GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY SS1

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

Janina Morales

2011

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

The Human Nervous System The Receiving Mechanism The Reacting Mechanism The Connecting Mechanism Divisions of the Human Nervous System Autonomic or Sympathetic Nervous System The Cerebro-Spinal System Diseases of the Nervous System Researches on the Nervous System Other Related Materials

I. THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM Nervous System is the complex arrangement throughout the body of highly specialized cells, the nerve cells or neurons, which act as a communication system, enabling the organism to respond to external and internal stimuli.

Three Mechanism of Behavior 1. The Receiving Mechanism Sense organs are sensitive nerve endings located in certain body parts. They are the receptors of stimulus. Its attributes are: a. b. c. d. Sensitivity and Irritability the power to react to stimulus. Conductivity the power to conduct nerve impulses. Specificity the attribute of reacting to particular stimulus. Adaptability the power to become used to particular stimulus.

Types of sense organs according to location are: a. Exteroceptors found in the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, skin and are sensitive to external stimulus. b. Interoceptors sense organs in the respiratory tract, digestive and genitor-urinary tract. c. Proprieoceptors are embedded in muscles, tendons and joints. 2. The Reacting Mechanism Muscles and Glands comprise this reacting mechanism. Muscle A body tissue composed of sheets or bundles of cells that contract to produce movement or increase tension. Muscle cells contain filaments made of the proteins actin and myosin, which lie parallel to each other. When a muscle is signaled to contract, the actin and myosin filaments slide past each other in an overlapping pattern. Three kinds of Muscles 1. Voluntary, stripe, skeletal or unstriated Skeletal muscle effects voluntary movement and is made up of bundles of elongated cells (muscle fibers), each of which contains many nuclei. 2. Involuntary, visceral, smooth or unstriated Smooth muscle provides the contractile force for the internal organs and is controlled by the autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscle cells are spindleshaped and each contains a single nucleus.

3. Cardiac or heart Cardiac muscle makes up the muscle of the heart and consists of a meshwork of striated cells. Characteristics of Muscles 1. Contractility is the power of muscles to shorten. 2. Tonicity is the power to be in partial contraction. 3. Extensibility is the power of muscles to stretch. 4. Elasticity is the power to resume its original shape. Functions of Muscles 1. To lend shape to the body as the skeletal or voluntary muscles of the arms and legs do. 2. To propel food and waste products along the intestinal pathway as smooth muscles in the digestive tract do. 3. For movement as when the arms and legs move or when we move the mouth to form the sounds of speech. 4. To control the flow of blood, automatically opening and closing the blood vessels in response to body needs. 5. To convert mechanical energy into mechanical work. 6. To generate heat. Facts about muscles 1. Muscles fibers cannot be manufactured the growth of a muscle results from an increase in the size of individual muscle cells hence, the kind of exercise is important. 2. The principal source of muscle energy is glucose obtained from sugar, starches and carbohydrates. 3. The flow of acetylcholine ions stimulate muscular contraction. 4. Repeated movements requiring less than maximum strength increase the blood supply, and therefore the endurance but not the size of the muscle. The speed of reaction of muscles depends upon certain factors 1. Condition of nerve pathways whether blocked or open. 2. Condition of the muscles whether relaxed or fatigued. 3. Strength of the stimulus. Glands are special secreting organs which pour their secretions either directly or indirectly into the bloodstream. Kinds of Glands a. Duct glands have ducts or canals thru which they pour out their secretions. These includes lachrymal(tear) glands, sebaceous (sweat); salivary, gastric, sex, mammary glands. b. Ductless or endocrine glands pour their secretions called hormones directly into the bloodstream.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

GLAND

LOCATION

SECRETIONS AND FUNCTIONS

DISORDERS Hypofunction: Retarded developemen; diabetes insipidus Hyperfunction: Giantism or acromegaly

1. Pituitary

Under surface of cerebrum

ANTERIOR PITUITARY 1. Growth hormone (STH) stimulates general growth 2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulate the thyroid gland 3. Adrecocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulate outer layer of (cortex) adrenal gland 4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) induces ripening of ovarian follicles (females) & sperm production (males) 5. Leteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates ovulation (females) & gonads (males) 6. Prolactin or luteotrophic hormone (LTH) stimulates lactation POSTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES Oxytocin stimulates contraction of smooth muscles of uterus & breast antidiuretic hormone (ADH) regulates volume of urine.

2. Adrenal cortex

Over kidneys

OUTER LAYER (CORTEX) Glucocorticoids promotes conversion of protein into sugar: aid in transport of fat from storage sites to liver, & increase resistance to stress. MIneralocorticoids act on kidneys to regulate mineral composition of body fluids, increase sodium concentration & decrease potassium concentration of body fluids. Action of Androgenic Corticoids is similar to that of male sex hormones

Hypofunction: Addisons disease Hyperfunction: Accelerated sexual development

3. Thyroid

Front of trachea

Thyroxin regulates metabolism & oxygen consumption of body cells & contributes to growth & development

Hypofunction in infancy: cretinism,

adulimyxedema Hyperfunction: Goiter, increase metabolism

4. Parathyroid

On surface of thyroid glands

Parathormone regulates calcium concentration of the blood

Hupofunction: Tetany, death

5. Islets of Langerhans

In pancreas

Glucagon raises blood sugar (a cells) Insulin secreted which lowers blood sugar (b cells)

Hypofunction: Diabetes mellitus Hyperfunction: None

6. Gonads

Pelvis in female Testicles in male

Growth and reproduction (Ovarian hormones) Estrogen: Important in regulation of menstrual cycle, stimulates uterus & maintain female physical characteristics Relaxin: relaxes pelvic ligaments during pregnancy (Testicular hormones) Androgens: stimulates growth of muscle, kidneys, bones & other tissues & influence sexual behavior

Hypofunction: Underdevelopment of secondary sex characteristics Hyperfunction: Sexual precocity

7. Placenta

Pelvis of female

(During pregnancy) Progesteron maintains pregnancy & prevents eggs from ripening in the ovary. It is also produced by the corpus luteum of the ovary during the normal menstrual cycle.

3. The Connecting Mechanism The Nervous System A. Neuron is the basic conducting unit of the nervous system. 3 Principal parts 1. Dendrites are specialized signal-receiving structures where the impulse (input) enters. 2. Cell Body (the central region) which integrates input and output and the axon where the output is discharged.

3. Synapse the functional conjunction between two neurons making conduction of nerve impulses continuous from one to the other. Types of Neurons 1. According to speed Impulses in the fastest neuron move at the rate of 110 meters per second; in the slowest, 0.5 meters per second. The speed of condition is matched by the thickness of the myelin sheath (insulating material around the axon). The more myelin, the faster the conduction. 2. According to basic function a. Sensory neuron (afferent fibers) conduct impulses to the nervous system. b. Association neuron central or connecting conduct impulses within the nervous system. c. Motor neurons (efferent fibers) conduct impulses away from the nervous system. B. Levels of Synaptic Connections 1. Simple reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli. They are produced by a functional unit of the nervous system called the reflex arc. Reflex arc is a chain consisting of a sensory organ, three nerve cells (the sensory, the connecting and the motor). 2. An instinct is a complex unlearned behavior of a species set off by relatively simple stimuli. 3. The cortex level involves more neurons and may take more time before reaction or response takes place. C. Stimulation and Homeostasis Stimulation is the action of various agents (stimuli) on nerves, muscles, or a sensory end organ,
by which activity is evoked; especially, the nervous impulse produced by various agents on nerves, or a sensory end organ, by which the part connected with the nerve is thrown into a state of activity.

Homeostasis is the tendency of the body to maintain its natural equilibrium. It is the bodys automatic protective device against overstimulation and stresses. D. Nerve Impulses Are the potential changes moving along a nerve fiber. Receptor is an energy converter, it converts energy from the environment into chemical processes that in turn produce electrochemical nervous impulses.

Two Important Principles Related to Nerve Impulses 1. All-or-None Law states that the impulse is independent of the properties of the stimulus which started it. 2. Frequency Principle states that there are more impulses per second with the stronger stimulus than with the weaker stimulus. Varieties of Neural Circuits 1. Spatial summation involves a many-to-one principle. Convergence another form of spatial summation. Where two or more impulses are activated at the same time, their combined energies converging to form a single stimulation sufficiently strong to elicit a reaction. 2. Temporal summation repeated stimulation from one or more nearby neurons in a short period of time may be activated. 3. Recruitment there is a progressive increase in the number of nerve fibers giving nerve impulses as the exciting impulse is repeated. 4. Reverberation neurons are frequently arranged in circuits in which the fiber of one neuron comes back and ends on a neuron whose fiber stimulates the first neuron. 5. Reciprocal innervations depends on the way muscles are arranged and innervated (connected with nerve fibers). 6. Inhibition reflex actions may be stopped, the external stimuli may do this. 7. Integration is the ability of the nervous system to function as a unit. E. Divisions of the Human Nervous System 1. Autonomic or Sympathetic Nervous System Two antagonistic but integrated system: a. Sympathetic System consists of nerves and ganglia in the cervical, thoracic and lumbar segments of gray matter of the spinal cord, this division tends to act as a unit. b. Parasympathetic System is composed of fibers from the cranial region, some below the sympathetic system. This division acts or affects one organ at a time. The function of these systems can also be described as: Competition when both fibers are connected to the same muscle or gland. Cooperation/cooperate both being active at once or acting in sequence. 2. The Cerebro-Spinal System The brain and spinal cord is protected by 3 meninges or membranes: 1. Dura Moter is the outer membrane lining the inner surface of the skull forming a protective covering for the brain.

2. Arachnoid is the thin membrane beneath the dura matter which secretes a serious fluid keeping the inner surface moist. 3. Pia Mater is the membrane dipping to the convolutions, fissures and the interior and is rich in blood vessels. A. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM The Brain Cerebrum for sense perception, voluntary movements, learning, remembering, thinking, emotion, consciousness, personality integration. Hypothalamus control of visceral and somatic functions as temperature and metabolism. Thalamus the way-station for impulses coming up the spinal cord to the cerebrum. Midbrain a conduction and switching center; papillary light reflex. Cerebellum for muscle tone, body balance, coordination of voluntary movement. Medulla has control over breathing, swallowing, digestion, heartbeat. Reticular Formation for the arousal and alertness of the organism, the change from sleep to wakefulness. Corpus Callosum contains fibers connecting the two brain hemisphere. Brain Areas 1. Motor area (in front of the fissure of Rolando) the body is represented in approximately upside-down from. Movements on the right side of the body originate thru stimulation of the left hemisphere. 2. Body-sense area (in the parietal lobe) the lower extremities are represented high on the area of the opposite hemisphere. 3. Visual area (in the occipital lobe) damage in the left hemisphere will result in blind areas in the left side of both eyes. 4. Auditory area both ears are totally represented on both sides so that loss of one temporal lobe has very little effect on hearing. 5. Speech area the motor-speech area (Brocas speech area) controls the tongue and jaws. It is located in the right hemisphere of the left handed persons and vice versa according to conventional interpretation. 6. Association area (areas of the brain not accounted for) bring together phenomena involving more than one sense. 7. Smell area just below the frontal near the temporal lobe.

8. Taste area located behind the central fissure at the lower part of the side of the brain. B. THE PERIPHEREAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PNS is composed of the cranial nerves, the spinal nerves and the nerves of the autonomic nervous system. Cranial Nerves there are twelve pairs of cranial nerves made up of sensory, motor and mixed nerves. Motor nerves arise from cell bodies with the brain Sensory nerves arise from cell bodies outside the brain. CRANIAL NERVES

NAME

FUNCTIONAL COMPONENT

STRUCTURE SUPPLIED

I.

Olfactory

Special Sensory (Smell) Special Sensory (Vision) Somatic motor Visceral Motor Somatic motor General sensory

Olfactory epithelium of nasal cavity

II.

Optic

Rods & cones of retina

III. Oculomotor

Most of muscles moving eye Smooth muscle of iris & lens Superior oblique muscle of eye Skin of forehead & face, lining of nasal & oral cavities To muscle moving jaw To external rectus muscle of eye To muscle of expression To salivary glands To taste buds of tongue

IV. Trochlear V. Trigeminal

Bronchial motor VI. Abducent VII. Facial Somatic motor Bronchial motor Visceral motor Special sensory Special sensory Vestibular (balance) Auditory(hearing)

VIII.

Acoustic

To semicircular canals & masculae of labyrinth To end organ of hearing in choclea of ear To muscles in back of mouth To parotid gland To taste buds & general endings in back of

IX. Glossopharyngeal Bronchial motor Visceral motor Visceral sensory

mouth X. Vagus Bronchial motor Visceral motor To muscles of larynx & pharynx To muscle of heart, to smooth muscle & glands of lung & bronchi, stomach & intestines including digestive glands. From terminations in great blood vessels, lungs, esophagus, stomach & intestine To external ear To sternomastoid & trapezius muscles To muscles of tongue

Visceral motor

General sensory XI. Accessory XII. Hypoglossal Bronchial motor Somatic motor

Spinal Nerves there are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. They emerge from the cervical, thoratic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal areas of the vertebral column through openings between the vertebrae. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Nervous system is subject to both organic and functional diseases. Any impairment of this system will affect the body adversely. Nerve cells may be inflamed, may swell, atrophy, disintegrate, increase in growth or degenerate. Function disorders include migraine and neuralgia. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Infection due to bacteria, viruses, yeasts, fungi, etc. Tumors Hereditary disorders like Huntingtons chorea Degenerative diseases like arteriosclerosis, syphilis, multiple sclerosis Congenital abnormalities as cerebral palsy, hydrocephaly Convulsive disorders as epilepsy Poisons and toxins as arsenic, lead, sulphur and thallium, snake venom Reflex disorders like hiccup, neuralgia, tetanus, rabies