCC*f
4 5 > D C 8 ; D O < 7 d < : @ D > C D = B 8 D = < O V C ; < = = 8 @ B 8 : : D C j 8 D = D C > ; < O D C @ A < > : C 5 \ < < = < d @ D > C h 5b > ?
6 6 6
\ @O ` Z P 4X Y Z 5 6 O 5
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

e
&"[ ^ '?}&
sqr$*"#'; g"
\ C'
do S until (x >= 100)

NaN
W
b '^ ^ , "#" f}" _ zs ') '; z- "#f%h \ 6C/}ffgCa a"#$ /fC*(- x
NaN
')/"C')/ 'kn&g3h/- C'p&'+"#* "#{f';& "#,$*(}
6C*& ga*')C&h $"#
"#,6Cfd* "#ff _ b';C}Os
in = 1 x i
hCf C UnzfCg"#'; \ "#36C* |*
n&"#sn *') ^ f
( logx )
} $ "#**')"# $ "#,!%zfnz"#6'+"#& \ "# ( "#,!i n&C')/& "#$
\ b$-.& ')/ab';C}Os 'k/"#C& 'unf&C
h$*f/|r*'knhC
x
ng3&'+"#* "# f';6"#iffd>68#9;: kBHL#9): p>6Q F >BCH5 G HX$& "#!"#bC ^ $C-, h
*') ^ fOqr ' ^ ~ l#m# #]s
'
U""#z- CffC}s ')/"gf ^ "#f6C 'p "#f~#( ~#')!s b'
/*"#'; "#f*'kC
Cb'+C}- C'phC \ & / '+"#* "#f'
p = k = "#1 x(
i ')&'+& /b';C}("# & _ } $
'k$ && /6C k' ^_ i /
l #\ ha|*,}';"#**d"#'kCs x x {(# ngCf%/*'khC \ 9
\ ,}f%fb';C}"# (6"#h/ / ';"#* "#f'p& ^ /"#ff \ } 6
l s
}f%f}'+"#* /|* ^ "#63 '+"#g \ 6 "# gC gaA & l s
n ^ f} s
qyf"#'+f _6\ -.A ';C} \ & / 'p}f% ^ /'k$ & \ "# (g"#&b
|*,}f(g,}';"#**d"#'kCd "O*n&b/Cs $"#f%f&
f&*f%6"# z"#')/C \ -.& / 'p~#'ka $ /"#f*')C6,A s x /6C 'pz*Ch b \ & /*'),b';C} \ -.& /6C 'ug"#&b \
{'+}s x -, 1-, 1*"#'+&%"#f *')C6 z"#')1!-,'+"#gC \ & /&'+"#* "#f'
b'p6"#ffd"#( /6C*&"# C$'+za|r&'+"6Ch]s b$-.& ')/"#')
Cb'y ';} \ /"#f6f"#&C$C')/"#6';"# / "#$-., "# ^
6C*&(} $fCgC"#'+& \^ 6"#n/"#6 A }"#6C*&(-D'kCA .hg3"
- ff*')6nf *f _ s "#'+& l#m## .hnhz"O- C';f"} ')/ /- ff
"#6'+"# _ -.b'y{'+} 6C g3 '+(*("#$';')C'u"#';f'p " ^ f "#,- '+f"s
u
D~C
tp
:=
u IKD
xD3# n*6 "#} "#b';}C'. ';C}&'+"#* "#f'.6"#f%f \

*"#hnd& /}'+"#** "#')(')hf%!"#"#$"#')g]s /%&C$C}'+"#** "#')C(-D'pCb'+C} z "#,& /')nf,6C* ("#-, a&
*')6n \ & b% ^C_ \ "#d& ') (&a /')fb"#,*')6nCPs '
{'+} \ & /'knf,f *f ^_ s /|r*C
l#m - C'ungf
*')6n"# l# -D'pC ^ f/*'khCPs z} _al s |O

}"#
';"#n- C';d& l s
$ /|r"#*f/" ^ bs

#u+h+u#%+% #
D~C
n;t; nJ}
xa
x h "#"#') \ 'kC{gC66';p} b'"#3*'+"#&%3 "#p"1')nf "#
,|r"#6 \ h 6/ } $ /|*&C$C- ^ "#' _ {"#f6Cb'+hC "#
C*';"# z$* (|"#&f _ "# (& $')s _ - "#f \ ')C ga$"#
')( }"#'kd"#'kn+s{ /h "#"#')(')')& "#, ')/ 'p'kC ga$
\ "#')$ }"#'k s
^ [*'kCb% \ "#$f _ 'kC&C}"#') \ ')$ }"#'k
$h(}& & /6Cb'+,&a gC'pC*';"# \ ') ( }"#'kd "#h
6Cb';,& ^ $/& /C'u-D&C \ } f/')C( C}"#')

6f g!s{
')g3C/"#-&- 6 zCb'+} \^ 6"#h/} $')( }"#'kd'p')

}"#'kd -&- \ "#b';C}C-,*Ch%&b/"#g /"#h& /- "#f
')hf, ^ / /f"#')gCn!')*')h " ^ f/ ^ ' \

sqyf"#'+f _6\ b';C}
g"#&b/"#g /}ff*')C6/ /f"#')gh,g"#&b/ ^ 'p} $')C
}"#'k
'p')( }"#'kd$-&- 6]s
/"#**f"#&C$C-,')C ga$C66';$ &'+b"#f"#'+ D"# 'p

C( "#' _ ` 6$"#fopCb'+hC C$*"#g# # s h%g
\
';b"#f"#'+& $& \ /hC-, }a ^ '; "#d<"#$ ';b"#f
[ z,z ] s
<')( }"#')( \ "#

<')( }"#')
} ')

z
|"#,'knf,-. /"# 6C&"# (} & U&'+b"#f

s
[ z,z ]
')g3C \ %&'+b"#f"#'; %zn"#ff _ $*f ^C_ 6C*& g
\ } ')
"#
"# *hf%Ps
z = ( x y) ( 1 ) z = ( x y) ( 1 + )
%z'knf z$b')n&%"#&z-D'p& /h~#/C-,& / ';b"#f#sqy6/& 1')nf!C-,"#

C*';"# $ &'+b"#f"#'+ "#$ &'+b"#f \ %$g ';"#f / *,&a"#
\ "#
\ "#'k
C*';"# }ff"#fh ^ /"# ';b"#fks x -, }a ';b"#f
[ x,x ]
[ y,y ]
\ } ')
"# \ /')hf!%

} $ /')g3C/h,
[ z,z]
z xy
')&C}"#') \ "#
} 3& ['kC{g$[n ')C C}"#')
z
z
y
s
$"OC"# g *C,6"#ff"# z*'+- C';$dh%g3&'+b"#f"#'; \ &

"#f"#h}'"#3 ';b"#f& "# "#& [|r"#6{'knf{-!& ["#f6f%"#&CPsV
,b' _ f*-Df-.& / '+b"#f&';C,& ^ /f%"#'kg/ "#,-D& \ h%6
/6C';')6,"#n}'p6Cf ^ /"# _ } ')/$ "#, ';b"#fks x ';b"#f"#'; $
"#u$')eh he} an$a &%3} a"1$f *fe*')6n3"# g
*C,*"#6"#gCst /"#f6f"# C$'+h,*'+- '+(} $hC/*')6%hC$As x ';b"#f"#'+& $&ehgCgh z "#, / "#f"#h}'u$" _3^ /"#6'+"#& \ &
6C*&"# C')Cz} g '."#a gC '.*')6n ?&fC& z "#f ';b"#f
"')"#n " ^ f/n~#s
4 5 z 9 8 f e < j B< 8 @ @A 7 8 C O f 8 B < C < j 8 @D < 5 6 O 5

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

l|}
xD h "#"#')3 "#"e ^ 'P- "#g"#3C#s v hhna" ^ b \ 'k
/n&"# "#ga-D'p"#6 $C-, /b/|r6* # ';} \ b';C} \ b%hC
^C_ ~#') \ %b"#fd*'+"#&%"#(|r"#6]s ')/"#')/- C'p')g3C#')C
\ ')C( }"#')( \ "#(')( }"#'k( s x !
}"#'k( "#')h \ ')( }"#'k
h ')gf _ ')6Cd& "#, ') ^ /"#$ " ^ f/C ^ %!-D'p"#6 -.& /b
|*&%s %zn&%gCbzn$/h*f/|"#$*fzC-, } & n/Cz"#
"#gC6"# ^ /*! agCCC(nCs v C'k/n* h 6"# (|r"#*f/hnh(
"#' _ & ` "#fopCb';h% *"#gC# s
op h'p}'+&%g3"h ^ 'kC / a6C*

H
\ "Oh*f%/'kC /f
PositivePower(x,n) {
while (n is even) {
x = x*x
n = n/2
}
u = x
while (true) {
n = n/2
if (n==0) return u
x = x*x
if (n is odd) u = u*x
}
= \
} ')/H3z"# gC'+s

x -, \ & "C')/"#66';"# /}" _ $*

C,&a6"#ff
^ ,';"# '
\^ "#h
PositivePower(1/x, -n)
1/PositivePower(x, -n)
';n |*')nhC$f *fHO"#&%&"#6 C-} "#b"e')C{gO';')C'
- ')C /bhC$Dks s \l s x $ /hd|*')hn& n/"#')/|"#!Dks s \ \
"#( /"#f%bn6C n!C/"#{&C"#f')C ga'+')'+s
1- C'; "# f _\ & n/"hfg ,h "#ga%$ zn&'+"# g _ s x PositivePower(x, ';C} \ & & 'p /{'+} ';"#* "#f'p}ff ^ /6"#ff \ 'pfh
n)
/'+} h "#&z"#g3}f%f ^ /n+s{ z 6C';')6 \^ 6"#h/{'+} \
}ff& 'pCb'+C} ' ^ /';"# gCs ,n6/ xD
I =
4 5
@ d 8 C e < D C B 8 C j < e < d 8 V = < D ? 4 i J 8 C O I = D = V = @ 8 @ D C f e D @ = 9 8 ; ; ] @ A B < = A > ; O
@ A < C x n 2 e < 2 e i 8 C O = > 9 8 f C > @ > ] i = D C d < D C 8 ; ;
6 6 6 : B < d D = D > C = i P Q P
min
max
#u+h+u#%+% #
e min
h "#"#')gCb& 1h'"#6h "#ff & ["#gC \ [n ^ ')C 16"#"#hf _ '+')
- C'p& s x ,h*f _ '+-&-, /Cb'+C} "#( ';} ';"#* " ^ f ^ "#
h"#bz /Cb'+} "#(';C}n&"# ^ #s x ,& $6C*&
s x -& 'P Cb'+C}'P ';}h "# ^
1/PositivePower(x, -n)
h \ ,')h ')z &CgC 'p} $ / ';"#* " ^ f ^ #s x -. /-.& /h "#& ^ &
h \ ,'kn&C') /"#gC"#(')Cz /"#f6f"# C$ng
\ } 6 6"#hz /'+'),|*&C&aC66'+s
PositivePower(1/x, -n)
v C& 'p|"#$*f/C-, /n/-."#gCC66';} 6C* g3"#')6b"O&

- C';$f""#')6
"#')6 "#
1x
-----------1+x
s x -,"#')6 "#
b"#f"#
y \
\^ "#n/-. _
"#')66ChD l# }ff'+')6 f _ b"#f"# / "#')6 "#
"#'+& $&ys C}b' \ & ')/"h$"#ffn"#g \^ 6"#n/ /6C*&"# -. l

y l
}ff6"#n/& /b{ ^C_ ~#'ka|r6* "#ga ^ /n \ b$ gC
"#')66ChD l# zC,|*&C"#fkst /nf&C$ a& %z*') ^ fh '+"#gC - C';}"#'kus
qy*f _ h"#b/& /b"#f/C-, /b ^C_ ~#')"#g ^ - C')/6C* g3"#')66C \ "#
$')h ')/ zCf(b"#f/"#-D&'p& /6C* "# ?s
y$
n x
&m
]
Uhg$C-,"#f$n!b' _ "#h*,-."6C*&'p _ h ')')zC}fg
" ^ C,"# g *C]sop$* 'u"#')6 &&'kh"#ff _ "#bUC"# gCD*%
n&';&C \ $*f';un g';"# & nC"#& gCD* n&';6 C \ "#
C*';"# gO _ h n} "# U} |*&C6C C"#')';"#%h
- C'p& Ch/C"#&%gCD* !%h ';6 #sopC* 'p _ h h%gC'+z'+"#')f _ g
g"#-D'kC ';"#f"#"#f _ h | \ } 6 "#') _ *6"#ff _ "#"#h'+"#
}'+ '+- hC- }"#') \ C"#6C* '.hg';s v "#|r"#*fzC- }*f"#h ^ f
hg${hC6"#f"#( |*& ^ "#b%' \ 6 h'p& /- Cff}g
v q x o *')CgC'+"#Ss
q = 3.0/7.0
if q = 3.0/7.0 then print "Equal":
else print "Not Equal"
$$*f("#d')$ng C';f"#{Mr' ^ "#nC$"# x i o \ &

*')g';"#*'+
#{ z|"#$*f1}ff ^ 1#
" "#f _ ~#( /|!n6 \
Not Equal
#x h ';6 C$qr #s
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
+
x
6 &"#ff _\ hC1*C*f/& a "#! /hCf $ n6 $"#C"#f%zb'u
6C*"#')/C"#&g *C, ^ '+z-D'p"#f _6\^ ,n&"#( a6Ch%'u
"#f-& _ "#')}%& ahC';')C' ^ 7s6 u "#')f _ "[6'k "#f%f ^ 6"#h
'+"#hz"#"# _ h "#,"#h}']s "#,h Cfd& Ub"#fU-.7 ^ ex (
"# _
"#')/} 7 \ h Cfd& _ ')"#ff _3^ /n')d& ^ U"#f \ b
gC & _ "#b/-&- ') !ng '; ';$') \ /')f"#&C$ ^_
F
"U,T
7 \ zC{"#$b"#f61')f%"#&C ^ "#h14 Te"#T
';f \ 4 3T
F s
CzC,*f _ "#,4
W

g6
, 0 ,

x p $Ca- C'?"#a"#fg'+ O')')"1n '+ ^ '+hC- %gC '*'khC
$C')'u a*')6/"#6'+"#&/')hf&s /|"#$*f/C66';$ /"#';"#
r#4ys v zn6nh(C$*"#gC## \ } $T

- C';$f"
#4 F+\
b b 2 4ac
')g3';')C'u"#$ "# "#&/*&a "#f%-, /g&& /')C 6C*

} $ /"#';"# e- '+f"s _ *';-D'+g3 /h ^ 6"#ff"# C$C-,T .#4 F
C ^ f/*'khC \ "#f-. /C ^ f/*')6%hC ^ -.& /'kCC!"#')/fCh \ } 6
"# "#,"#ff /h gCf/*')6%hC ^ "#'k/*'kn'+bs
e6C*&"# Ca-T #4 F a ^ fe*'khCa} a"#6 aC- "#&%&u4 \ T \

"# F "#')/hgf/*')6n"# _ -, ')/z"Of *f"#&C$%h ')6 & "#
"#Cz }ah gCf/*')6n$ ^ '+z"#(*'kC" ^ f/*')6h%$')hf+s x
C'k'p *')C/& U|r"#6 f _ ')(*'){6,C-, }aA# g, ^ '; \ "
f&*f%'u g';"# / / ')/#A ^ zC-.*'kC \ "#f& Cg $,$" _
'kC} ^ %&"#}" _ "#{*'kC6#s \ "#')}"#')1&$* ["UC ^ f1*')6h%
*')6,- ')Ch%gCfU*'khC$C*';"# z}ffC';$"#ff _3^ /Cf _ "f &f%/C'k
|* hb/& "#$"ngCf%/*')hC$$f *f' \ "#d $ "#*'u "#" ^ f
*')6n3f%&*f%']s ` n*&[& \ $'+a%h ')6 3h p& *')beCf _
n&';&C& "#!*')C/"')nf,C-, /h"#$/*')6h%"#z /C*';"#s
x -,"#h ';6 C$ "#,6C ^ }ahgf/*')6nC$C*';"# *')C/"

C ^ f/*'khC$*')C6,}"#zCf _ n-Df-D'p /"#'+"#&e- C';$f" \
}Cf M ^ /}C'; $"# ga a"#$ h ')6 h]s C}b' \ & n&';&C$ "#
"# _ 'Pn#s6opn'P *') ^ f -nfbgO"[ _ h -f "#'?"#&C \
&m
4 5 c A D= D= : B> e 8 e ;f e < d 8 V = < O < = Dj C B @A > j > C 8 ; DC = @B V d @D> C = < @= i ] A < B< @A < : B< d D= D> C = > ? 8 > 8 @DC j
: > DC @ DC = @B V d @D> C 8 B< DC O < : < C O < C @ > ? @A < 8 d @V 8 ; > : C 5U 8 DC j 8 = : < d D8 ; d 8 = < ?> B 9 V ;@D: ;Dd 8 @D> C O < = @B> f =
@A D= > B @A > j > C 8 ;D@f 5
#u+h+u#%+% #
^DD:D2(4^D :2
Dn:D2(4 :2
^<=:= TD
4
=:=
T
^=lD:D2(4^= :2
4
^=l=:= T=
} 6 $"# ^ /}'+& $"# ';|- C';"#PR
T \ } 'k
a 11 a 12 ... a 1n
a 21 a 22 ... a 2n
A =
...
a n1 a n2 ... a nn
: D
qy**Ch/ "#,"hCf C

z$* ^C_ hC/$& C \ *') "#*ce"#nh"#
f "#&CPs ')1"/n*f1}" _ &*')b[ 1"#6';"# _ C-!& 1')hf!6"#ff
G 5 9;:;465 G 8#9 G @1A#:k>8#9)@19;H5]s ';n,6C*
D
RG
.T
"#( hCfb/ / _ n&

R<
q: D
D

D: :
C&[ "#p"#|r"#6{hCf C \ &

p [~#'kb6 C' \ "#pp<s x 3g ';"#f \
/6C*&"# "#(<}ff'p'kC g3';')C' \ h
R<
R
T
RU
D\ } ') %z / C } ';/hCf CPs
<
\ n"#*')Cb(n&$"#&/-D'p /hCf C$
: G D
: D
S<
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
\ : D }& : \ "#
Cf _ - C'+"#fks
U& ')/h * l \ l \ "#d l 6"# ^ /'k*"# \ ')*f"#6 g

}
sn{ "#')g & "#
$')"#6';"# "#|
'pC')/- C';$"#&C \ n3ceCf ^ #
" !"# "# l#m##m ]s
: ~
: \mD
$*'+- C';$g3&'+"#&b/*')Cb \
z"b6 'p} Ch/f$ &"#'k/
-&- ') 6/C-,"#' ^C_ |r"#6,"# g *C, ^ '; \ "#dha6"#h-&- 'p- ')
6"# "#h ')* "#6ff"# CPs{ p&'+"#&%be$*'kCb$u b' _ n- ffh
R
.T[6C*&(C ^ f/*')6%hCPs 6/"#g"# \ "6"#n/
\ } ')e
6C*& g [*'kCC-{ }hgf[*')6h%3 ^ '+pR"#
- ffC ^ f/*'khC$')hf%!s
D
G
: D
rah"#'+~# \ n&';&C& "#,$f *f _ &}C"#&%gCD* ! ^ '+"#

')&'+$"O*'kC,} $ }/& U*'khC$C-, /C*';"# z$"#C/"h- f
"# C3 "U"# g *C!h ')6 n+sqrC1-! 1*f%6"# z-! - C'
6C*f%'+"#'k/%h6hhd$ /|r,h6 CPs

,
U&'+"#6 C$C-,6C*%f';"#(C"#&g *C,hnh( "#'+
"#($6 -. /hnhC$& h&C$%z "#C- ')& "#!*"#*']s
l#m## \
it@
x "#ff _6\ "f"#g"#g/ C$n f(/& /h"# &zC-, /f"# gC"#g
*')6nf _ Cg $ a*')b/h "#&$ &" ^ C,*')g';"#$#s %f/& zn"#ff _
')/- 'p / gC'p*"#';,C-,"f"#g"#g \ f"#g"#g/%&C- $ "#b/"f"#'kg
g'k _ "#')"} ,6Cz a"# g *C]s ') "#*& %z/ a& /- "#6, "#
"# _ f"# gC"#g/ngC'+ ^ fb/ "#,C& g36"# ^ /*')b$" ^ C,"# g
*C \ h/, "#fz')C ga'+')'+s x -.h \ & /*')bCzn6 z "#b
Ch '+"#&( /-D"#ff"# _ $ ')"#hCg,s h&C${h6hnhC
6C$gC') _ "#'k"#$f"# gC"#g/ \ f ganggCn&C" ^ C, }
"#f} $ Ss
?"#';" ^ f _ Cg \ n$/f"#g"#gCCJ!f"#';f _ n*6- _ "#,z"
x
\ $b' _ C66';')6
"# g *C,b"#'+" ^ fU } $n" _ "b"#f/3.0/10.0
C-, n" _C
h, "#b/& Uh"#/b"#fs C'u|r"#*f v " \ } $ ^ "#h
10.0*x
C ')}Jz$f \ h&a*f _ "#,"# g *C,"#'+& $&eCf _ "#z
h"# h- _ 'kC} M"#|r$ \ "#d& z|r*')hhC6"# "#b/C/C-,$"# _ *nh ^ f
b"#f#s{ g3" ^ C,"# g *C,$ - ~#~ _ }" _ n&"# zh "#'+*
k
#u+h+u#%+% #
6C ';"#n& xD Cf \ } ')e& e')hfC-{"#6 3C"# g *C*'+"# 3
*')6nf _ s x $ xD $f \ }/"#$*')b/ "#
(3.0/10.0)*10.0
b"#f"#&&
C') # s x 'kC}JCf \ }U6"#C]s
v
C& 'p"# ^ gC _ n,f"#g"#gCU Cz 6'; z} "#, "#**
Cb';C} \ ';C}"#d 'p|*&Cs xD h "#"#')(*')6hf _
h* ^ "#bC'C-{|r6* C \ "#nf"#g"#g& "#{h1& 1h "#"#'k"#
"Cf"#$"#bd"# _ "# ^ g _ & z*C]s
v
C& 'pgC') _ "#'k"';& 1%&'+*')&"# -,*"#'k ns ` 1 a'kC{-&';')C'; \ "#nhC6"# bf"#}C-"#fgC ^ '+"e{6hn"#';f _ f- C'P"# g *C
^ ';s 'p|"#$*f \ /|*'knhC
"#z" "#ff _ -&- '),"#h}'
(x+y)+z
l \ <
l D{ l & [-D'+'"#h \ U
"#
}
l
"#
x+(y+z)
/f"# &' s /*C'; "#6U-.*'kn';bg3*"#')& nz"#C ^
Cb')* "#n~#s /"#f%gCC'; *')h (& C')z \ "# "#f%f*
C$]s C'p|"#$*f \ ${ ') #\ & U- '+f"
@ O, @ }f(')6

-.,}')J!-D'p*"#')& h \ ') ^C_ h ') _ g3& /&%'k/"#fgC'; Ss
v f"#g"#g/ &C$ "#,CzC,'k'kU*"#'k n ^ / C')(
nfh- 'pC"#&g *C,"#f6f"# C#s
:~ C
:E
G~ C
t:E
qy ^ |r*'knhC$b"#f"# z$*')6hf _ ("# _ f"#g"#g#s/qy**Ch

"#
z{ ^ f/*')6n \^
"#
"#')/hgf/*')6nCPs $
ds
x
y
|*'knhC
z /*')C6,*'+- C';d$ngCf%/'pC ^ f/*'khC
ds + x*y
v C& 'p|"#$*f
} 'k
"#
"#')/ g'+ \ z /bhC$"#
x + m/n
m
n
gC'*'+"# '"/"# g *C{ ')["#')[&}}" _ &"#f}& & %
*') ^ f \ & 'u-!} 6 6C*f% f _ n"#&n- "#6 C' _ sV{ [';n{ ')'k1 "#
"#ffb"#';%" ^ fpa"#3|*')hn3 "#be& eh"#$e _ *s{ pu en*fnhCf \
^ { "#n/';"#} ^ "#6#s '+h!-,"#ff \ f"# gC"#gCzfC "#h"#f "#! "#b1n ^ '+"#g
_ *"#ffC}%|g3n ^ '+"#g/b"#'+" ^ f} $ g'pb"#';" ^ f \ n,
hC} "# ^ ~#"#';')/ a*') ^ ,|rg3hgf/"#d ^ f/*')6nb"#'+" ^ fs
v C& '?*') ^ f 6'; n&"# &s x |r*'knhC
\ $nf"#g"#gC
0.1*x
';*'),s l ^ /"h gCf/*'khC$n&"# +sC} h**n/& U*'kCg';"#$'
6{p 6 "#ge ef"#';"# CaC-"#ff& e"# g *Cb"#'+" ^ fp- ')C ngf
C ^ f/*')6h%Ps x -.s l h ff 'k"# ("#"h gCf/*'khC$n&"# \
'k/}ff ^ /"6C*f%/&$/';')']s /*')CgC'+"#'p}%ff "#b/&a ,}
"#( "#g/b' _ C"# gCD*%,6Ch "#]s
Uh6C("#**'kC"#6 z a"#ffC}%|(|r*')hhC \ $} 6 6"#n/')fz-D'
h ^ |*'knhC$b"#f%"#&%n ^ /*')bs ')/"#')/" ^ 'pC-,gg
|"#$*f#s{ /C';g"#f{ C$C-,o ')')( "#,b' _ C"#& gC *
|*'knhC ^ z6C*&3 ^ fz*'k6%hC'+g "#"# a? 6 l#m## ]sn
f"#&a"#C"#ff/& /|"#*f/"#,& ^ gC g3-. zn6 ?s
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
k
|*'knhC
6C*&(%$C ^ f/*'khC \^ ,"ngf
3.0/7.0
q
*')6nb"#';" ^ f \ C&')&ngf*'khC- C'Ph '+"#gCs6qy6
z"O'k*"# g ^ "#' _ - '+"#6 \ &6C*&db"#fU$C ^ fU*'khC$
-&- ') - ')C &un&C')b"#feah gCfe*')6nPs u $*"#';n

- "#fs znggCh & "#,$* g3b' _ |r*')hhC$& / g h,*')6h%
"#b"#f" ^ f/C!"OgCCd';fs

v
C& 'Pg%gO|"#$*f%'P*')6 #s x - 'P*'){6 "#& Cn"#
C-, '; \ /') g3';')C'u& /h6"# ^ 6C/n ^ n&"# "#fks /}" _ &
')6/ ')g3';')C'u "#6f"# / /hz%$C ^ f/*'khC$
}f%f ^ /hhn($C')1 "#f * ~#'; $*"#gC l#m# s x " ^ f
d
*')6nb"#'+" ^ f \ "#
"#
"#')[h%gCf1*')6h%"#';'+" _ \ 3 1'
x[]
y[]
*')6fCC*}fffCCf
s x -{& ef&*f%6"# 3pCe
d = d + x[i]*y[i]
h gCfe*')hC \ & "#$6 aC- e"#b"# "#gC-C ^ f*')6na"#6$f"#
fn \^ 6"#n/ /*')6,&';"#&d&ah gCf/*'khC h ^ -D') ^ g
"#( a"C ^ f/*'khC$b"#';" ^ fs
v
';f/ "#,6Cb'+ ^ $C-, /*')bC }a|"#$*fz $* /"#

|*'knhC$& / gC n,*')hC$C-,"# _ b"#';%" ^ f/ "#,6'+z%$ "#
}ff ^ /6C* ( ')f _ $h%gCfU*'khC
|*'knhCPs
q = 3.0/7.0
"#(}ff "#b/ ^ CCf"#$b"#f%/ ') \ } ')"#
}ff ^
d = d + x[i]*y[i]
6C*&(%$C ^ f/*'khC \ g"#g3 /- ff"#b"#&"#g/C-,C ^ f/*')hC
"#6f"#&CPs }b' \ ';f/&Cah*fh a6Cb'p"#ff"#h6f"#f _ s x "#
"#')/ ^ f/*')6nb"#'+" ^ f \ & /|*')hn
dx
dy
"#"C ^ fU*'khC$b"#';" ^ f \^ ,*'+- C';%g
y = x + single(dx-dy)
/h ^ f/*')6n}Cf ^ /*C&f%n \^ 6"#n ^ C& *'+"#"#')
h gCf/*'khC \ "#z /')hf+s

&m
C')/hC* h "#&(n ^ |r*')hhC$b"#f"# C$';f/"#z-Dff%}#s ';n,"#hhg

"#6 *'+"#&C"[& "# b*')6n \ } %6 "#|rC- *')6h%C zC*';"#s "#hngC , "#z ^ /6"#';'+(C,- 'kC /f"#b&a& /'kC
C-!& 1|r*'knhC&')s *'+- '+ "Uh*"#n- ') 1')C{ 1f"#b#s
x $ *"#h \ "#hh%gC&a"#6 *'+"#&C /"#|rC-, / "#&b/*')6h%
\ b' _
"#( /*')6%hC$|r*6 ^C_ & /*"#') +s x & /"#h/Cq = 3.0/7.0
f"#-{ph gCf[*')hC \ h"#f%f [*'+"#&Cp"#')eC[angfe*')6n?s x 3&
\ [ "#&b1*'khCC-!& 1f&%*f _ C*';"# C
6"#n[Cd = d + x[i]*y[i]
h gCf/*'khC \^ ,$ /hd*"#h,gC z*'kCC&d&aC ^ f/*'k6%hC \
4 5 c A D = 8 = = V 9 < = @ A < d > 9 9 > C d > C < C @ D > C @ A 8 @ 3.0 D = 8 = D C j ; < : B < d D = D > C d > C = @ 8 C @ i ] A D ; <
: B< d D= D> C d > C = @8 C @ 5
x
#u+h+u#%+% #
3.0D0
D= 8 O > V e ;<
^ "#h/ *"#'k !C*';"# C$|r*6 z"{ ^ f/*')6n*'+"#s v d

\ /"# C$ /$ngf/*')hCPs "#'+
y = x + single(dx-dy)
l#m## .*')n zb6/ "#, z"#f%gCC'; $C,-&6f,&a*f%$+s
n"#b"# "#gC-& ')fu& "#& b"#f%"#&%C-"en ^ |r*'knhC*
C$ /|*')hnC$$} $, ^ s{ 6"#$ "#b/nU"# _ g
6Cn6s C'p|"#*f \ h**n _ C"#')/ ^ gCgg3"*')CgC'+"#"# (}"#
C} /b"#f/C-,"Oh ^ |r*')hnPs C"#C!n*f _ _ */&
h ^ |*'knhC3 [ ^ gCg'"# "#h{& ^ [b"#f"# \^ 6"#h[ [b"#f[ h ^ |r*')hn& *')CgC'+"#*C |*')hn ^ 3Ps
v "#f6C$ !C$n ^ |r*')hh%h 6/b'; g36$"#f6Cn&"# &
^ "#' _ "#$C*';"# \ & /b"#f"# C$';f/"#fna"#-- & / ';*')&"# C$C} 6 "#'k
6$"#f h "#&sh{ h*"#ff _ $*'+ "#- C'.6Cn&"# f
0.1
C,|r"#6 f _ ')*'kn&" ^ f/ ^ "#' _ s
v
C& 'p*C& "#fg') _ "#')"C6';} "f"#g"#g/f|*C "#&%
"#/C-.& ^ %f&D$C*';"# #s1f/ ^ "#n"#'+ C*';"# C \ &
b"#f[C-{|r* &"# C3{"#f}" _ ^ bCUz"# "#3"# opC l#m# #]s x **
& U|r*C "#&C$C*'+"#&C' \
'; "#f _ "#& /b"#f/ s
(-3)**3
C}b' \
p*') ^ f"# 6"#fks x -{&
C*';"# '6 6p- C' &g'
(-3.0)**3.0
**
*C}'; \ ,}Cfd6C*
"# s
s $ /C& 'p "# \ (-3.0)**3.0
/- C';$f"
9 .n(&a
-D'p')"#f"#'kg$ & \ & $* g
**
C$ /fCga-D&C \ /')hf%!f ^ /"
ng3 /"# ';"#f%&C$CNaN
fCgC
}
( s x -.& ! v
-D6 C$nd C}b' \
NaN
CLOG
$ /"#n}'p}ff ^ / #\^ 6"#n/& v q x !{ v n&"# "#')(
^ G (fg3$ v q x.l#m## ]s{ /*')g'+"#g3f"# gC"#g v "
CLOG(-3.0)
"#b& p*') ^ f ^C_ f _ g|r* &"# C3- C' g'*}'; \ } f%
v q x , v *') ^ &'+"#hg3" g"# b/ ^ 'p "O'k"#f*}'+s
n
:~
t: t
x $- "# \ & ! v h "#"#')(n" _ & "#

v _ "#'; e*'+"#&C$} Ch/')hf%!C,"# "# 6"#ff _ (
*') ^ sss
^C_ x { h "#"#') \ /"#g
1- C'; "# f _\ } $& /&')C&C$C
C-,HC>65,@145 2#9;@1465 GJF 46KJKJ<L#9 H9;LUfCg'p&C&"#f%f _ 6f"#'p6]s / &C$g
^ /&ah/ 1$& C(h C}$$n6 #x _C $*"#g l#m#m s 'p|"#*f \
'+ & b"#f%C-4 \ 6Ch'PC h "# "#"#f _ &p-D6 C u"#UX}&
/*')*'+ _ "# 6
4e"#X
T1"#
s x - n "#f}" _ "#**')C"#6
/h"#$/f \ $ h Cf ^ / /b"#f/-.4+s &C$}f(n

l "#

} 6 h / ' ) " # h C " ^ f s x $ / " # h / C - l s \ } 6
l / 1f{"#**'kC"#6 l#\C^ {} 6

l /"# OX
l U& [f$
X
&

3
~ n
q

n
+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
C n

D
D 2 2

Cn n ^<2 2
n
9 6sqy l s \ n f ^ 1"

s x 16"#h1C-! \ n
9
sVqy "#X
NaN
"#')/"#"#f _ &e"#( "#/& /b"#f/"#, \ 6
4
(4
"#

X
T
aT
s zf
X fg 6
f
efCgC # 4 a4

l - 'p"#ff "# X
\ } 6 "#& "#
f
fg 4
sqr 6
9
#Dn D 2 2

C C
C
n
<

C l s qe1ng3& %z }Cf("# ^ %gCCnf _ / /|r*C&%"#f

& ^
- 6 3- C'?"#ff"#')g \ "#a*"#'; f"#'?}f$
(-3.0)**3.0
#oY |n;|J
qy&C \ { xD qy&"# "#'k \ hhn("# _ C-, /-D"# ')-.& x
h "#"#')s C}b' \ xD n&"#"#')(n" _ C& g3" ^ C, C} h/-D"#&')
"#')/& ^ U"#66nh(-D'kC"O*'kCg';"#$g3f"#g"#gCst \ ')/zh"#ff _ "
n"# 6 ^ &}"# g *C, "#')}"#')/ "#,h**'+&& /h "#"#')("#
*')g';"#$g3f"#g"#gzf%C/o \ "#h"#fC' , v (sqrC/C-, xD
6"#*" ^ f z"# ^ /"#6nh( ')gC "f ^ '+"#' _ C-,n ^ ')& /6"#ffs 'p|"#$*f
xD n&"# "#'k$')') "#n"#')')C ^ |r"#6 f _ ') \ "# n"#')
')C,- &%zC- $*f d')6 f _ %$ "#')}"#')s z-D&C"#f _
"#hf _ "#66nhb"U"Uf ^ '+"#' _ n"#')[')C{')& s C}b' \ C '"#h*&C-!&
h "#"#')("#')/C,ha"#hf _ $*f ("#zn ^ ')C #s C'u|r"#*f \ $n
6C*&'pf"#g"#gzn*6- _ "#,Ch, }a"# g *C, _ * \ } fU& xD
h "#"#')( "#- C'p-&- ') !*'khC "#f gC & U'k$
6CgC';"# z"#')/h gCf/*fhgf |r&d'ph gCf \ { ^ f \ "#({ ^ f
| s x _ *'kCb{"#C& '|"#$*fsVopn&"# &&')*'kn
6Cf
^ n**f ^C_ "[h ^ ') s & "#$gC $"#C n" ^ fa*f"#6u& "#
')')/6Ch "#,|*'knhC \ n $"#& /%&%"#f~#'uC-,"O6Ch "#,b"#'+" ^ fs
&m
m
C')/h ^ &f/n "#&%z$"#*f"# g3 /h "# /"#hhC6%"#&(}& "

6C*&"# C \ } ')1 1n&"# 16Ch%h C-! 1')gaC \ '+"#*" ^ f ^ & \
';"#* "#f';"#(|r6* C$"#gCs /"#**')C"#6 $ *')CbUh ^ 'kC - '
')"#g"#}'+ g& n&"# s x "# C \ "[h%gCf"#ff "#6"#"# C6"#ff _ n "
} b"#f["#')&';3 [Cfb"#f[C- n-Dfks v & [|"#*fp f"#g
C*"#gC l [h C} \ "[b' _ 6CC*"# &'+C-C- _ g x { n&"# &O6 "#g
4 5 c A < d > C d ; V = D > C @ A 8 @ C 4 O < : < C O = > C @ A C @ A 8 @ e < C > C d > C = @ 8 C @ 5
? @ A D = B < = @ B D d @ D > C D =C B < 9 > < O i
@ A < C ; < @ @ D C j e < @ A < D O < C @ D d 8 ; ; f ? V C d @ D > C j D < = 8 = 8 : > = = D e ; < 8 ; V < ? > B lim f ( x) g ( xi )8 C O = > ] > V ; O A 8 <
@> e < O < w C < O @> e < 8 5
x0
b 5
C @ A < d 8 = < > ? i : ; 8 V NaN
= De D;D@f 8 B j V 9 < C @= d 8 C e < 9 8 O C DC d DC j 8 B j V 9 < C @ D= ?> V C O DC > C d B < @ B @A < e DC > 9 D8 ; @A < > B < 9 @> ] > B 5
6 O 5

#u+h+u#%+% #
, f _ } $ /n6C*/-." ^ f%aC'ph ^ 'kC s{ & ^ ')$C$

*')g';"#$'p&a("#6 |,- ')C ^ f% \ "# ("#/h'k/ /n&"# /
')h ')s "#g"#g/h**'+,- C'un& g3 /h "#&U*'khf _ $ /n6C*/C-,"
^ fC63}f% ^ /b' _ n- f 'ksijCf"# OzC/f"#g"#g/ "#,*f &
z%"- C'u ';"#*( "#f'+fhC l#m#m#l ]s
')/"#')/" ^ 'p-. 'p*C& "#,( ^ /6Ch{')(}
*f%$&%g3& xD h "#"#')($"Of"#g"#gCstqr
-D'p"#ff \

s }b' \ D
\ p 1h Cf ^ [$"#pe |s{
')6 z"# ^ U6C- ng \^ 6"#h/"
z b'p"#f "# _
NaN
NaN
\ h
C& 'p ^ 'p fg3"#C '
afCg'p"#f}" _ &';s x
NaN
- "# \ /|r*')hhC
& /h$*fh,}" _ h,- C'p"
-.& x {
NaN
')6Cd- &C
z ,*')bs '+& '+C') \
z"#')
Isnan
NaN
C')'k(}& 'kh*! "#f%f 'u ^ '+ \ h
<"#C ^ /("#zHC>5
<sqy6/ / &'){6 C$C6"#nzC"#& gC *, ^ '+z ^ 6C

NaN
*"#'+&"#ff _ C')'k \ "
- 6 & "#!') '; zC/C- \ \ \ 'pBCH>6:;L#9;:k9;L
compare
6"#"#/,"#h'p- C'u /*')CgC'+"#'p&a"#f} $6C*"#'+hCs
2 m
2
W
v f & gC & xD h "#"#')( z ^ "#nC"#&%gCD* !C*'+"#&C&

\ g ,,"#f}" _ ^ / ^ n
')&'+$"
-,"# _ C*';"# ("
NaN
NaN
&C$-D'p6C*C (*'+"# s 'p|"#$*f/} $6C*& ga
"#**')*';"# /h"#f/- "#&C'u an/$*fC &g3"g'+"#* \ /"#|rC-,"n!Cb"#fzn ^ 1*&s x z6"#n1!"#zhn1- C'u& /"#|OC*';"# $
h$*f _ gC ')
#s
NaN
"#ff _\ ') g36"# ^ /"*') ^ fSs{ xD n&"#"#')({'kC{g3b' _

*')6nf _6\ "#d,*& /'+'k,b"#f/C-, /')Cg3$s
hC 6C6 z}& & /%&C$C-,$*f6%!')C ga _ *
-D&C$f"#g"#g#s z$"#z "#
6Cb';h%C'u /|r*f6
round
*')g';"#$z} 6 }n $ ah xD 'kC%g36"#J,hU& / "#&';"#ff"# gC"#gC
*'+ b \ "#(b';nf _ & /f%"#gC"#gC/*'+ bz}ff ^ /%-6,
*f%$,& Ub'p6')"#h ga ^ 'pC- xD $"#6 s
$a }
op$*f' | p &gC ')e [h ^ C-{"# g *C]s C'|"#$*f v
\ f"#g [')"#' "#nh
"#fks l#m## { C'k*f"#g
}%&
x/2.0
x*0.5
"#
h Cf ^ e')*f%"#6 ^C_
s }b' \ & h }|*')hn u
x/10.0
0.1*x
m
4 5 C ; < = = @ A V C O D C j 9 > O < D = B > V C O @ > ] 8 B O i D C ] A D d A d 8 = < 5

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%
C, "#b/ /n"#/h$"#&%6" ^ "#' _ "#6 \^ "#h/s l 6"#C ^

')*'kn&d|r"#6 f _ ^ "#' _ s{ z |r ^ CCa"#f%hahggh z')*f"#6 g
x*y-x*z
^C_
\ b$ gC }/ "#b/h& "#, h/ }a|r*')nhC6"#$ "#b
x*(y-z)
/-&- '),b"#f} <
~s v f Cg $,C"#f%- _ & Uh "#&, "#
"# _ "#fg ^ ';"#e _ "# ^ /hd} $C* ~# ga ^C_ g3 "#
C*&$~#';h Cf(C,bCf"# 1 /f"#g"#g/ &C \ ,f"#b& /$*'knhC
"#,C"# gCD*%,h"# 6"#')/C!b' _ $*'+&"# +s 'p'pC,&
f"#g"#g/h "#"#')(n*6 "#,*"#'k & nz$h ^ U ') \
"#
(x+y)+z
\ "#hnh(" ^ CbCst ')/"
"#b/" "#ff _ --D'k,"#n}'p& "#
x+(y+z)
*') ^ ffnf _ ')f"# ( *')h'+b ga*"#'k h "#,zff%h ';"# ^C_
- CffC}g3
eps = 1;
do eps = 0.5*eps; while (eps + 1 > 1);
%zhg( agCb/"#$n&$"#&/-D'p"# /*nfCPs x -,"#* ~# g

l
l
6C*f%'pC 6& "#,9;A I
9)A I
\ & /*'kCgC'+"#}ff ^ /6 "# gC
6C*f f _ s x h "#-!$* g 1h"#ff%n{ ^ ' Uh6 & "# l
Uh ff
g'k"# '. "# e
\ }ff6C* & f"#'kgh ^ ' [- 'P} 6 y
'kC{d&a
e s v b ga C%(C- C*&%~#"# zn
min
*C'+&"#, "#,,z}'+& *')h g3 /C'k/b' _ n- f"#fgCC'; & "#!
"#ff _ ') ^_ ]s
ij"# _ *'k ^ f$ \ n6 "#z';%6"#f &g';"# "#( /';%6"#fnf&C$C-&- ') &"#f"#&Cpbfbe6C* ghp} a"# _ ';s 6"#he"#6
\ "hbfbg
"# C6"#$*C& "#ff _ ')61"#$';')'u"#zf"#')gC1"#s
ulp
h"#C-, ';6"# "#bU /" ^ ,C-,')g3'+'kC'+s v n*f/}" _
6C';')6,-D'p& z n&C')/& /*"#'; "#fn$"#("C ^ f/*')6%hC$b"#';" ^ f%
"# *'+- '+ "#6 "#{&CngOC ^ f*'khCPs x -& 6"#f%6f"# C ^ g
C/$ngf/*')6n \ *';- C'+g3 /h ^ f/*')6nz"# _
Ch,6C*&'p _ h s C}b' \ -, /6"#f%6f"# C$"#f')"# _a^ g3 /
C ^ f/*'khC \ C ^ f%g3& U*'khC$C,hah$*fs / d& "#,
hC "#bC6"# (&an'+! / ^ '+z"# ("#( - ')h"#ff%n,&
f"#')gCn+s }b' \ ')/z"O $C')/-6, C(} 6 ${';"#"# 6"#f%f _
*')Cb& /"#66';"# _ C-.h$ \ "#$f _
&m
&m
#u+h+u#%+% #
BDCFEHGJIKEHLNMPORQTSJCUSJVXW7Y7LZLZSJ[]\)GJV_^`GJIHLZY7abSJc
dfeg#g#hikjmlon#p]l
jN= 1 x j
qris8h]tug#eflojwvèfikqrxKy_lon#j>z]h{{rh|?qrxy_p{ yJh]}wqrlon#t
S = X[1];
C = 0;
for j = 2 to N {
Y = X[j] - C;
T = S + Y;
C = (T - S) - Y;
S = T;
}
~ n#jwxTlon#js8h]tug#eflojwvìweftdqrijwefp]{2lh
( j 2 )
uJToJJ#ow_
x j ( 1 + j ) + O ( N 2 ) x j ,
foJ>_oKKf#o
x ( 1 + )
j
j
$JKk>m_oJ7#J#_R_#
K
ow_`RJ 7w#_#kfKKJ
#_R#2KwoKTJ
K
j JoK#P1Kwo#o>J7#?#ku# xfj 2Ru>
K#7#)uJ

)w_<#oJ`_#f##
2k
xboj
#jw$JTJ
|?n#jw})j
>_#KoJ#f$KfK>#oJ JJ#woJKoKfKJ7
>2]oJ#X-~ odf
- doodf
J#Kfw
P#fkKJKJoJ#f>2
]KoKTKKR
JKK&#K]###KTR#JToJ#
K
_#KwJK&kKKT]# JK#fJT#Kfw#KJoK
oJ#J>ooJ_#JK_##kK#J_KwoK&kKJJ>JT>#oJ
Jf##K
JJK
#ToJ#>o$#]#_J#Jf2K#27#2 >21>
J>K7>2o#J
_oJK&)KR
foJKk#_$]K]_#
1.0E-40*x
ofJ#wT>JKwR>>#o>J#>JKwoJ#JfKo`J#
]JR#J
K#oJ]Jo#J]#2J>f)KkKKJoKK&#]oT_$J#wfoJ
K
JK&#]JKHK$>Jf7w#RK
#oJ#oJ72Kw
#`JTD
KFJD&kKR>7K##oK_RJfkK]R>
&JoJ]Jo#J
JK&#]oHoK&#]2]JfKoDfJ#`KKJoJ])K2J#2oJ
k>JJTK
J#_o#KmJ#>JKwo
$J#wT#
K
1.0E-40
]$_ f]J#22oJRK#Jo]>F2k>fw#
KfK
K
]JR#Jo#
J_#kKH#$kKkKKJo#2#$R#f##f
kK]R>_#_#oKT]JfKK#]oKfJuoJKT#)u# #f7KH#
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
@@A
]#2J>##JTK&]Ko>2f#J#k2#oKKTJD)J$JT>
>2o#JoJ##)$JKJD]JfKK#>_o2>J
o_]Jo#JK]##$>J_#
const pi = 3.14159265
>_fKHkKR>K_J#o>#J>oJKFK&#2#>_##oJ#
]#]J#2#2 >JRK#Jo]Rf#7$ow#oKfoJ>
2>
C = A*B;
RndMode = Up
D = A*B;
2>
##K#Uo]_>KHkKRJ&$2>K#2
A*B
k>JJTK)KJ#oJ
Kf##_RK
]#JJ1uk$#]KP2u>K#>JR#2
JkKJ#K&#K#
K
fK]#Ru# JK
true
o#o
#J Tu2>oJ5o5>
w<K]#R
NaN
#)2$JKmf)K#oKoJ#J>mKoJ#_kJ#wT#2 >JJK
NaN
KRDJKRKH#_KfoJKk#kKo_##$>JoJ#]#_f>2>
>#oJ J]
wR>F#foJKk#)#fK#5$KJoKJ##k#o
K
>#oJ JJ_Kw
<>D&#$
#woJKo#) `
K
HK2R_KJo$
]#To#o
_#]J2KR]T#
#J
#RKk]oKw Jow]o
mu
JK2#2 Jk]Kkooo>#) 2Ko2#$Ko

_##J
m2#JKH#K<>2KJK&)KR
kK]R>f##K#J
dx
JRw_oJ#$K7
kK]R>JfK
dx = x*y
dx = x*y
JKk
D)K
#2
#k2
__#]JJKoJ#J#f#
K
2)K_JK7ok>`$
#_f_#KooJ#JRwJf#2KoJ#
]$`RKwK>FJRwJJ#>JKwoJKw#Jo>f#J
oJK_Ko>>o>kK]R>o
<>>_K
o
ow
K7
kKow$]o>J
2])Jf1>2fKJT
T #)KK#JoH2KkK>Jo`k>f#K
JRJwo#
KkJ#JKTJ#__JoJ#>#oJ JJ_KwKkK#
K
J_Kw#JJKToJ#_
2#1kK#2K7
Jk>fK
K
okK#f2KK#Jo]m2#2K#k5K&kKK&KJRfK_2
T_
JfKw#koKfoJk

CALLS
@@@
"#(-'b.!"#$$(*+F"#(-/
J# x
CALLG
o
T_
JfKw
J_Km>Fo72
KT#KHJKJo7#k#KJ
2#K
1
]J#_ j
j
8
KK_oJK&>JK2
j

To>k2
Tf
JD
T#f>oJ
oJ#JfoJ>#JKw#oJ7_#f2JK#mfoK
_Kw#oJT_JK
#JT$J]#21fRf#JfJKK$
25_KKJo##woJ$>Jm##2>mKfK_>)

ofK]#oJ#oJKow#2]K2KJ#oJ$>J#kKr1#$>J#
J_Kw
&#]JoKKm#w$J_K>ooK_kfKTfoK7#2
K
J#JT>mkK
KfKofKH#1#2 >21#oJKo5w#kK
K
RKo
Jo#JoJ#JoJK)#k7RKo#f>2ofJ?#2#R_#ow_
oJ#KHoJ5o#J#
Jo#
p
&#J
JKJKfKoJ5J
K#_#f>Jo>
#kKf
#J
<JJKRJJo
fo>R_>mJ_Kw#
k>fw#_Kwo$Jk_#fwoJRf#J
1 + )
##]Kk]#J#)
]$
w
>kKJfo
woKwKRk>ToJK#$woJTkKK2JT2#1#2 >2
#w#KJ#)K#JfKRK#Jo]
!#"%$'&)(+*'&!,-%".&/
JRKoDJ
#]#]T#JkK]$
RK
Ju
2#fw_#w`>2]Kw2TfoK_]#oJ
#PJ#2Kw##R>DJKkKoJTfoK
K
o#J#kPok>Jf)K>_KJ7J#1RKw?fu#uoRK]o
ow#J#JKoK#]oJu]$#K?1&]KoJ#J
w#
#f###f##]#o>27KmKJK#PJ#J$
#JKD>
oJD]#
J#Kw#o_#JfR>T#KkK&]KoJfoJJ#2KRJf
2>K#J>oJK K o_oJKH#TkJKkK
KKJJT>JD)fw#_JT#Jf#fKJTRKf2#PJ#2K_2
k>K
u#uo#]K?oJKf##K7Juk#
ow#TJ#2KU_5#f5KJoo
oJkK]$>>FKoJ#o
2#2Kw#o
>#2KHKJR>oJ

#KJKowK#2
JD
o#J#k#RKoJ#>K#J#)D]J]Ko#TK##J2#
2#_2Kk1]ffo2oJKw#o_#J
Kw#J
_#JJK
J_J#K2JT>m$#woJKoJo
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
@@
2#_K&]Ko>>]w#TJ>fKJ>$TJ#JD#
J#J$mK&#JoJk#>JK
KH#$
#k #k>o>mKJoofJ

J]>#o>#K#TfJK]KR#w
JJKmk>fKR#oT2o
x
z
a
d
=
=
=
=
JTk>fw#
o#_KJ
y*z;
x*w;
b + c;
a/x;
<oJK>JoT#K#_K&]Ko>J#JoJow#P2#JK
o`R52#5
#>o$#
J#k
#Jo
a ]
k>#ff5oJ#$>K##JK#>oJRK]J
$]fRoJ#oJ##_k]KK#w#K
22K]JoTow#R
#k5oJ#2####J_o##K
KJo#T]2#J$JTJkK>
o_oJ$
J##k#fKKHKo
J
a=b+c

>JkK#J#>m`>_K
a
o#>$27fJ>F>o##oJfK#DKwT#J JKw#o_]#

KJo#Tow#f#2oJf#T#JRw_R]JKJT_##J
K$J#K
Jk>$
]##>KTk>Jf$JT#

#]]KRJT#JT#w#fK7oJk#kK]o
JoK#foJ
J#J$m#_f2>K#J>mkK##_#kfKJ
J#J$ok>
oJKk#)R$k>fK
oJDow#fKJ
x = y*z;
z = a + b;
oJ7
D2ok]o>J_2
#kKJ
K7K&K]oKT##K
]#)K#TJ#KK>K
o2oJ7_oòw#R#o
oKTJD#$>JRK]#$
2]#o_R#To#RKm2#_$
oJ
o#J#k_kfR>_
oKmfoK7oJ#w
K
$JKm
#ToR#foJ#
z
J#k #kfTJ#f2oJ>_K#]_o#o>_oJwR1$#]
e iwloqrleloqrhx $JoK#ow#P2#JKwo#
7#J#_J#k>K2 g#})jwik
oJKkK
o27_KJfoJRKRK]K7#KHK_#22f#
#_K&#K
J #JofR#7oJkK JK_oJK&]Ko>>]w
>RoJ#_]>m]JT 3
2# `7R
2&
#)oJ#
$k>Kw>#J#>`KRo>
J#J$J$7#
@@.0

#f#2JRK#
u2
#PJ#JKwJDK
2K_` òw#P]
woJ#J$oJ#kKow2mf#$>1#JJR#J$K>k]oJ
"#(-'b.!"#$$(*+F"#(-/
RJTkKfoJfoJK RK]oToJ# JK#_J#
Kw#o>_]foJf#`RJ>R
7#J#_#7oJ7)KfoJ
K#oJ#oRKRK]KokJD&]Ko_]w
1 JK$J#J#JK&oJf#5o5kKwJK_]#]oK JK2
J&
ow#P]
JD#f#Jo#f>FkRR$o_2#1$12#7`R#fJ>
$_KJ#o
KoJKò#
#)
2]]J#27oJKR)K)KR>F2>K#$>
2>)KRRoo_J##o#]ofD#owfoRfoJ
#]K#2]oJ
TJ#k
#kJ#k
mR>T#?oJfK&]KoTJ#?KKTKoKw_JK>]#
R#J#)#KJ$KTof
#k_#Jo#)K
RkK#
KT_KKJoK
57698:;8=<?>A@CB?D
J_Km>F]#_7J#KK#J#Km]J]KJJTkKwoK7
1 J k]KKoRJ o J#>#oJ JJ>
#T#$]fw#oJK$7`R#fJ> #kRFE J#]#

>#oJ J#w$J_K
K#oJK#o]#
J$7R$>7K2oJkD#wo

J#
K
K
kKKJo#2k]oo`K)U#2#R&#J_k>KoJ5K#$oU<K]o
3G
>JJ
)-`_#f##
2K]J#wKH$>kK7fJ#wToK]#
K
]JKw$>J2f#ok>
&K]o
2
&o#J#k-`
#f#3
H
JoJk#RK7oJ7#J#_R_#_># J #
K
RK#7#KH#__<K]o <oK K]o->##
IJ$KL&!,"%&/)MNMO$'M
_oJR]R_kJJTK)f
#7R#oKoJ#`Jff#kf
KJf_of##JoDJ##o_#Jf#]o>
JK>kK
k>KPfKooJm#]
omf#]o>#JJom#o>
JKk
#f7f#]w#o
J#?
J#oRow#$>
P Q
R S T
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
#o>J
@@4
BDCFEHGJIKEHLWV
Xz
pxv
p]})jg#hiwqrloqZY#j [hp]loqrxKy\og#h]qrxflxfeft!jw}kimqxTpz]h]}wtup]lF|?qrlon`g#p]}wptujkljw}wi
p]xfv`q z5iwe^lo}wp]s8loqrhxqriv#hxj|7qln`g`_Ja`v#q yJqrloi
2 j
--2- + 1 = 1 + --- d
})hexfv#qrxy_jw}w})h}qrxln#j})jwiwe{rlFqim{jwiwiln#p]x
p]xfv`g3]
qZb-jcbfhxjyJefp]}wv`v#q yJqrl 2 ]flon#jwxTlon#j})jw{rp]lqZY#j

j
eDIKGJGgf
JKk]2#J
#J`$JKR#T2# ih
7#RJ#w_K#
j o$mk)KR2K#?

kj kl
km3ncl
j l

mon l JKJDkKJ7K&#] 7kKkKKJoK#9p l
m foJK_oJ
f#kT$2kKoJ#2oJ5]oKkKJ f5J5KH#2oKkKJ]
#JRoJ#
mkK)KRKJKf
k>JKo#oJ JJfKfoJk>JJTKwk$7# j
f2Kw#fK`
JK
#kqFr
n mOn?l
kqkr
n mOn?s
f#J
n mOn q
k>JKof`>#oJ JJKfoJ#
k>JJTKwk
JKk#koJ)K#K
nm
wfoJKwk$7
oF
JKkoJ
òJK_oJkK#ofKk>m7f>JK
1)(1
k p
1.0 0. 00
o3t
#foJK
nq
nm
nl
nq
&2]oJ_#KoJ#
_oJ]#R2)K#oKwk>mJK
"#(-'b.!"#$$(*+F"#(-/
nm
yy+
--------------------
1
<>2]
#oK
JD&#]oKkKJ]$
@@U
)oJKJo>>F#)ffoJ>_oKf#>
`f
D`w2]#o
(17)
]#_f
2K)
yy+
( 1 ) p ( 1 + + k )
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- = p
<
( 1 ) ( 1 + + k )
( 1 ) ( 1 + + k )
JDJ#]#$
J#K7
JK
#f
TP
J_]#R
oJ###JD)K#ofDk>mJKf
JJ #T27>
K

#foJK_o# #KRf
nm
n m
_#Jf>J?KH# j #JoJ?J?#]2KfK>
JK
lwn?m
#J`P
lwn?sxm
2#
18)

fJf#)JJK]KR#wTo#JK>#]w#]f#oJo
kKRJ
svn.m
JK#JTJK7oJR#
J
BDCFEHGJIKEHLWy=z
Xz
pxv
]lon#jwxlon#j})jw{ploqZY#jjw}k}kh]}qxs8h]tug#elqrxy
yJefp]}wv`v#q yJqrloip]}kjeiwjwv3b
qrip]lthiwl
]>jcY#jwxq zxfh
eDIKGJGgf
JD#woJ
ow#]o
|{5f#k$o7$7R#moJ#o
o#

k&RJowfJ2JofJ5#u>Jo
R]#k_#2$m2oo#oJ
g`
{5$JK7K&#]o
fKoT22kK
R#
JK_kJo
>_o2
f
JK_Jf#kf#kR
v3b-v#v
1 p+2
---
2
JR
#JoJ#
of#RoJKkJ]#wT>
#K##foJkK#$fK)m7KR7oJ#
2KJK#]#R

JK_2u$7JK>1oJuKJPDJ#uDf#uK72#
]#wTofJKJKk>mok>
JKR
2K)52`f2Kw#o#R_JoJ#
]
]#$D>FJDo>
{7>R$>
#J#)5#fJK
nm r l
` j
nm r l
f#JPoJ
oF2K)$7
J2_#oJk>2JTKwk>
7#K#R
fRJD)K#ofDk>mKJ#
p + 1 + 1--- p + 2 = ( 1 + 2 ) p
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
@@u
1$7>7oJ#]2JT2R
2kKK
ffKoJkK#KwkoKow2J>K#$>
Kwk>
Kw#o>2
o
$1#2>oJK
JK)K

#JoJkJJ

$JoJ5kK#ofKwko
kKfkKJ
J)K#ofKwk>
#oKX
#2
JK>kK
J]
o3H
o#
<#
RJToJ#$$]#o>7Kow_T]JToJK&#]k>]
#JoJK)J$JJkK#ofKk>m#1_>R
e^Y
o#JT>#oJ JJfKw
oKo$J
#J
<oJkK#$fK)mJ]wkK
) (
"#(-'b.!"#$$(*+F"#(-/
ooJoJKoJkKuKf#J7oKoJK
o#
o#
= (1 + l ) (1 + s ) (1 + ) 1
_JK
j
ulp
2]JT
J$7kK#$fK)m7Kf#
JK
#J
$fK

k>JJTKwkwo$J]
@@}
f
l s
l
s
(23)
l s
J_
kfoJ_#H_kK#ofKk>m#>
`R#2K j
#JKff
_#m#J#f>F
kK#KwkfK#
JK_
foJkK#ofK)
]#J2>kK`_##omJ
JK#Tf#K7
#Tfo#kf
oowT#J#DJ#2#R7oJ#
1
s
JK
l F
s o
s
l
#JD#ku2K#wfJKwkK

~
s
2>oJK

#TRDJ
ffK2
]#_#7#k#7oJukK
JKR]#o>27>#EooT>#
K
k#]]w#ooJ#
K_
#J`#kffKJo
J#
JKHo##2#RoJou>2#)Ku>uow#Jf
Ko#ooJ#&
o
JTo#
KwkoJ#]#>]
JKKK
JK_]2
)K
o_o f2
BDCFEHGJIKEHLWyy
X z5iwelo}wpslqhxTqimg#jk} z]h}ktujwv`|7qln`pyJefp]}wvv#q yJqrl]p]xfv

d
s8h]tug#eljwv`j p]s8lo{ b
]lon#jwx
qri
eDIKGJGgf
oJ#
JK
#J`2#foJR#KH>JKJofoJK_Kwo#J
RK&ok>
`$7K&#]
oJ5>J$oJ5JKkK&oJ5KHJKJo#oKUf#
1
<]#u#2PJoK)J#Jf #JP`1JKR#2#
#J
>
>
kK)KRKJK# kj kl
l
kmOn?l
m K
]2
]o `K&#]o#2k>Jo#oJ J
v &oJ5oKkKJ]
JoKk2]525ow
v l
m
o>2f#2Jk>2JTJK]KR#w
<J]
#k
v m f
2]òJow
v l
J_K

JK
#foJJf>oJKR7
oJok>2KU]Jo
JK)K`]#JJ)K#KT
#o2K]KR#w
#kK#
kf#2
2#J#f2oJKk>U
R
2K>kK##KJ#]
f_K#oK>$ JTJD)
oJ#JkK#ofKk>m_oJf#>K#J>F#o_#JRo#]o>

_#2o2#KKf#o>2?3H
#J#f
#Jo# o
J$?7oJu1>_>_fJP1Kk>

Kof#J#f#JTowò kfkKoJJTkKfJ#K
K
JKkK#f#7oJ>
2)>
$J
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
@@
BDCFEHGJIKEHLWy=
X z5iwelo}wpslqhxTeiwjwipyJep}wv`v#q yJqlg]fp]xfv`q z5p]up]xfv`s?p]})jmlon#jiwqrv#jwihrz5plo}wqrp]xKyJ{j

s ]flon#jwxTlon#j}kjk{rploqZY#jjw}w})h]}qrxTshtug#elqxKy
p
2
p_ _s 22 s\ p\ 2g2 s_ p\ 22 p_ \s 2g2 qrip]lFtuh]iwl 3t ]fg#})hY#qrv#jwv`jJb p3p3 b
eDIKGJGgf
KKH#_JoJo#wJTJ
)
JK>kK##
K

s ?Ts o
7oJkK#ofK)f#J
l
l 2k

s8o P p5
s8o
#uoJuwR1o#7 p

l o
s f#J2
ffK
Ps
K#J7oJ# p5
JDJkoKw
@

s8
pus
JK_oJ
7
] (12)
s
2#

p
#TJ#k>JJTKwk
s f#J>_J2oJ
p5
&
o3
o
sm
JD

"#(-'b.!"#$$(*+F"#(-/
JKkK

7`J#K7Row#$>
JKkHò
po
>F
o_oJkKwJ
p5
#J
K###J5#koJ
#oK?oJu>JJ7>
7KH#fJKJ
2]_#_fKo#ook>

p
ffK]#R
òw$#JK
JfoJKJo#T]#o#ok>25Row#$>> s
JDJKHoKw
p
s8
J$7K#27oJ#2k#
P pm
p5Jus
KH#1$f#JooKfR
p
o3t
J#f2#o$
s
u
JK)KH`#J
KH#$k>JK<oJ#
RJT
fo3t
#Jo#
$fK
s?
JK>kK
#o
o
p=o
o#
oF$]#o>7#RKof
p
s?
<2T]2J3
s
Fs
2k
_Kf>2o
#]>J>
&
x o
x o
off7K#RT
JKkK#`Kwo#JTJ

ufJ>_#

o_ofD]]KJofR$1#_$J]kK#JTJ]o_
<J
#
f#JJK2]
#
Po#
3t
K` KmJ> fJoJ#

o x o
G
x o

f#2 JK
#
f 3t
o
fJJToJK

J$$7 3t
T 3t
J2k#oKwk#

K
3t

j
Jo
2]&#J
woKw$TfJ>koJ
oJ#JKkJ]#o#ok>J$5#J]K#o_
<#2>f_1?2>1JKR#RJ
ow_D 7JKw#
o#Kf$1#oRo$JTJ#`JooJKJokow# 2] J#
ow_D
JKkK`
#JK#o>J>##3HK
eDIKGJGgfGgfBDCFEHGJIKEHLW
K
p5
us
s?
po
sm
p5=o
Fs
#J
s8o

o
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
s8o
@A
JK2
JKk
oJ#
7oJ#
#`2
3t
7K#Ro]JK
o#
1 0.52 1 1 + 1 + 0.52
k>K
R#RoT2]Jo>
f#JJ
3t
3t# #
q ( 1 + ) =
Q =
##
q ( 1 + 1)
Rf#kk>#k]Ko
oJ
>K
foJK_oJ
ulp
Q
l
s
2
oJK)$7JowoJKmKwk>m]_oK
JK_JT
oJK
KfJ
K)
JK_>_oJ
7o
#f2
ko#]o>m
KoJ_oJk>F>
7>$J#KT
K
JK]KR#wTomJfR>2f#JRJT2
JKk
#f2JKo5K&#J#o__K#KT>
JKkK`kK]RKfoJJK&1oJK)K
#k>&#oK`]Jo#J
##foJJ#Kwkf>J
2oJR#oKKJ
KwKAEJ
>RK
BDCFEHGJIKEHLWy=
Xz
< ]flon#jwxmz]h]}
P$Jo
1
---
3] 1
--- ---
pxvlon#jv#jw}wqZY#p]loqZY#jiwploqrijwi
eDIKGJGgf
oJ#
oRfo
oJKK7>
3
---
@@
1
---
2

#foJX
r
"#(-'b.!"#$$(*+F"#(-/
1
---
2
$K]kK#J
7KK_K#KmoRK2#1fK]#R
2
#mKK7
J#mK]kK#JK>
7##KJ#oJTKw$
7#oKw2#2
#KJ#2>#J
r
1
---
2
r
$7#R
1
--2
J #<
<J]oJ
#fRKwKo
x2 x3
ln ( 1 + x ) = x ----- + -----
2 3
m#T#oJ#oJRKwK>
oF
J
o
P#fo
fJK2
1
--- ulp
2
#foJK
#<RoJkK#Kk>2])K
#KJ
D
P
JK_Ju
K

oF_#J>f#w$J_7#k]K oJ
]K#FJK&kK$>Jo
2o
$72K
foJkK#KwkJ
JK_
`
J
2#k>&#oJTJ
o3H
2k
#J
2]_R#oJ#
om
K
#J
f#J>_J2oJ
Ko#o
x K o
oo
o#
JK>kK
oJ_#f#2K>kK
J#$]f_ofJT

# J
)oJKJo>>
#`KX
f>
F
oJ#
o
x

Jok>]K7J#
foJ]K
J$]K#JoJ#
x ln ( 1 + x )
---------------------------- ( 1 + 1 ) ( 1 + 2 ) ( 1 + 3 ) ( 1 + 4 ) ,
( 1 + x) 1
?#RoJK]2#
#f
#<oJKT
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
@
_JoKkKoJTKH#>FKwk#J#$R7JTow_#o3H o#
]w_oJf#w#oo>
#f#3H#fKH#$JKJ
#2o#
#2]K#o>2`>
( b b 2 4ac) K2a
_J#o2>oKJo#
oJTJDf#
oJKk7#2>oJKm>oKJo#
K
>
o
J v s p]s
JJ]#J2>
K
K2#K_kK#w#JfKKJ2J5ow_ G fJRK#$J 2
s
ps )J2Kk>m]#]J#_J#oPoJ#FJo_oJk>
]#2]K#o>]#RKToJ
]#2]K#o>2#1#_]
Kw#o
]K
k#_2ow#)o#2>oJK
o_oJf##ow_
K
#k>#_oKo#oJTJDk>m_oJf#w#oo>`#K#w?#J#
-3H##
X z s
p]s?]<}kh]exfv#qrxyTjw}w})h]}s8p]xs8h]xfloptqrxfp]lojefguloh7n#p{ z?lon#jv#q yJqliqrxln#j})h]hloishtug#elojwv
|?qrlon`ln#jefp]v#}wp]lqrsz]h}wtef{rp
k>
o
g p
s
uRJ
s
p]s >2m]#Tf)
d 4ac
p]s 2K
]K
#
JDK
s J
ofoJo#J# p
s8
J]]#oJ#R>K)U
<J]
s
p]s o
woKT#? v o
##
F}
F}
JKk
#_fJk
RoJuK>2PKwk>K
d + 4a 2 r 12 4
JKk
o
~ l
fK#TKo#oooJR#2mKwk>o<fJ)K]J)KoKw_m
( b b 2 4ac ) 2a
f
ps
Ko#oJDK]J
l} s
p]}
<J]
4ac 4 4a 2 r 1 4 2
2?oJ
JJKf#$
p q p 2 q 2 p 2 + q 2 p + q, p q > 0
2
7oJ#
d + 4a 2 r 12 4 =
#R>K)m
oJ
d2
oJu#fouK)
o>oJK
#
r1 4
2k
E 4a 2 r 12 4
nm
<J
fRJ
4 p 2
f#J
KRk>f7oJ>oo>J#$>oJo7>oJk>o
>kfR1J]4
oJ]##o>_oJ)7$JffK]oJ
@.0
d+E
"#(-'b.!"#$$(*+F"#(-/
#JoJKHkKR>>KJJ#f_K#JJfoo7J
( d ) ( 2a )
o>]wkKJJòJ
}
#JJK#J$J
J#
KF)KUJ#2 } HoJKoJ
KFkUo
JKkKt
7f#K_oJ>
JKkK3`#J
JK)K
#`_#f3#
o_ooJk>F>
2]_$7kfK_
2#]o
BDCFEHGJIKEHLWy=
q
_ ]fp]xfv`pikiweftujlon#plk[mh]p]lqxKy\og#hqrxlFh]g#jw}wp]lqhxip})j
{ Pg3]p]xfvìwjwlt
j p]s8lo{ })hexfv#jwv3b ~ n#jwx t

t
32 qrij psl{ jwep{floh })h]efxv#jwvulh?g\
32
i
k
q
y
J
x
f
q
s
8
p

x

l
F
v
#
q
y
J
q
r
l

i
%
b
v
h
]
}
k
j

g
#
}
)
j
w
s

q
r
i
w
j
w
{
]
q
r
i

}
k
h
]
e

x
f
v
#
jwv` lop { qrxy_ln#jiwq yJxfq spxvhrz ]
{
qrtupbyJqrxqrxKyp7}wp]v#q g#h]qrxfl<befiwl{rj z]lhrz?ln#j { {rjwp]iwliwq yJxq spxlv#q yJqrloip]xfvu})h]efxv#qrxKylh7p]x

qrxljyJjk}ob
jkl
JKk
3# k
JK]K#J$
k>2Ko
#K
kKf k
oJ$
g
o
K#
N f#
)Kmf
k>JJ
g`
<J]
kmOn
q nCl
v ?kKkKKJo#u
##JP##
mOn?l
of#_2KfKR#RofJ
xh
7oJ
gD
{5J_)Kf7
2k#koJkD]#K>JRK
JKk
xl = xl
x = xh + xl
#_kKkKKJoK
FJKkJ]#w
$J]#21$o
k

<oJKk]#w > o vj kl
HJK)JJ#
kmkn%l
#>oJK
kmkn q n.l <#2_oJ>J #oJKk#f]#w m km3n q ncl
$o
oJK
fJ]#Jo
K
#J
x1 < 2 k 1
JK>2_#
xl
7oJ{5
xl < ( 2) k 1
J#m#{7fR>_mKKJ>2K
f#J
{#]KJD##]2>2#2
xl
JK
xh = xh
xl
foJK
#J
J#?#
kKkKKJo#
x > ( 2) k 1
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
>#J
@4
oJK_]2
k
2ffKk>2JTfR
x h
xl
J]#f#J
xh
f#J
2#7#{$Rf
xl
n?l foJK
J#f
P
>

k
K
l J & k $JKm h q n?l
KKJJT 2oJKm2K)`k>

h q n?l q

#> J_#kkK)KRKJK o_`f

kK)KRKJ#f
fo
JKkKt`ffK
#oKHkKoJk>]>F
J_Kw?KH#$#?
KH#$
7Jo_3H###
)oJK
wfJTkK]R>
JKk?]#2>o>oK&kKRJ
`P
KfKm3H##
JK2K&#]o

JK>kK
$_K
KfKo

K
k>JKKw#o>2foJow`>2owo
#f#J2>o
oJKH#_
H3H3H3H##f
H3H3H3H#J
P##
".&!*'M#)#$+N"%+*'-=J$'&!NM N"%$'&
<J]RJfkK]_2#
P3#f#2
#kff>fJKHK1oJ#
]JKwoJT`2#wTJ_Km`K#fo
oJ>fJ#fJ#wTJK
>RKJk>K
KfKfoJ72>oJ]#R
BDCFEHGJIKEHLWy=
n#jwxp9qxfp]} X ''PiwqrxyJ{rjg#})jwsqriwqrh]xxfetjw}qrishx^Y#jw}wljkvDlhlon#js8{rh]iwjwiwl1jwq yJn#l1v#q yJqrl

})jws8hY#jw}lon#jqrxp} xeftjw}
z]})h]t
ln#jv#jws8qtup{h]xfjcb uh]|7j%Y#jw}o]>q z7xfqrxjv#jwsqrtup]{v#q yJqrloip]})jeiwjwv3]>ln#jwxshx^Y#jw}wloqrxKyTln#j
v#jws8qtup{<xeftjw}lohlon#jFs{rh]iwjwiwlqrxp} xfetjw}|7q{r{<}kjwshY#jk}Flon#jh}kq yJqrxfp]{.[mh]p]lqrxy\og#hqrxl
xfetjw}ob
v#jws8qtup{2xeftjw}x]fqrlFqrixhlp{|7p ig#h]iwiwqZ{rjlh5efxqrefjw{
eDIKGJGgf
J#TJfkK]R>J_KwfJT_oJJ#FK_JoKw#-#
-####f##3
loj
J##òoJKooJ2#wTJ#J3`fooJ
J7oJKk#)Do lxj # l 3H##-#3tòKkKJ

K
2#wTJ_Kw_oJ#JoKw# K#2f#)kKkKKJoK o_
fRfoJK_oJKk#)Do lxj # # P3##-##`#JfKw_oJ#_

JoJ$J#wTJ
2kJ #ToJ#3##-##`K]_#JK7>$k)KRKJ
K
3H##-#3tòKkKJJ#TJfKw &`K#fo7#kJKJ>
J$fKT)KkKKJK#_2)K_$J#wTJK
JoKw#
@U
"#(-'b.!"#$$(*+F"#(-/
J#Hò#)R]$2f$1KJf_oRJ
J
K
KK_fJ#wTJK7#
K]_#JK
JoKw#
#kK#omoJ#_oJR#]JTf
1
--- ulp
2
>Jo#J#>2J#TJfK
K#]J#TJfKkJ`JfK#2f
k>J7o`2f2#wTJ_K
DRJ
oJ#JoJ7R#]2`K
#JK
JKk
#ff)K#KFoJ#2
r l
KK_>2K]K]_#J_Kw#k
n?s
TJ$
r xl %n.
f#2oJ#JTKo#)fKmoJKm_J
r
xl %n.
n FkH n s

r
lx%n%
n Fk&#
#k)#
#kkf)KkK]fKm`)K_JK
n?s
o#]of$J]
JD##kfKJ#$$)K_RJ
J]_o
KKfJ#wJfKw#
27$1KJf_oJK]ToJ##k

K
#kk&f2#k

K
2#$RJofKm2#1#vPk&foJ#JT>
2#wTJ_Kwk
JoKw#
KKK#JK<>JRK#TJoKw#F-#k)<#k
JoKw#foJ#JTK
-#v)fk
KK
KJRk2#1>mK#]K]_#J_KJ

1
--- ulp
2
oJ#2#J
J##`K#o
J# K]_#]J_#$k>K7#2>oJKm&#$>F2F#f
kK]$>J>#3H##foJ#okK]fKm`fJ#wTJKmok>
K]_#K&#JJfoJK#oJ#T]JfK__>_oK
K]#k>
KH#$
#
^f
J#]JfK_Kw>Kf_ofJTJDf#JoK9#J
2]#)f>o_K&#] g
Jf K&KJK)K_#J2
k>JJToJ7o2kK]$_omfJT g
]oJ>_o#_
Kw#o>k>2
f>o_#K#)R#
^#JJKH#
oJ#RK&#]o
7oJ>fJK
JKkoJk>JJTok>
2 &oKJKoRJfkK]R>
K 2_J#ofKH#fo#f

òRJfKf#J g òRJf KHoKJK
oJ
k>]1?ou#
#oJKoJ PukJKPo#
#?#1>JuRJf
G >JJoRJ$ukK]R> ff#
KHoKJK$T>K#

oJ##J mJ1>kK]ofK]#k>JJToJk>]oRJfkK]R>
## g
oJ_]#R>
2>$$f#
JKwkDkJ2
TRJTJD
#Rf>kJJT#_#K#o>$
<#foJ
]wkKJf#>F2JK&#]#f#22K_kKK &K2)JJT
k>J o #K)
2Kw>oJ$]#o
# &o)oJJ
f#$
K
oJ2KH##
#JkKo>koJu)JJ#JPJK&#]#
ixflag
ooJ#R
#Kk#
ixflag
# ^?K&#]okJ
#foJK_R>Do
ixflag
7#oJK
#okJ]#oK
u])K
Kkw2]#ofJk>J o
JfJ]#J>F2k>]
>Tf
!"#$&%#')(*+#$(-,%#"#.-/102+#354768"#9#.-$(-+:<;$=>(-+#4?(-$$(-'
@u
b l

sos s O l
_
l

fk>2JTKwk>m#T]m s

#o#]>JoUf>o#KKow
#
JK)Jg
OR

ixflag
>
$>_o]wkK]oT_#]#K
MNMO$'M #&)!K!+*"%$'&
_#KwR`>##3H#KJo>JKJD)K
>F#]w#oKT]J
J_
2RKR#k#]To_)f$J#]#]mofoJ
kK]R>
K`k>Ko#o>FJ
]>JToJkK]R>

JK i
kfK?oJ#]#]D_>K i
kl i s i l
i i
ks

i nCl JK)
Po
f#J P$Jw$JK>J)KoKw_7
ffK
sn = xj 1 + k =
j=1
k=j
n
JwR1Kf#To#
1#&#]1_#$>
kl
7owfK
2
7oJ#KwkoKw
KK]>Ff#wJ
ow_#<
RJ
7oJ#2]oKf#>
x j
o#
7oJ#_u#
#?KowKP>KwKPf#K?>
fJD#K
7f>JK
oJR
l < 2#
T>2
JuoKw

JRK]JKf#oT_#
fJT2)K_2#7oJ
n x j K_ #_
7f$JT>JD
n 1
J5kK]$>o#KoJ_#H_
>kK]R>
o#2kK#J## x
JR<>J

Kwo#o> x
#J]J#JfK2o
n 2
JK)K J
#>#7JTD)KJfKK_oJ>7_]KoKmJ#2
J7oJ
kK]R>
Kk>f>JooJ?#2#__#o>_>`
>m#_2$KH$#J#_
]JRKoJ>
@}
+
x
x
j j k
j=1
j=1
k=j
n
JToJ?#2#_#o_ow_
2##oJk]Kk
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
>R
S
+
Yh
Yl
T
-
S
Yh
-
Yh
Yl
Yl
= C
#]$`R#2#KfoJKk7`>kK]o>o#]o
#K>J2KH>
kKf>P)
fff$JTJ>kK]o_#J
#JoJkJJJR
)fm

K&]2J$T)Kom> >_oJ~
ow#]oK)oJRf2
)Kmo>
kK]fKkK
Kk_oJwRJ##
97
1 2
JKR#)DJ
K
2Kf>_2]wkK]o
o#k>>
JKkK
#<o#KTok>
##f#K#7&K]o
2K>kK3`#2
JKkK
o#o>oJJK&>
#f
JK_#J
K
oJ#K #k
oJR
o7oJ#
J]
&ow#1oJ>kX>_oK_oJ
7Jo
-3H##
>A
1$7JJ>_>o>_oKRRK
foKkK#oK#2 >J
J1K_fKo$u#J
#oKJo>__oJ]KR]KJuw
J$7_w_J#]#RKJ##kKJo
KfJKwo2KK1oJ#
J7$7k#TDoJo#1oJ#>#oJ
$KkK#KKoJ#1#J J
Jf#Jo#RFEK]o>#JR2k?o$>$JTRJ>KJuK#
J#k
#k#Jo
#k2#1#
o_
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@
J$7#KmJ#KJow#oKoJ#7Rok#R>wf)RT#>
>#oJ J
>mKH#_Kf>#oJ J#f>2JfJT]#JK#
K
]#kfK_oJ#fD#)K#oKwk>7$oJJfJTJ#k #kJ#
f#kf#JoJKk7#K]KJ#f>2omJ# K]_#]J
oJ#]#_fk>K_ofJoKfkfKoJ#K&KJK)K_
>o
K
]_K#RK
Jo#T>JRw$JT)K#f>#oJ Jo
#k#
JK_oJ2KwfJT]KmfoK>of#2
o#o>oJ KH#_K=ER1_KJJK#)$#J
KHoKJK_k &<K]o> <RK RK]o-u>#f7#u>oJ#KJ#

J
KH#_K7#JfJTokJRw_RK1Rf_o>_Km>o##o
ow#oJTJ
oKoKm1#2 >2
J7$J]kK#J`#]Ko#J]7JoJ7
>#oJ JJo#J#kK#JoJ#>
oJ#o#uoK#k?12R#J#kP#kK>$JKfK_>k>#f
<K]o>
JD
&o#J#k-`_#f#3
H#ff#fJKk>K&#KR#22
oJ7#okKJoJ
R#2#)T#f7RK$ woJ`w#]o#>#2 >J
]K
AiA
B?8A
<?D
J$7#
ok
1
7#J#_#&

]kfo_
#7KwT#T)f#J#Kf
#f$
TJ7oKJ#oJKwK#_#oJJoKw#_
#JRkT`]f
#oJk|o$3H###
J
f_<
>#oJ J#J>_oKRRK_
#oKJJ #
K]okK
JJ#JTofKP_
2#J?#)o7#J#T#J#J>_>K#fK
G
KK]#$
>2
fKw >mk#JTw#>F27#m#J
G Kf ok
k>JT#2Ko]_2
#
$JfK#2#
#JJf>7kKoKkK#JKKk>oJkKKJo#
#UKk
8=8^8 7 8D
J
p]xfv
&<oJ G <#J_$#
3H#3t
1 K
RK] G K#Jf
okK
~ hh]{ri
&3
H##
<#J#kJ
tjw}wqrs8p]x
H 3H###
#JKo
#3H##
?
#Jw
@.0N
h]tug#qr{rjw}wicw}wqrxs8qrg#{rjwi%] ~ jws8n#xqrefjwi
p]loqrhxp{>dlp]xfv#p]}wvL})h)yJ}wp]tutuqxKy
p]xKyJep)yJj=
_Kw##o>2#&o#J#ko2oK wf
h]}wlp{rjf{rh]p]lqrxy\h]qrxl=xY#q}kh]xtujwxfl
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
fJ$JK
<
w#J
3H##

dfqrtug#{jel
C
#
#k#
&o
jwp]{rqriklqrsh]v#jw{2hz{rh]ploqrxy\gh]qrxfl
}kh]g#h]iwjwv
>] 1
FK # 3
H#3
C
z]h]}f{rh]p]lqrxy\og#hqrxl
} qrlon#tujwloqrs f
w
#
#
h]tug#eflop]lqhx
p]v#q F
\ p]xfvh}wv3\o{rjwxyJln3\oqrxv#jwg#jwxfv#jwxlFdlp]xfv#p]}wv
$]k#g f
3t ##
G K#$
1
f{hp]loqrxK
y \hqxflFdlopxv#p}wv#
i
v }wp]s8loqrs8j f 3
3
H##
~ n#jwh]} p]xf`

21KoJk>FJoKw#KoJ7KJ]oJf#fK

#
>kKf H3H ### ]#K
kKR
o>2

>]
>JKJoK)3H#3
h]qrxfl
}kqrln#tjwlqs
KfKo
_K
hxl}wqelqhxilh5pL})hg#h]iwjwv`dflop]xfv#p]}wvFz]h}qrxp}
JKRfuJ
f{rh]ploqrxy\gh]qrxfl

## f
#3 3#

#o
#owJ$#
<]
<#
#wJ
xfv#jw}[h|p]xfvlon#j
w
f
## H#3H

K
J#K73H##
#k
<>o

w##J
jw{qrpqr{qrl
hz
&Kw$2]Kf##o f
## #3H
Kkff
oJ
KJJKo13H3t#
## f#
27
#3t
qrloi
})j
#3H3H#
h]tug#eflojw}
#Jo#o )#]2#
#
>k#?#o#2J o>R
$o
HP-15C
##3
3H##
def}cY#j
z}w})h]}
##3H`gNEf E#J#
##RJJf
3t#
ss8ef}wp]s w
z]h]}qrxfp]}
3H#3H
>_
h]xfs})jwlj
v3Y#p]xfs8jkviefxs8loqrhxiupxv3hh
X ''dflop]xfv#p]}wv \a
G wJoK&g ##o
7#J#J

3H##
o3H#
f7JoJ
J#
#J
R> g1 RK] G K#2
##k3H##
3\q yJqrl
{ yJjc}wpqrs
p]l}wq htug#eloploqrh]xfi f#J

3H#3H
>
)KR
#$_>k #wf#J
J#J
plon#jwtup]loqrs8ic]f
qrxfjwp]}
K )JoK]ok
#oKwR>_#JoJ
KJJKR KJ
#J# G
}wqrlon#tujwloqrs f
fKJ
#JJ1#|>#J
J#wK
P
Ko>2 JoJJ
fJ7uJ$fKwRo
Kkf
hlxfh]eKyJnFz]h]}
#2J K
3H3t#
h]tug#eljw}dh{reloqrhxhz
K
K
kKJ
#
Jf >
$ oR7
d ikljwti
htug#elp]loqrh]x
>fJK
Y#p]qr{p{rjA})jws8qiwqrh]x
etujw}wqrsp{>dfhrz]lo|7p]})j &&
htg#qr{rjw}dfeg#g#h}kl z]h]}f{rh]p]lqrxy\og#hqrxl
{rh]ploqrxKy\
K_KO#K3H#3
KwfKK
~ jws8n#xqrefj#zRh}A lojwxv#qrxKylon#j
3
H##
>
f{rh]ploqrxy\g#h]qrxl
}wqrlon#tujwloqrs f
xfp]{ iwqi &Jow_#
#
>$#J
k>KRJ##w#
RKk#
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@.0<A
7#J#J
#Jw
3H#3t
p]{rsef{rp]lqxKy
})jwp?p]xfv
jwjkv#{rjc\o{rq
xyJ{rjhrz?p
{
j
~ }wqrp]xKyJ{rj &J$JK
1
}kpxs8n efloi>z]h]} h]tug#{rj {rjwtujwxlop} fexfslqrh]xfi f 2&o#D>
H##
3
wK]# J#f$#fK
f
K#J
KK72T
JfJ#
J$#J
J#Km#
HokuJKw$
kKR w
7#J#J
oJ
7#J#J
3H##
uJRJKK]okKK_#&
]kRK_
>Jo#
} u}wlon#hbyJhxp{qrl hrz5d
x lp ]
#J
>JKJk
3H##
~ n#j jwp
dfjktupxlqs8ic]fpxv uqrpbyJxfh]iwlqs8iqrx etujw}wqrsp{})hbyJ}wpttuqrxKyx^Y#qr})hxtujwxfloi f

J
G K#JRJ
K Ki
Kw#
#o J
)fw#_J
#Jf#fK#
G K ##
K

wo
>#2 oKk#
7#J#J
1
xfh]tup{qrjwiqrxTlon#j X
s8}wqrlon`ps
#J
#J]
3H#
JC
<_>R
>
K woJKoouwf#J#fJ f
7#J#J
7JfJ#J
kKJo]
w# 1
2
#
#
Jf

JK
o7
KJJ
3H##
~ n#j
pbyJj
)
#
## #
#
})h)yJ}wp]tutuqrxy
p]xKyJefpbyJj
G #JT?JH 3H##
}wqrlon#tujwloqrsHzRh} fjks8loh}=})h]s8jwiwiwh]}wi
k>
#o
<$
K w
oJKo5
>_>fo# f
t 3t3H
7)JJK
7JoJ
oJ
7J<
jw|
1 <#J|
g#g#})h]psn f<
#JfK
Kf$
n j
3
H#3t
~ #
##o f
P 3
t
KJ3
o
3H3H#
uq yJqrlop]{
h]tug#eflojw}c

d iwlojwtui})h)yJ}wp]tutuqxKyqrlonh]v#ef{rp\
XXo&K]J
}wqln#tjwlqshz?lon#j
1
qrxfqrloj})jws8qriwqhx
p loqrh]xfp]{

#$#
#2?JKk
H#
3

f
J
etjw}d iwlojwtui f
3#o fP #
w#J
>
>_
}wqrlon#tujwloqrs?fdf{piwn
k2
2
>
'Y#pv#qxKy_ln#j }wq z]lqrxf{hp]lqxKy\og#hqxfl

#J7JoJ
J#
3H#
>
J
v#v#qrloqrh]x fJo#$>
k>K2ooKw#o fP3 #
KK>J
<KwfKJ#
o
@.0<@

h{eftuj
}klFhrz ]
h tug#eflojw}})h)yJ}wp]tutuqxKy]
f3H##
~ n#j
g1 KRK] G K#Jf
J#
3H#3
f{hp]loqrxKy\hqxfl
htg#efloploqrh]x
kKJo]
Jf

#wo##JK
etjw}d iwlojwt
#w
f
#J
w#J
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
K&>
K
>_
oK9
3#o# f
H#
3
~ n#jdq yJx

J
### #
3#
hbyJp}kqrln#t
#2K
oJ
57698 8

>
exfq jwvp]{ yJh]}wqrlon#tz]h]}jw{rjwtujwxlp]} z]efxs8loqrh]xfi

f3
H##
k]KKJf>
JoJ
&
>_o
J ##
#3H #
5i698 ^8
J$7R$>]J#27
oJK&
oJkKJJ#k>o2#
K)ooKok>
N$'MO
q
_ ]fp]xfv`pikiweftujlon#plk[mh]p]lqxKy\og#hqrxlFh]g#jw}wp]lqhxip})j
{ Pg3]p]xfvìwjwlt
j p]s8lo{ })hexfv#jwv3b ~ n#jwx t

t
Fqrij p]s8lo{ jwefp]{2lh }kh]exfv#jwv`loh
gL\ { iwq yJxq spxlFv#q yJqrloicbk

h})jg#})jws8qiwjw{ ] qri})h]efxv#jwv` lop { qrxylon#jiwq yJxq s8p]xfv`hrz ]
qrtupbyJqrxqrxKypm}wp]v#q g#h]qrxfl&beiwl{rj z]lhzln#j { {jwpiwliwq yJxq spxlv#q yJqrli%]&pxv})h]efxv#qrxKylohmpx
qrxljyJjk}ob
jkl
MO$'$
JD)kK#f7Jo
]#o_ t
#KKKJJT
RJKkmJ]#w>
JK2]o#o>> t
J#`]#w J
omJ#w_Kmo#
**
2k
>
**
**
RoJ#m#T2KfK
>
>
>
**
>f7foJ#
>
**
>
#
2
)K{o#)
K
{f#k#wfK
>_o t
b
a
J>Kmk>JJoJ
kK {7fm2JKm#K
2#7fK#woo>2Jo
#K
ok
**
2oJKm>mJ2
#JoJJf_kK
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
#
@.0N
JDf#D>
kK]R$
kf$
J
}w
KR1kK

>

.bb...b
1
--2
**
>
>
**
**
**
J#$]JKoJu]#
**
#J
k>
J
2]
K]#525wk
.bb...b
1
--2
q
.bb...b h
&R##$oJ5kK
PoJK
?KfK2
?>
<# JK } #
?

B q
Jf#f#_oJoKkKJ]
3
#Jo3
$fK t
JkK$1ow_JT27>_o#_
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
oJK
1
--2
r00...00
+ aa...aabb...bb
@.00
k>2KfoJ#f t
>_J2Kf#Jo#
KfKJJoKkKJ7kJK
##
o#
}w
>k
#JPJuoKkKJ?)JKP>fJ
#fRow#2#K`)
#<#J_Row#K_ok>
?oJfoJ#kKo?ok>
k>JKoKkKJ]Kf#$7oJo>JK
>oJ$oKkKJmkJKP>#JP2JKKmoJ#oJ
#f
$
**
oJK
JK)
PòJK
}
#J`2K
1
--2
# }
oJ]#o>> t
Jo_2

ooJ
p5
k>27o
a.bb...b
K&2>
7fk#oKmJ#
.bb...b
- bb...bb
aa...aA00...00
} <Kf#To# <?JR##m2wokJ2
Jwo>$J
gD
{ #K
J?]2 t t >#oJ J
a... ab...b
#J_K7kK]$>TK&#]oKf#o)J$J g {7#]K>oJ]#R
JK
K72>]#wT
>K]#wTJK
>f7foJ#
aa...aabb...bb
aa...aabb...bb
zz...zZbb...bb
J t
# |
$72wo#J
**
>

**
.bb...b
2k>2J
**
j
#J
1
--2
U>
**
>JJKm t
KHo
t
"
F}
S S
# $%
2k
a...ab...b
&
_|
2#< t
>
**
!
#oJKH#
q
q
FP|
# $%

q
F}
JKk
.bb...b h
2>2]#f#J }
>
1
--2
>
`K&#]o
{#]KJ>K7kJ2
g`
JKkK3`k>K_#]#RK

S
S

S
S T
F|
>>
**
>
k

q# ' nn
()'
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@.0N4
BDCFEHGJIKEHLNMPORQTSJCUSJVXW7Y7LZLZSJ[]\)GJV_^`GJIHLZY7abSJc
<oJ#
7>_o$JTJ>$
jN= 1 x j
JT#w$J
S = X [1];
C = 0;
for j = 2 to N {
Y = X [j] - C;
T = S + Y;
C = (T - S) - Y;
S = T;
}
dqriUjwefp]{loh?di
~ n#jwxlon#jUshtug#eljkviweft
o _
* 2
_ g
]&|?n#jw})j
eDIKGJGgf
wR1kK]#J
Jk
oJKwkKR_#>moJ_ow_
kl
òKwRfK#]>
nCl
J$]_#
r
KJ
J$]
KT#_K&kK$>
JuKH#]K]KJ1> kl ?o
k2KJfJu>KKJ ks Rf
J>J
JK2>_oKP

#JPR
#J
2k>
JK>kKkJ7#$>JTK&#]oTJR#2KfJT2
K
]K]KJ kl k]#K
_o# i j s j P#J
kq
i
s
q n?l
i
i
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
q \Fs q nCl
q nl _
- i
kq
+-,
@.0NU
q nCl
s
kq
kq
q \i q n?l
+
kq
2k#JkKTKoK7#k2K
oJ>JD]KJ> kl
i q7oJ$_#K&kR_$JKkKofJ>1oK#RKo
]oJ>KKJ> kl
-
o
l l
fJ>JT#oKw_72ff2
+ 1+
i ?s
q n?l
kq
q n?l

Fs
q nCl
.iq
q n?l/
o i
i
- i
q nCl
Fs
q nCl
o i
q nCl
Fs
q nCl
0.
q nCl
- i
q n?l
l l
l l l
o o
d qkRK]ofKoJK
q s q n?l
q$
q ncl/
q ncl/
q n?l
Fs
Fs
q$o
kq o
q$ q n l
q s q nCl
s q
o
q n?l
h
q
q s q n?l
q ncl
q ncl
q nCl
Fs
q nCl
q ncl
l l
d q#Jq$fKH#2PoJuKJo>J7 i q#J
- i
0.
q
s
oJKuK&)KRJ7q#J
fK1JKJK#2>ò
JK|{5#
l l
#JoJu]K]KJo7> kl
q 1
s
Fs q#J
q
i
q n?l
q$
q ncl
q nCl
+ +8oo
o o
o
+8
q$
q q
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
o o
@.0Nu
q n?l
q nCl
n?l
o
q$o
q nCl
q q
q q
q$ q
+o
q$
q$ q
+ o
+8 + o
q n?l
Fs
q n?l
Fs
q q
RKo
q
d
o
od
q n?l
q n?l
ood
o q
+ +? +m
d q#Jq#)JTK2>_oKPo>kK
<J]
+ +8o +
JKRow#7#
n?l
o =q
n?l
uJToJK>$#7ffK
s
d
#J$_f2Kw#K#ToJK]TT2]o_oJ#
J#1
J#
+?
=q
:;@ ?=8^8 7 8D ;A 32
r l
r
l
Fs
J_
45454768 2 :9
B?8
q
fKoJ?#KK

`Kf##f#J>_o i
#JKP$?oJu]K]KJ1> kl
#fK#oJ)KKTKoKw
JK
gkq
f#JoJ>K]$21 kl
P
$f]o7 xT
xT
$
o
r l
r l
KoJ#_oJ]K]K21
<?><?@ A D
; < => ?
@.0N}
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
JD)KKJT#KmJ#7RJ
_oJ#>#oJ J#w$J_KR
$_KJK]#kKofRJ]k#K7_#TKKJ_o7kKwoK7>
oJ]wkK]oJK#J#]]w#oJKmk>fw#_
o#wo]#foJ
o#J#kkKfkK7]#kKoKKJo#o>2f#Jfo woRKo
k>fw#_oJ#
>>kK]o#J_K$fK#]#o5kKRo>2foKoJ#
]JoooJR#2#)
JkK#KmfJoKoK>JoJ#]
D
k>fw#_7RJf>#fo#
foK
JKKfwo#R> #)
1

>
3
H
JK)fw#
_>K
K KK_ #JJK#Jf>o_Rw
#2K$]foJK_F#J
JoKw_#kK1_fK]#R>o #kfRfJok>

oKk2]K_#J_K-
Kkok
uJowoJ#oKf2
o#J#kK72>f#w#2KoJ#2#)#
$KmKJo#kRo7_#$]Jow_JTfoK

k#
#]o#k>]oKk2kK$oKkKJRRK_ou#wKokK#J
>m>2Kfk>fw#_72ffoJ>JKwR>>FJ_KwK
KK_#
o#J#kK
r]KoKTKoT2
>
Kwow_K
#J2o>_#J
k>fw#_7KKKJo#JJKT`RRK
#wf#JoJ
#JfJ#>#of#J2
#]#]
o#J#kKroToJKJ]oJ#1#
fJ
]Kf_>R1)#_
oJ#JKRoK#okfKJoJR]>F2
o#J#k
#JT)fw#_Kw#TJ1kK##oJ#KfK`k>fw#
2#1K>JToJ
J_Kwow_#?#JP>#o>J?kKwfKoJ
oKk21kK_oKkKJfo_
JoKJKo#
o#J#k#T>_o
oo#]ofoJ#oJw>FoJo#J#k
oKkKJKKJo#o>27o>o#kKJkKo
JoKJ7KKJ_oJKJo>>FoJK
o#J#k
v#jwiwloqrxfp]lqhx
_oJ
JK
KR2#__#fK2mK&]oTKfJ#oKToJRK
$]oTKToJfoKoK&#Kf2KK#o)KRo7
KH)KRJ7m#k_KJom)]K)K
<>_#Jf#fK7#2
kKo>FJoK#o]#$]#oJ7$_KoJ#oJ7fKJoJRKF]Jo)
JK2$RfoJo#J#kKJK7oJkK>F#_Kw#o>_oKw_7oJ#
KoJ#or mow_##JPJKw#2
f#K o
3#
H > TJK
o#J#k)Kfk2#1K#])K1f)JK>kK]oooJ

kK]R>1oJuKoJ#oJo J]_ 2u#K1oJuo#J#kPK

kfoJ
J)Kf$)oJ#oJkK]$>>FJ#KR2#_fKKJKfT`KFr
k>fw#
2HoKkKJJRRK_#`KKF2KFkKooDKoJ#oJ
oKk21)KJ]#RJT2#)#ok>]oKkKJ)KRo
oR>_oK##$]#T fKK_oJ2>RfoK#]JoooJ

o#J#k
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@.0N
<Kw#2>1oJK&#K?Ju)K]K$J#KKKJfJ
Kf
_)KmokKT_KH#_K
#T>#oJ J#J_K)J
]_#oJKKf`)#_m#fkK12
`k>fw#
$
oJ
JoKwkKof#J#wo]#f_#
foK J#J)K_oJ
#JD>J_oJ
KoJ#o_K#]#woJKo>K#__#T
R#J#k'
rKJo_ v#jwiwloqrxfp]loqrhx JKw_JKJ)#_Fr#o
ofJ
2
`k>fw#
JKf2fKKw#>FJ
$2K)KoK
KH#_Km$fKT#fK JKT$_KJK#m##kKJ$>o#)#m

`Jf KfK#2#fKf#TJ
KKkKKR2#J
KH
wT>)KT_
RRK_7oJ#Jw#$
o_`$oKkKJkK]$>J#2)fw#_K
2KK&#K#
wff)JTJ#oJK

Kf>22#fK#k#KFr#o
wT#T
#RoTKH$oJTKK2#o>27
`#woJKo
1 2K
#RK>J)KJ?>1JKR2#T>#omoJK2>#R
kKf
K&#Kok>
JD#KoJ
J#KKw2kK_
_oJK]oJ
kK]R>_oJ#`)#&K]o7]#_]#Ru1o>_o
KfKJf_k>#T])K
k>JkK
JK_oJK&K]oKkK]$>7K
#kKfR>2>F2k>o_oJ#Kmow#ooJJoKK]o#Kow
kKfkK>
m)fw#
2KK&#KJ
o_JK&K]oKkK]R>KfK
kK]KRf2K)KJK7#
kKfKJmk>
JK_$1KJ##o
oJ#K$#J#oJ
R#2#)
#JToKk21$KKJo#o>J]#
2>#fK>KKJJ_]#2o
5]##]]w#oKk]
DK]o
#k
#kKHoJKJ
Jf2#f
22)K#o
k>fw#_JT#Jf#fK7#2KJ)JK22#1$2f##oT2
k#K7oKHkKoJ>#oJ J
o#J#kKo7#2#
K_#J7>
JK!M MON&! A@BC
J$]_oJKmk>fw#_7KKJ
!-%N+ &L#*'#"%$'&!
)KJ_KKJo#J>F
#oJKo5#_fKJ
`
f)oJfRJKToJKfko J$]_oJKT>K)KJ#J
lojwxv#jw3
v \gp]iwjwv RRK_fK&KKToJJK
#)
&3to#2k>KwRHk>o$>J>U#KHoKJKT$7)K
Jow#o_J#k
ow_#1f>2T#wo#RwomJf#J>kK]R>K2Tkf
JRwJ#Rk#o`_RJf#JfkK]Jf>2fKJT
oJ T)oJK&K2K>#of#JoJKTk>#
K7J1oJK#
J_oJkKo>F#woJKo>K#J#k
k>JK_$J>fkKK2>foJK#)fKT)KfoKwm
KHoKJK>fow_#
@4
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
>o>k`t####`RK)]KRw)2kRo7o
2k_#2w#2oJRJf>m$ow#o_oJK_>K
JKJH3t#J]#ok]KRwmk>J_kKmoJkK]$>T>oJRJ$
fow#okK#2##Jf#7oJK&K2K>#
dfqxKyJ{rj v#h^
e {j RRK_&J2_>R G
k]KRw<)f$5o2>
]#J
2#2)K_o#12Rw>m#_
G #k]JoK]okk>K
1
KHoKJK>fkK]R>ow#
J#wo#fRwoJf5kK]R>J<oJw>R5>2RK]o>J
]#R$1#`RJ$ Dfo
`]#o>fJKJ#oK)K2T_#_K&o2K #RK
KJ
foKoJ#>`Jf >RRK]JKm
ok#f#]J
KwR>>F2KH#
int main() {
double q;
q = 3.0/7.0;
if (q == 3.0/7.0) printf("Equal\n");
else printf("Not Equal\n");
return 0;
}
Kk2]Jo#Jo7 #J `#kJoKwkKoK#7>fkK]R>#oJ
JJ_KwRf#JoJK&kR_ `J2Kwo7oJ

#òf
double
`RJ$ Dfo_foJKHkKR $K##oK_fkK]$>
2]oJ#222K]KJ2>#2oD
JR

`k>2K]wkK]oTfk
f#R22f#
o2JKH2JD&kKR>
##K##o_fkJf#2]oJkK
$JKf#JooJ#E#fJKo
#&K]oK
>RoJk>fw#
JJ
f#
_#_K&K2K #RKfoKfKK_oJ>JD&kKR>

foJfoKJ
double
`2#7o
f]K`kKRKm_K&o2K
ow_#f#2oJ_oJKo#>
kK]R>
fk>2KoK&K2K
JK_oJkK2##RfJKooJ#w#f
#oJK_o>kK_Kw#JRJ]
7K]#kK
fJ
KKf
foJu#
double
kJKokK]$
_oJJK&JKfoJK&)KR_
ukK]$f#$uo>kKP
]#JoJuk>fw#J
#f#TKf##oKTKHoKJKkK]RTK2kK2#oKw?ok>
`#
oJ

>1Kf#
1]wRK>oJK>>_K?#)ufK>ooJ>_K]PKoR)
#JoJ7k>JoJ#oJK&kR_
`JRK]J2Kok
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@4A
]#JT
>m]fKK
`kKRKm_K&o2KkK]R>
_o#2>_KmfJ##ooJKH)KR
`#]oKfKkJ#_>fkK]R>>mKkJ#_K&KJK
oJowJT
)K
1 o_J&3
t`]$of2k>fw#
w2
f# JK
o##o#J >
f# 2K]KPoKfJ
J#f>KwoK&K2K #RKfoK#o>#o#T]J#JfoJ
]$
k>JJTkK]R>#Kw#oJ)JTkRo7$_kKRK7o
k>JoJ>RkKo2m>kK]RJf#KR
#J
o_
#rk$]2KJ#>moJk>fw#
JRf_oJKRRKR
D
_kK#2?R>)>u#J#2f#Jo#J2>1
`#J_K
okfD#_
K2m]# #]oJJ#k
>_#JKJ)JK2
`
#k>moJ]Km>Fo#J
oJJ#k #)2#7KKk
]wkK]oTk>JKkKoK#]_KR2#Jf#)Kf$)Kof#JoJ
]$mJ##R2K2KK#o)KRo7oKoJ#o>JoJ##)
Kf>22KFr]Jkf#7#
". *'-%-%"%&)J$'
!K!#*'"%$'&!$'&) &!,N,CD# *' N,

>2fKJoJ#
! +
$#$J#27oJ#KHoKJK f#KRRK_7k>]
kKooJ#J#k#JK#RJ##]#KH2JJ_>k#]#2#JKKkK
2 RRK_fRJ]oJ>Km#
kK]R>#JooK_kJ#2#oK
k>fw#
#f#
R]RKf$
#f7kf#K#R1#]
w#K&#K_#2
K#7_>kok>fw#_7f#K_oJK&#K
J
J#oJ
wo#k#
R>
72#f#KR ##kKJo
J_#kJKK>#f#]k>R7RJf ffoK
KK2]wkK]kRo7_K&o2K #RKfoKkK]KTK#DJ

]$m#JJ#k
oJk>fw#
#k]J)o>]#R>2#T)f$))K_oJ#
KHK
)KJk>fw#_J$#J#K7_#11o`k>fw#oRK]oT2
7oJR$> #J#K#J
K`_##3

KJoJ>_#Jk>fw#_J#Jf#fKmrKo2#K#T]wkKJ>
kK]R>&K]o
#_K&kK_$
10.0*x
_oJ#_]Jo&JKf##oJD#
# k2KJ]K27kKK
#w#o>27#JToKkKJ#woJKo]w$>moJ
R#2#)
k
kK]KJo]#Jf#f?$ <

J#fuKKT$JKJ]KPR#J#) ]Jow_J
KHoKJK #KRRK_
o#]ofoJ &
R#2#)KHo#$ 7
]$moK##o`>#oJ JKHkKR>`kK]$> KmJ#J#

#
<>_#Jf#KRf]_#
Jw_#T#]#oK
10.0*x
@4@
#T#wT
`kKfoJ#oJK&kK
#f7oJ#KKJ_`#w$oT>Fo#wH 2oJKm2
o
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
KH)KRK$#K#RfJK_#w$#>###uKHwK
_#kKmKHkKR>
JKoJKmJD&kKR>#wo]#K_`>_#wR>
2oJKm2KHkKR>#K#7##)f_21oòJ]oJf#J$
2oJKoJ#)fKJm#RK_ff#kKoKk2]
J]wkKJkK]$>
#7>_K
oJ
kK]R>_>u#JPK&)KRKf##oKoJ>PKPoJu]$ JK
oJKfK>F>o$##_#
oJk>fw#
#]K
2]J)#
#JR
#Jf#fo#J#k#)2>KJokTo#>moJf#f#K7K&kK
HoKJK f#Kfo_w>R2K]$2 JKKHkKRJ#)

Kf##K_K&KJK)K_kK$o JKJKKRKffKf#oJ#
Kf##
R)K#)RkK_oJ2#wk
#Jf#f`kKfkoJ#
10.0*x
KkK]$>)Kf$)K
>JR#JJT

D
Kf##o`2##KKw JKk >
D`Kw>#JKJ#o_oJRRK
oJ>RfoKKf#$#
10.0*x
]JoKHo7$K7KJ#o$
o
uJ>J#Kf# 2
K)KJoT_R2##TKf#KJ
__k#K7#]#oJK]#
#kTkKfKJoJToJK)kKfJT>2fJo#oJKmk>fw#_7o
KH)KR7oJKmJo2KK_#J
kK#k>f#72_oJ#Ro_oJ#`$fK_K&kK_#
FE
Kf##KoJR#f#$
]22o
K#oJ#f>2kKKJoK
wooK_JKk
wow#U
#f
JK)Kò
real function log1p(x)

real x
if (1.0 + x .eq. 1.0) then
log1p = x
else
log1p = log(1.0 + x) * x / ((1.0 + x) - 1.0)
endif
return
_#_K&K2K #RKfoKf`>_Km#TKf##oJK&kR
JDJk$J_K&o2KkK]R>#J>#)oJkK
1.0 + x
1 JK_oJuR#&kKR>_7#RKJo2]o>__oJuRHo_JK
1.0
Kof2]Km#To)of#_K_>])J2$1oJf
kK]R>
Jf
J1R#J#
D
x
kK]R>_#KJf_oJ#
kJo
_K&KJK
1.0 + x
1.0
k>J7o
JfkK]R>2
1.0 + x
1.0
oJKoJf#)KoJKT
$#KkD2oK#T>
H#JToJkK#
log1p(x)
x
Kwk f>JFG#2K#kfKoJ#
&_#wfRoJkK>FoJ

KH)KR_JR&JKfJ2oJkK>]wkKJ]oJRK&kK
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@4
<mK##oTKHoKJK_kK]R>
1.0 + x
fo_#KJf_oJ#
T2#]#K>
k>J7o
R#J2>
JfkK]R>2f22
1.0 + x
1.0
]#K&]KKToJ7>kJ#JK#w##
log1p(x)
#)KoJKT
#J#f#oJkK#Kk>#T#)#]J
>D]J]kKuKH#_K>o#f
x
oIH ~KJ IH JFL fR
7oJR#KRJfk_2Km]J#
x
x
k>J?_oJuJKH#kfJK MH ~C
JK
5
1.0 + x
log(1.0 + x)
IH
K]#oJKJJ#o2KHkKR>_oJRHo
~C
J$7K##o_K&KJkK]Jf$1]K&#]oT#J$fK
#k>&#oKT
log1p(x)
IH ~c
kKow27#kH_#KT
J]72K#wT
]D#7#kf#7oJ
1 JKJ
27##TJ#KJ o_#K#J>K
kK]KJT>]$KToJ& 1 >f&J
K
wow##
]$momH3
tfo_7JToJ
o##o>#foJfKJKw#oK>
KH#f#
-O
]K
o
K&#]o`#KR]K
1.0 + x
log1p(1.0e-10)
#J
1.19209E-07
5kKoH27JK#Kk
o>
log1p(5.97e-8)
>m2#J

2kKò wT])KfoJKHkKR
1.0 + x
2fK##ooJ5# #K#]$$2#K#w
J5#f>2
]#o#f
KHoKJK #KPRRK7>2 JK
7Kf##KPoK&o2KP>
1.0 + x
kK]R>_JJR#2]#J2m>kK]R__#2>oJK
]KfRJ]
log
Kf##7oJ7&kKR>
1.0 + x
K&KJKkK]R>oJk2>#]2
o7f#woJ$_oJ#_kJffKfKJo
]$
K2Ko2]o>
D
wow#2f`]$m>$
7KJK52J$5oJ]o_
#JJ#oJ#2
J]#T#_#2uR#K&#$Jff$JuRK
_oJ#]#K`]Km]ofKKP2#k_KJ
KHoKJK)K_K2>JJ_kKow27`RJfkK]$>)K
1
F#JTKHR2
#oKoKJkoJ#
#w#
1 fJoJK)K>k
wow#]K7oJKJK
Kf##K>2oKJoTT#RJ$JT1o
1.0 + x
uJo2#K# K]#k7oJ#Jf##
7#`R7>$
real
T`>_KoJ#oooK7`#fK_`kKfoKKHoKJKkK]$
om>J#K#w#J>F2f###2`#o)K_K_>$_2
kK]R>o#JoJK
JRK# JKKK#)DJ#w$# $
G G
ooJ#]wkK>JooJK&K2KkK]$>o>#
<#2#)
#`K72>k> #T2f#2 J$
wo#
H#`J
K]J#2
oKwfJ#w?o#R>$>K?2>
SELECTED_REAL_KIND
KH]oTkfkKKJo#o>27oJ#Kf##K&kKJ_K&KJ
kK]R>#
JD>#f
#w$#K7oK#k
oJ$k>f#
okK21oJK&kK
J##oK7mk>
@4.0
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
1.0 + x
ok>
o_oJ#k
R#2#)
oJwofoJKk
wow#J#2#w#JoKK
KJTK##oK_
#T2#
JKk#kJKmKH#_K7oJ#]##J]o__K&KJK #KfoK
KfK
JK#_RK&kR_o)K#JoJk>2KoJR#
kK]R>
J#R
D
KHoKJK
#KRRK
v#he^{jc\})h]efxv#qrxKy
_oJKo#k__>Kf#
Jo#Tk>2K#])KRK&KJ>
kK]R>
2#kK$moJKTokofkKJ>?)J#f#
J5>fJ#o>oJK5 `kJJf#K#5J#oKkKJ2oJ#
2#
>TJ#KK#$JKTk>JJoJ2kK2>koD>f
kK]R>
D
kK]R>7
J]#J#K
JK_oJkK#7k>JKoKHoKJK$
J#
##K#f f$1$K&#]o2# #Tf KK >f

kK]R>_JKf2uRK]J)J$J7oKw_JKTJk>J oK o
KfKk
oJK]J_)JJ)JJ#5$)K#25o&oJ
JKkJJKwk> JKHKJ#JTJ##]

g>oK<oJfJ<oJ#
)J$JT>JT#oK]o>kK]R>]o#o>2
J#_k>
oJ#JRK)KJKfk>]of>mfoKJ>F g# JKfoJ
g# 22KoH)2KT2o
f#)5)>2
#_7##$227kK
JfK&K2KkK]$_
f#JJK
K)k>JKEJJ7o
g
<>#$woJoJ#KKJ_>)K1kJ2#_#
o_>f
_#]ofKfK_R>_#f>27oJ#r)Kf$)>k)JJ
k>JJ
offKoJ
K2>f_oJ#$JD)K
]#oJ7roKm )J$J
#J
k>K
>T]wkK]oT>`f#Ko_#]J2K7oJ#>>J>o
J_>R1KooJK#koJwo#
o_ )J$J
D
#f>2o>mKow2R#K_okK]R>#woJ_oKJo>2K
]#o#
_#f#3t
>mK&#KfoJk>KkKwf
JK>kKt`>moJ
`#J JJKmJoJ#J
#wo7>K >T]wkK]oT
)J$JT#woJKo&KoooJ$)K_2Km
~FO-P
`Jo
#wo7K#
$#1_>R13to
k>JK])KTo>fkK]R>JJDJ>kKm#w

>kK#?
~FOP
#>f
IN ~
2K_K#]>K#_$
IN ~
~FL
#22
JK#>K#?k>JKPoKHoKJK
)K_#JJK$)KJfoJk]Kkk]K`Jf
)Km#1
IN ~
~FQ
]Kf
#J
>kKm#w
P ~FO-P
J#ooKJK
D
]]K7#ofRof#k#r1f]oKK&#]oT_$)K
>offo>_o2f#koJJ_K$
KHoKJK>fkK]R>JoJkKoJT#f>oJ
wo#oJf >foK
>JJKm
f#oKRKJ_okK]R>
$]#o>_#J#RuoJ#1#2#wo#2k>]o?J#uKK_]oK
_>fkK]R>
#w#K]wkK]o
KH2
#J$JT`&)F>#J&oKJK
D

#fJDKKJo#o>fJ]#JoT)
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@44
R>#f#f>2o>m#2_okK]R>J_Kw
kK)KRKJK#m#w#mfkK]R>TJK##T k>2J
2R#f>2f]#$kKT>òK]JJf_#m7#J#r
2Jow_#K&#J#o>>F2_#o>ow
#o_ow_
ffK__##3
H`RfKRRf
#J
#k#J J#w#fK
#J_K
#2
>_of
t = s + y;
e = (s - t) + y;
oJKT#woJKo]R
]2
J
KK
)K]mKH#J)JK)oJ#]]wkK_
JoJJf>KRr
t D
_IN ~
s
u#J
P I HRN J
wT_f k>JK#J_K
>JK
s + y
IN ~
k>2wR
IN ~
_K&o2K)KJf#JJ$7#k>J
`_f
kK]R>T2)J $ o KfK_w
]2
IHSN J
J7oJJKk>JJTKwk$
Jr2kKkKKJo#5KH#5)K
#J]#rf>_oK&#]o2K&)KRTJ
T#f>
Kk#f#J
$okK]moJk>JFk>mT]2oJR
KHoKJKTfkK]JHf2JKk>fw#
TJ#``KHo
w
kK]oJJ#oo7f#]TofkK]$>J#J )JJT]
#Jk>KRf
>m27kK#Jf#oJf_wo#)#o
_#oJT$D)K_#2K$5ToJK_KJ wT])KT#J
K]KJoT_
f#KT_#]J2RfoJKT>r
KHoKJK #KRRK_
##oK
J#f#f>oJ2#1#wR1R21#K#oKKJ_>)K
w]wkK]o o> k>JJ
oTJKR5#KR&oJ
o_ )J$JTK7J_oJ_KKJo#_f_oJ
k>JJ#$o#]
]>2
#$>TJ#oJ#fwoJ
o
JT#w#J
wf#m#KwoK
JK>kKJ
R#K
k>oJ
UTWV
BDCFEHGJIKEHL
X z?t
p]xfvuxp})jqrxlj$yJjw}wi})jwg#})jwiwjwxflop{jqrx
p]xfv`xTn#p]iln#jiwg#jwsqrp{RzRh}wtx
X ''X
t
] ln#jkx
f
v#he^{jg#})jws8qriwqhx|7qln
xt!]g#})hY#qrv#jwv`hlon
IN ~
[mh]p]lqxKy\og#hqxfl2h]g#jw}wp]lqhxiFp]})jFjkqrln#jk}F})h]efxfv#jkvs8h]}w})jws8lo{ lohv#he^{rjFg#})jwsqriwqrh]x`h}})h]efxfv#jwv
}wiwllohj lojwxfv#jwv`v#h]e{rjg#})jws8qiwqrhxpxvlon#jwxTloh5v#he^{rjg#})jwsqriwqrh]xb
@4U
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
eDIKGJGgf
R oJ>m2# t
h K
]#T>2K#TKff#KJKo2
oJ#>o
#2
#k2KfKw
IN ~
<]#J
2]T
IN
Kwm
#J
>
>R
o
JK#RfJ#Jo7]ToJJ$
IN
#o f$ tu P
Kok#Jf #R_K t
~ fR#oo

$&K]#5oJ5#Kf#K t
#Jf t
#KJoKf
#J #oo
t t JD]wkKJJT# x J#>JD>F >

KKJ2
x
2]

x
oJK D
J]>
>
x
P#
7$#)fKK$
IHZY + [ K\
oJ
> x
K
IH +
t
foJK_KKJoT`
oL{
1
?oJuR
IHSN

x
K]# t o
~
#kKmoJ#_oJJK&#KmD)K_JKmKoJ# t
oJ>RKR#u> x
J#
K
j
h
t
Kw71
IHSN ~
?J
]#r
KJoJkJJTK)m_>$J
]K#
oJoJ]D>m
>2KmoJ]#R
#f#2
R#]<
foJ#
]
xj f#J2
k>2Kf#> txj
J]K#]#oJ >$J>K#_k>JK
o27#KD j P
w

+- [ x #22 #7 oxJj o
IHY ++-[[ K\ f2 xfj xf P t 7#
JoKKmoFIHY

K\
G K]#foJ#J5oKkKJ]5K KK t #J
IHY
JKoJ# xj

~
\
m
oJ2KH#)fKUkKkRKJ#f5JfKU#JoJ5oKkKJ]5K KK t
#2J
t
JK&2R#KUkKkKKJo#5J_KUK2 t
I
N
>
I
N
J
~
~
h
m
#
xfj
# txfj k>2 t
fK t
IN ~ #J xfj P #J
k>] 2k>2o t
oJuk>J oK o KfKw &_#w$] x J#?oJ
+
+
+[ oJ
ow
IH >oJK xfj $m#JoKf_o1IH #J
xj U IHY
K\
1 ]#J# t IN ~ _oJ]#DK]#R t ow
$KX xj

]wkK]oTofkK]$>
f)K#oKoJ#
f
xj
Jf#
k>]
oK7)oJK#)KR)KkKKJo#2KJf>7f
#f##
$k>2o
txj
kJo

K__ xfj P #foJ
foJkJ K KK_wf#R
J$7>KKJD)om]wkK]oT)J#woJKo
_ )JJT#woJKo]1_#ToJ#K2#
k>JKf>oKJoKKoJf$
#f
oJm]#K
k>K
##]o#)JK_
7KK
J>kK]o
] <
##K#JoJ#kfKJom>2km#w#fw#
>JRKoJo#oJ#
oJ&J52#22
x
k>JK_ ]
#]Jo
7

o#J#kTkKfkKoJ#2#KHoKJK>5o>#2#w
#K#'t3ufJ#Jo<oJ#oJJK t
IHY +[ K\ J# xfj #>oJKTkJJ

t
)`)KRJ#oKwok>
kK)KRKJ#f_K&K2KkK]$
u#J
J
xfj
u#kKH#
J#2ow
K&KJKP>kK]R
# #f#J#7JoK#fK
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@4u
$fukK]R>
$2k>J t
+
IH foJ# xfj
#JK)J$J tPxfj
<$#w x J#7oJu>
oK&o2K)K
oJ7f#
k>]`kK1oJ#oKwok
t
k>Jo
J#
$_)K
>]#RK
ow_#
ow_#
2k
T# #f#JoJf#$
K#oJ# t
#kKoo]JKm]#RK7
f$21o$ k>2J

_oJ
J
IN ~
27#
MHY ] [ K\
72>oJ]wkK]oTk>JK
J#f j
$7oJJKm>FKHowo72KHoKJK$
_oJK]#RR
K&oJTKHoKJK f#KRRK_7Rw#_K&K2K
o_KH#$t3fJ#Jo >moJo>#o v Jt3

P
K]#$ k>2JT>2)K7#J]wkK]oTk>2KkK
IH +
J x J#oJow

JoKKU_o5>
&#J
xfj 1o
KfKJofK
JK
M+H[ Y +C[ K\ foJK xfj [ x P t # +^[

IHZY ]
IHZY
MHY
~
K\
K\
\
v
J7KX xj
o{
uJ#f
xfj
oJ7RK]JkJ$J`KoKw2Kf`27kJ oK KKw$
J#
MHY ] [ ~ \ I[ HZY + [ ] [ ~ \ { v
h

IHY ]
_KoJKm]#KJwR)JJT>F2) KfKm
~
\
t
kKoJ#Kwok>
T# ##JTkKf$>#kKJofoJ
+
K>J_kJ2 k>2_ t
<#&$ x 2#25>
MH <oJK xfj
+`_ #2 xfj UP IHY + [ IHY ] [ IHY +-[ ] [
#JoKf$1IHZY
K\
K\
K\
[
K\
v foJK
{
xfj

o={ h v J# xfj
IHZY ]
K\

KoJK#KfoJwR1kJ2oJk
KKm`kRoJ#oK
ok
#2 #&#J#f#)K>#kKJo&oJ5K]JkJJ
$k>2o
JkKJk>J
moJ#oJk]#$J]f k>JJJ
oJf>oKJ>KRH#2TKK22H$2k>2oòJ>k2kK

2
J5k>#R
m
7oJ#KHoKJJTm)K#R>2JTJoJRoT>F
k>JJT]#J#KJfJTKfK_>m`k#
Kw#o>2
>2
#2 >J
`_>k>]#oKk>fw#_f#T_>Rf
foK#o]##]]Jo>oJKoK]omf k>2Jf<JoKJo>Tk
f2Kw#>_J#oJ7>f#JK&o2K)K_>#oJ
MO$N/!MN*'++"%&/ba!*'&/!K!*N/!LK!$'M F$'M#N&!,N,c MO "%N"%$'&
JD)KKJTKH#_K7RJ>Jo#KfKoJ#KHoKJK
72#w
#JTk#7#_f2Kok> KHoKJK
_m#oD1RKK]ofK
uJ>J#K
]wkKJk>fw#_JT#Jf#fK7Jk>]KJK#Jom
g#jw}iwj
kK]R>
kK]R>
k>fw#_KoRK]o
J#
@4}
JK_#2P2
J#>72K
K&o2K)K_JfuK
>JRKmJ
#21o#J#foJR>FKHoKJKkK]R
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
#f7
J
fJ
_`wo#D)fw#
J#RK7fkK]$>#7o72>_J#
kK]R>JJKk#k
#f
$J
>2
#J]Jok>oJ
kK]R>U
>_o)2o#oK>KfJTK&KJKk
$>TK&KJK #KfoK
JKk
K#w$2K]#Jo
#kK
J)Kf$)_>koJ#J_KoJ#_oJ#2)K#oKwk>m#
#]2JuKJ
1 2K#oDK_>#k
o)K$_)KJfoJ#JJKR_#T#fK_ooJ
Kw#o>_?f>2KP2
#kKR1kK#ofkJKwk2#1)KJfRJ]oJ2##)
o2`
k>2 #RKoDJ#fKKkJK
#JPoJukRo
uuk>JK
JKoJK
Kk7K2KkK
J J

]25J5JoKw_K#5kKoK&K2KT)K#fK
$2
JKoJK#)uRk
`k#]w#okK$fK&K2KkK]$>7JKR2#
fJ1kKoJ#1Ju>_KuKHoKJKPkK]$>2
#kK]#fR
u`>#
JK
R)KR>KoJJTKR
kK#
JK
oJk>f##JfkK]$>>oJK
moJ#_f$1kK#J#To#R#J
_oJ7#K
22>
$KJ>2
&>_o#J]#Kw>K
2KHoKJKkK]$_#f##fKf1oJKT]##
]#wK>2>kK]R>
oJ J#2fk#oKFKow

JK
ufK$5kK]RJfKw
?
]2oJRf#kK7oJKKKJo#J#]_#oJTJKmR#
]2oJ
]$K#Jw
`K&K2K>#
ow#T#fkK#okJ
KJf2
Jw
o_o
KmKHJKJ#JK
fK
]#
oK]o>7Fw##
_KHoKJK f#KPRRKRoJ77Jo#oK #o]uoJ

u
_2 RRK_f#&oKJKDo># J#f
ofK#oKo
K$#
#koF>J
>_]
Kk>K## f#JR
Km2#_$TRJT>kK]R>2
oR$JTJK&]Ko_#ooKw_J
JKJKm2Kw
fK
o
oJ#JoD>JoJ>2K&KJKTkK]RJ##Jf#fRJk>>o
]]wkKf#JR>fkKK#oJTJD]o#$>
#TJ]#o>>oJ
k>fw#
K#f##fow#oJ#?)K#R>J#f#o>J#
]#]J
o_K&]R]#J
2]K2>oR#JKJk>J_KJ##w#_oKw
oJ#J2]#oJkK]R>#2Tw#Jf>#ow_#HRDoJ#JoJk>fw#
oToJ#J
K#ow#
#JoJ#>
u`>#
KJ>o
J#J#
#
moJ#_fKfKJ#fK#oKo
>mk]#Kk#2#_oJ
k>fw#_KF_#`_
K#_JK&#KfoJ
oD#>ToJJKKT
#)
DKwR>2>J
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@4
f#J
oJ#Jf#fR)f$KJfkJKJo###KoKw2#1oJk#
k>fw#
#J$JoK#kK_K&o2KkK]R>KfK_F
]#KKJoJ#Jf#JkK]R_oJ
R#f##fow_#

rD KmkK]R>
)JkRo7>k$o2k_oJ
>#of#KR o_K&o2Kw#2

)#2#1#k
D
K#$ wooKKJ>]wkK]oT)2KkK]$
#J_KfJJTR>D>FJD&#$KJoJK#`#Jf#f

k>
#>oJk>fw#_KoJ#oJ#KHoKJK)K]R
J1fKKfK_oJf_JoKw_K#kK#TD]oK
kKRK
mK&>221#Jf2#_
]K$_oJ
oJoK#okKo
#T]#_R$Jm> kJJTF2KJKw
2o>kKoKwKF2)KR>F#_#oJKo5Kw#o_k>2K
w
uR2#Jo>oJKTk>2K_#f#Too fJ]#Jf JK
RKJw_##KfoJ2#kK#ToKmok>
2# >J#
KKTo#JKfkJJ!EJ]oDKJ>##K2f
1]K
5
oJ7>>f k>JJTJfJTJfKT#oK]#JT#]o]#
k>fw#
#K
>JkK$]wkK]oTo_oJkK]R>#J#JD>FJD>
ow_#
JowKJo)KKJ>F)K >$_>R1Ko
D
ok>f#moJ#oKKoJKJKw#Jo #k2#2K$7RKJK#
oJo>J5w#Jf#JT)K2oJ$ow#
oR)fw#oKJof]
KfK)$]o#2KwkkJ
o_`>#f
<]#kKo
oJKfK]
JK_oJKTR_
k>JK#JoJKo]f7oo))KRo7ok>JKo`#wo#
JRf`k#KmRJT#_K&KJK #KfoKoK
D
k>fo #koJ#Rwo#o#
`$KKJo#o>J
$#oJ#2K
ow_#
2 RRK_
JK&#>kJ#TKo
]wkKJ#Jf#D#foJKD>oJ
oo#]ofo
#Jf#fK
J##oKoKof2k>fw#_KoJ#fTo]JkoJR>
KHoKJK)K_##
oJ
#Jf#fK

D
J$]_J
H3UfoJ#oKkKfR>
$_oJ2#o#Ko#J#k##o
J2>o#K&]Ko_
f2]kKJ
o#J#k
H3 # #_$_KJ#o_o##o
KH)KRJ7$_ò# Km2#_oJ#J>#T#R]#oK o_oJKmoK
H3 )K]_KJ72>J>JoJ)KuK&kR_##o_oJ
JDJkKkK]KJKK2>#k]J##]oKw#KTJD&oKJ 2]
KH)KRJ7#k
kKò
KJ]#KKJoo
@U
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
Kmow_#Rf#JoJ_KKJo#_$
J]K2>1KTKJ$JTJ)Kk]KR>
#)
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
#fK#]KHkKR>
Kf##K_`>#2#1>kKJ7oo7o
#
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
K&kRJ#))KoJow_#1oJ#]wkK>Jo
double
#
#2
K&)KRJ#)kK
float
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
#J$
float
double
K_2#o_
long double
o P J$]#oJ#oJK&)KR
# KoK
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
Kf##__KJJKoKw_J#
H3 #kKfkK7oJ#2
<math.h>
JK#KmJoJoK
#J
J$]_#k#K##
float_t
double_t
#J
kKKK#J#)Jo2KPo#o]_JfK
u#
float
double
RKK##o
#J
KHkKR>2
K&#Kf
float
double
#fo
#J
#k
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
float_t
double_t
long double
JK#KK2kK)]KR
J#
H3 )Kf$)K2#1oJ
<float.h>
ooJ>#2#1>kKJ7o
#)J#RK]oToJ#J#2kK]R>>F2ow#o]wkKJJTo
K#]#oJ Jf
H3 Rwo7R>_
K&#K#$_KJ#o
JD]J#o_#okK)Kf$)Kmk>_KJKf
1oJuu>oJ?$oKP#fu2>1#
oo#_K&KJ>>##JKJK
#oJ
long double
o#foJk#Km]#)K#R>J#fT#oJ#
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
KHoKJK)K_k$#KTo#ofk#DJ
KH#_]#_T$JKK#of##K>Fo
]#Jw
long double
o>
JD>oJKmJ#JfoJR#$_KJ#o_fK
double_t D
#JJf>7K&kKJ_K&K2KkK]$>K
K
JK_oJKT#)RkK
JK_oJ>K_R#J JkKRK f#J

1R)oJukK$7KHkKR>J7#RfJKf##K7K]#kK
double
]JKw2Ko>fkK]R>KfK_FoJK>J#KK_fK
kKRK
J&JK2UoJ
JFoJ
of]#f]KTo
double
double_t
k>]oJo#RKR]>]kKJ&oKJK #RKJ#k #k
H3X)foJoJkKow#oKToJ
R
KH#_K7$_oJ7RK]o>J#
H3 KwR>>F2
o2]o>
log1p
f#w#2KKo wT]wkK]oTFJK&kK$>
7#RfJKo
#w#o1#2f
1.0 + x
wo#KfKKJ
H3Xk>fw#oooJD)KJKJoJf#J #R
#2PoJ#1f##K2)2>
Kof7_>k8KJ
)J$J
#
#oJ]wkK]o_#J#f
#JJ#w#JoKJ#
dE
]wkK]oTofkK]$>
double
K&kRJm#kkJK
Jo_oJ
oD
double_t
Kw>oJRoJT>kK]R__2 RRK_7#J
KHoKJK)K__K&KJK #KfoKfRJ#K2m#oJ
#J_K
Jf]wkK]ok>JK
2kK
3#fmoJ#
]###J
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@UA
1>R$>k>K
oJ
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
oJJ>#o>
u2
oJu)K>1oJuJK2#w$J_K>#2
#J2fkJKJo###KKm#)J
Jo
Jow#fKJ22
>27>R_KKJo#U
#include <math.h>
#include <float.h>
#if (FLT_EVAL_METHOD==2)
#define PWR2 LDBL_MANT_DIG - (DBL_MANT_DIG/2)
#elif ((FLT_EVAL_METHOD==1) || (FLT_EVAL_METHOD==0))
#define PWR2 DBL_MANT_DIG - (DBL_MANT_DIG/2)
#else
#error FLT_EVAL_METHOD unknown!
#endif
...
double
x, xh, xl;
double_t m;
m = scalbn(1.0, PWR2) + 1.0; // 2**PWR2 + 1
xh = (m * x) - ((m * x) - x);
xl = x - xh;
]KfoJ27R>JfoJk#Km2
2#
double
KH)KRJ7_#TKf##K_K&KJK)KJfoJ#2KJJT>
k>JJTk>fK#_]#oJ#f>oJo#oJ]oJf#JoJ#K&KJK
JK>kK3

)
o__TKoToJ##_K&kR_f)2K]wkK]oT

kK]R>#TRKJRK##]]kJT
_K&K2K #RKfoKJ$7KkKTkfk]2#J$J
oJk>2JTkK]$>>2o>oJ#oK]
H3 K72>k>
wo# #o2
#wT#oo7oJ
#2 >$J
ofoJ
R#2#k
wfJT]KJ2#1RK]KoJ]J#2KD#ooJ
>>#oJ Jof)K>_KJKoJ#$_KJ#oJ>fo_

)K
k>JJTkK]R>K7kf
fegetprec
#J
J]oJ
f#JK2k>2JTkK]Jf#2#>f7o2
fesetround
fesetprec
fegetround
oJ]oJ7oJ#fK1#2KoJk>2JTkK]o>
kK]KJ#o
#kKfKf>koJ]2#JK
#o
#J
J$
Kk#DoJ
H3
>$J]KJo#
H3#k>#_o>2#$T#JTfoK
oKk21$JKfK#oJKo5##oKffR`fooK #o>
oKk21#$J >21#kJK)K
@U@
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
#
H3
K_2#o_K#
JK#KU$J#2KJKoJ2KfKFofKoJKKJo#
<inttypes.h>
>o>J#K#]]kJooJKR#Km#J_KKJ]oKH#K
#TJofKofKH##uo
o#RKR12KfKof#K#3tò
o5>K
KH#_K
float53_t
>J#D`>#oJ Jf
Km#JK
$_KJ#or7#oKf
#
K2KfK
J##fJ_#UJK>U#2 >JfK#]o
kK]R>R
]J#oJ
int_fast16_t
Kf#J
intmax_t
int32_t
oJK_KJ#or
float_fast24_t
`f
KH#
]2#oJ
#1$#R3`kK]R>2f#J
Kk#R>2#To#R1of>K
floatmax_t
J#fK]

D
>_Kw_KHoKJK #KRRK_7oKJK#oJ#oK>Rf
]RFE>J$o2]Jow#2oJ#oJf#$K2#K_#w#fKJ
#K#mJ#Jf#7`kK>F)KfoKm$J
JK&#] $fK
D
]#>Kw>KHoKJK f#KRRKoRKJkJ2)K
okJoJKK)KJf#
#_5>2ow#J
7
#J#Jf>FoJ
KoJK
JK
J#$]
Kmw#JfFEKoJ
]_J#uf
double_t
>
ooJk
`fow#ofkf2R]fKf##
o_KJ)J_2##w#KoKm#]k7J#_K#]>kJff_
>kK#T>1#$JKwK#f#J#
k>fw#_Kwo$J]#oK#$#2J#_fToJ>#oJ J
K_#J7oJKmk>fw#_7kKfk
E
#Jf#f>oK&K2KkK]$>>]#oK
2 5foK&oU2oJ5JRK#f5]J]K&#JJKk
ooK
&oKJK #RKTfoK
Ko&>R5]2J]K#JK>JK2KUk>f5kK]$>2>
2DJKKToDoKkKJ#oo#RJ#JTK&#]
J
kK&KJKT)K>#o#]KJo#$Hok>2
>H#2
oKk2k>fw#_]#ooKk2&k
JKo
>kKfK<J]2>5
RKHoKJKkK]R_2>$J1fKoo>_K
w$K
J#)ooK
o_KTKJJ#o#JK_K7o>$>fJTJK]##J#fo
JJKkKJ$DJK&#]o5#JoJK)K>k7JK2K
okK#k>#oJ JJ#woJKo#
KKf22>m]##f>FoJkK]o#oT>FJoKKm#woJ_o
]2>RkKKJoKok#Kf#2oJK
]##fK&)KRJToJKmKK]o
JoK#foJ
kKfk#Jf#fK
J$&L-%K! ".$&
JDo>kKf>2kK##kJ12KJKR#w#fKHoKJK #KRRK_
`RRK
J#f5>K_>oKkKJ]K
1oKHRKfK#o##KfoJwRKJT2#1#$
KKUK2#fkRo>oJ5#_5)fw#
K
KK_K&K2K #RKfoK#JRJ$
Dfo_ff2k#k
C!"3$&%#')(*+3$(-,%3"#.-/102+#354768"39#.-CC$(-+:<;$=>(-+34?($(-'
@U
owoJKoKkKJ?#JfoK
>K&#K

5
RJf ffoK)f$`2$Jok]o>_oT
oJ#ToJKuo#K
J_Kwm#J_#_uoJk o
ERJ2#)J$J
2Kw#o>2<]#K_
7
z]eiwjwv`tuef{rloqrg#{
\ p]v#v f#_#oJR#k#o)oK)KJkK
#]kK)KJRJ$ Dfo_f#2ffKHoKJKkK]RJf]#
KfK]#R2#D)fw#
KKJ2
JK2K#J
k>]oKkKJ)KRo7_oJR#foK
ooJRoJTk]K>
wo#
$oJ
7)K$$]#o>
#`Kw>

oRK$ #]##
JKkKt#f#oJf_]#RK`J
JK7K
fKT2>ToJ
2>JoJJKKTo
R#J#kr#Jo#]T#T>#o>J
JKfK2KK]JowHKoJJoKw_#k1KK)K
KoJ#oJ`Kf>22KFr]JkoJ#
#JoJJ#R
KoJ#o
KJf_o2>&#]o
7kJK>k$oo7RJf>m$)K
JDK`2#1
`kK]KkK]KToJkK`fK_k>fw#
KKJJK2KK#K#J
#JT)fw#_KwDKK2#1oJK
]#JKo#JToJK2#fFk>fw#
#JTkfoJ#2 w]wkK]o
oJkKoKk2]5o25]KoJ#]KUoJ5>_oKUoJ#wJ
_#J
#ffwoJoJKK
J$uf#o>m2uRfJKw7
>o
]KURRK#2Tk#2#Jf#fK
uJo2#K JK2]K
o#2 >21#oJKo]foJf>#7wo#$_>Rf#JKf
J
D
#oJw2oJ
o#J#kfJ
oJ#H#2TJK
r2#oK2`#]JK
7)KRofKoJK#TJKw#]Jow_#J]oo J
o#J#kToJk>fJ2J>KUJRH)#_2wo#o #k
]JoJo]
o_JkK]o##2 >J#2K$
#foJK JKK
k>fw#_JT#Jf#fK7oJ##f>#oJ J#J_KkK]o#
k#K7#koK&JDoK#)K>F
kfKk]o#oTfkK#JK&KJR>F)Kfw2

k>fw#_Kwo
wo$fKJ>F2$k#>JDo>mK#]
FLT_EVAL_METHOD
k>fw#_Kwo
2oJKmook#Jf#fK
wo`RJfk>fw#
J>RJoK#o#
o_R2#oJ#J#f>
`RK#Jo]kK#J
H$oJTKHoKJK f#KRRKoJk#oK_oJ#k>RK]To_$JT
KH)KRK7oJK&K21o
KK
H3
J_KKJ_
D
o#R_2#1oJ>_Km#JoJJ#k
k>fw#_KUJ
#k#_fJ
KoKmoJ#_oJ
]#oJKw>KTffKfoK
2#
#Ro_2K]Jo##]KoJ#]#]TkKfkK_]oKkK
KKJJ1_oJ_#]J2J#k]KJT_oJ]J]$J2#
$ff5
ok>
o<#JoJ5k#K<25>K&#J_oJ52#)
#KJT2k>fw#_K#_fJ
@U.0
"#(-'.!"3C$(*+F"#(-/
J#JD]J]J7_#T
#k

What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate



u ] Czu C uu +%

` s s l qy-D&}"#'k g'; gCh?') #yqr*"#&C

ce'+"#f r'+# v fgC';  \` ngC \ "#g"#gC

*"#'+&f"#' \  /*')C-DzC-,$"# _ -.& U& C')$z"#**"#'p& %zn&%Pst  /

"#**"#'+z$"# f _ -DffC}%g3& /n&"# ,C-, / ')Ss

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

  x  h "#"#')(g- '+& 'u "# n!')'+g3 /n/-." g"#')(g+s x 

qyb';"#f--D'),')*')n&"# C-.'k"#f ^ '; "#b ^ $*')*Ch \^  ^C_

^ !"#**')C|$"#&f _3l s l # ll # l6l # l6l # ll # ll l

I;G XH G F 46HL e"#( "#A g #sij')/*')6nf _

l *Chn ^ f/|r* & \ " C"#&g *C, ^ 'p6"# ^ /(%

*),+- *)0/ 132

log 2 ( e max e min + 1 ) + log 2 ( p ) + 1

l - C'. hg ^ ]sh { *'kh6CgOC$*'+&"# 

 ')"#')&} ')"#n } _ "[')"#f ^ 'Pg  C ^ |"#&f _ ')*')h &" ^ f%"#

f"# g *C,')*'kn &"# Cz"#')/C,6nh"#';%f _ s C'u|r"#*f \^ 

"#  l# " ^ Cb \  & /')*')h "#&%zn"#(  ^ /HC>:;@146K GJ 9;Ls  

- ')C "U"# g *C!f *f _ *'+"# Ps { 1"# gC-! 

^ /f"#'u-D'kC& / &|r+s C'u|r"#*f \ & /|r*')hh% s

bfbzCf _ " ngf/"# g *C,f%&*f%6"# Ps

l \ "# (& /"#h}'u} $$* d&

 /*')hC$% s # l \ ,6f"#'p "#,& %z$'+'kC' ^C_  &$ /f"#n

s # l##m ys l l##m

\  ^ h'+b/ "#,} "

%&-. & /ng"#(C-, /'+'kC'+s { z'+')'p y

 ^ ';C-, /- C';L L#L

'k-D'+')(&a"#@14 F 2 G HC9u9;A I;G KJ>6H,s

x a& e|"#$*fe" ^ b \ & e')f"#&%be';')'}"#1s # l##m ys l l##m

raffn&'+"# /& U--D') ^  }$f%*z"#d')f"# b/';')' \ 6Ch{'p /')"#f

\^ ,& /')f"# b/'+')'ph ffs s  /';')'p"#n')(

 Un,"#&';"#f}" _ &a"#n')/') g3';')C'u

C-,- C';$f"#}ff ^ / gC &'p"#6 z} $" n"#ff s

f _ & 1')'-!"#g 1-!') g';')C'-! 'kn \

\ & "#,"# z "#

6C*&"# C$H \  

6C "#"# (g 

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

l ystP"# 'p& "#ng3"#ff h/g  \ C"#& gCD* 

"#')}"#')/C';$"#ff _ *'+"#&C$" |(  ^ 'pC-,g #sqy**Ch/ "#, 

 /"#h}'u|r"#6 f _  1n"#1"#z-,& 1-&- ') 61 "# ^ $6C* |r"#6 f _

G 5D2 A#46:;46@19;5 9;: I

B I)G HX$A L G X G 5 I; 5D2#9u:k9;KM45 G 8#9u9;:;:k>6:u> 5 2#9u:k9 I BKJ5 F 46H3TV9u4 I KJ46:X9u4 I

-&- ') 61 U,<

g& \  /';%gC  Ch,g,-.< g&h -D&d-&- \ #

l# \ "# ( /')f%"#&b

^  m &$f"#')gC'+s '.& * "#C '.}" _\ } 

 "#    ^ '?- "# "#&g&ufg l

"#( /"# h}'p|"#+s  $" ngCf%/gC"#'kdgC \  /')f"#&%b/'+'kC'p-.& 

 %z')& l # \ $*"#'kd} $ /6C';')6,"#n}'p- l l s l#\ - C'p" ')f"#&b

 %z ')}ff ^ /*')b$ PC{g ';')C' C$*"#g# s v  

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

haf"#')g/& "#,4KMK  /%gC z"#')/$"# gfh  C') l# s $h ^  ';"#6 g

Cz ,bfb/" "#6ff"# C$"#

s  C '?"# a n ^  ';"#&C ae- - C';$f"#u}f%f

4 5 ` i C > @ ` 5 \ D C d < 5 4 5 b X b 5 ` Y i @ A < < B B > B D C @ < B 9 = > ? V ; : 5 b X b D = ` Y V ; : = 5 6 O 5

"#dh$f"#';f _ - C'p:   ^  "#

 z|r*')hh% < u?"#C ',-D'+f" "#|  ^  ?"#&"#n&')* "#6ff"# CPs

"#  z}& " h$"#ff')f"#&%b/'+'kC'p'knf z" *')6,} $"Oh"#ff'kf"# b

x a')'? O"#b$ - n ^  }a|r"#6"#$6C* $b"#f \ & -DffC} g

< z"#|ff,"#**')|r"# & e _ \  

"#f}" _  "#$"#**'kC|%"#&%Ps ,f"# g3" "#6ff"# C$ ')f _ D"#z& 

 [|r*')nhC {< zC'k["#6'+"#&[} 3')}'; &3"#p /{< < {^ 6"#h

 ')eu"[}" _ &'k}'; -D'+f"1 # nO& "#}ff') ';a"#6'+"#&e')nf ub

u ] Czu C uu +%

` s s l qy-D&}"#'k g'; gCh?') #yqr*"#&C

ce'+"#fr'+# v fgC'; \` ngC \ "#g"#gC

"#'+&f"#' \ /')C-DzC-,$"# _ -.& U& C')$z"#"#'p& %zn&%Pst /

"#"#'+z$"# f _ -DffC}%g3& /n&"# ,C-, / ')Ss

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

x h "#"#')(g- '+& 'u "# n!')'+g3 /n/-."g"#')(g+s x

qyb';"#f--D'),')')n&"# C-.'k"#f ^ '; "#b ^ $')*Ch \^ ^C_

^ !"#')C|$"#&f _3l s l # ll # l6l # l6l # ll # ll l

I;G XH G F 46HL e"#( "#Ag #sij')/*')6nf _

l Chn ^ f/|r & \ "C"#&g *C, ^ 'p6"# ^ /(%

),+- )0/ 132

l - C'. hg ^ ]sh{ 'kh6CgOC$'+&"#

')"#')&}')"#n } _ "[')"#f ^ 'Pg C ^ |"#&f _ ')*')h &" ^ f%"#

f"# g C,')'kn &"# Cz"#')/C,6nh"#';%f _ s C'u|r"#*f \^

"# l# " ^ Cb \ & /')*')h "#&%zn"#( ^ /HC>:;@146K GJ 9;Ls

- ')C "U"# g C!f f _ *'+"# Ps{ 1"# gC-!

^ /f"#'u-D'kC& / &|r+s C'u|r"#f \ & /|r')hh% s

bfbzCf _ "ngf/"# g C,f%&f%6"# Ps

l \ "# (& /"#h}'u} $$* d&

/*')hC$%s # l \ ,6f"#'p "#,& %z$'+'kC' ^C_ &$ /f"#n

s # l##m ys l l##m

\ ^ h'+b/ "#,} "

%&-.& /ng"#(C-, /'+'kC'+s{ z'+')'p y

^ ';C-, /- C';L L#L

'k-D'+')(&a"#@14 F 2 G HC9u9;A I;G KJ>6H,s

x a& e|"#$*fe" ^ b \ & e')f"#&%be';')'}"#1s # l##m ys l l##m

raffn&'+"# /& U--D') ^ }$f%*z"#d')f"# b/';')' \ 6Ch{'p /')"#f

\^ ,& /')f"# b/'+')'ph ffs s /';')'p"#n')(

Un,"#&';"#f}" _ &a"#n')/') g3';')C'u

C-,- C';$f"#}ff ^ / gC &'p"#6 z} $"n"#ff s

f _ & 1')'-!"#g 1-!') g';')C'-! 'kn \

\ & "#,"# z "#

6C*&"# C$H \

6C "#"# (g

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

l ystP"# 'p& "#ng3"#ff h/g \ C"#& gCD*

"#')}"#')/C';$"#ff _ '+"#&C$"|( ^ 'pC-,g #sqy*Ch/ "#,

/"#h}'u|r"#6 f _ 1n"#1"#z-,& 1-&- ') 61 "# ^ $6C* |r"#6 f _

G 5D2A#46:;46@19;5 9;: I

B I)G HX$AL G X G 5 I; 5D2#9u:k9;KM45 G 8#9u9;:;:k>6:u> 5 2#9u:k9 I BKJ5 F 46H3TV9u4 I KJ46:X9u4 I

-&- ') 61 U,<

g& \ /';%gC Ch,g,-.<g&h -D&d-&- \ #

l# \ "# ( /')f%"#&b

^ m &$f"#')gC'+s '.&* "#C '.}" _\ }

"# ^ '?- "# "#&g&ufg l

"#( /"# h}'p|"#+s $"ngCf%/gC"#'kdgC \ /')f"#&%b/'+'kC'p-.&

%z')& l # \ $*"#'kd} $ /6C';')6,"#n}'p- l l s l#\ - C'p"')f"#&b

%z ')}ff ^ /')b$ PC{g ';')C' C$"#g# s v

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

haf"#')g/& "#,4KMK /%gC z"#')/$"# gfh C') l# s $h ^ ';"#6 g

Cz ,bfb/""#6ff"# C$"#

s C '?"# a n ^ ';"#&C ae- - C';$f"#u}f%f

"#dh$f"#';f _ - C'p: ^ "#

z|r')hh% < u?"#C ',-D'+f" "#| ^ ?"#&"#n&') "#6ff"# CPs

"# z}& "h$"#ff')f"#&%b/'+'kC'p'knf z"*')6,} $"Oh"#ff'kf"# b

x a')'? O"#b$ - n ^ }a|r"#6"#$6C* $b"#f \ & -DffC} g

< z"#|ff,"#')|r"# & e _ \

"#f}" _ "#$"#'kC|%"#&%Ps ,f"# g3""#6ff"# C$ ')f _ D"#z&

[|r*')nhC {< zC'k["#6'+"#&[} 3')}'; &3"#p /{< < {^ 6"#h

')eu"[}" _ &'k}'; -D'+f"1 # nO& "#}ff') ';a"#6'+"#&e')nf ub

G HX$9;:;:k>6: G H F B:):)9)LQz2#9)H3B )I G

5 2#45 I B46:k9p:k>6>65 I 46:k9 F >@[A#B5 9;L5D>Q G 5D2 G H l y

U6C & "#,9

x h "#&$ &zfC1 ') U& "#{n6n 1')f"# b['+')'u-!"#$|r*')hn \

6"#h[C-!& 16 ^ ';n$["# ')[C-! # \ 3 [n&"# {C-!& C')}1}ff

'+'kC' ^ "#'k/h"#f%f _ Cnh$h rs x & / '+6"#f|r"#fUgCb

6C& ga'+'kC' ^ C, agC,')6h ^ ^ ,'+"#& 'p b';- _ "#

"#f|"#$f/C-,"#|r')hn& "#,"# ^ /')}'+ &&an ^ g

/"#C,C-,C _ "#6f"#&d"#! /d-. _ "#'p l # ( 1 + i n ) n 1

6C"#')( /|"#!"#n}'uC- # ##l s #\ "n6')"# _ C- l s #s /')"#hC

+CMu+u#%r#k % +#! +z]+##++% y%+ + u%

G rH 6"# ^ /'k}'; "#9

\ $} 6 6"#h/ /*" _ ^ $ # ##l# s #\

C')"#nh$z "# "#')|r"# f &a}%& l r

*') ^ f,hCfbz& "#!} Ozn"#ff \ l

z ,6fChU&a z"#&"#fb"#f/}

GMIpF >@[A#B5 9;LB I;G HX5 2#9 6>6:;@1BCKJ4

^ ,f _ &')h g3- C'

sV [f- "#- "#6 C'