Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Subedi(BPH,MPH)
Types of curriculum Theformalcurriculum:whattheinstitutionplansandorganizestoteach Theinformalcurriculum:whatthestudentslearnfromavarietyofsourcesandinteractions whiletakingpartintheextracurricularactivitiesattheinstitution Thehiddencurriculum:whatthestudentslearnbuttheinstitutiondidnotsetouttoteach. Muchofthisreferstotheaspectslikecaughtnottaught. Some definitions AlbertOliver(1977):curriculumistheeducationalprogramoftheschoolanddividedintofourbasic elements:1)programofstudies,2)programofexperiences,3)programofservice,4)hiddencurriculum. Bell(1971):theofferingofsociallyvaluedknowledge,skills,andattitudesmadeavailabletostudents throughavarietyofarrangementsduringthetimetheyareatschool,college,oruniversity. Harnack(1968):Thecurriculumembodiesalltheteachinglearningexperiencesguidedanddirectedby theschool.
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) RalphTyler(1957):Thecurriculumisallofthelearningofstudentswhichisplannedbyanddirectedby theschooltoattainitseducationalgoals. DavidG.Armstrong(1989):"isamasterplanforselectingcontentandorganizinglearningexperiences forthepurposeofchanginganddevelopinglearners'behaviorsandinsights." Bringingallthesepointstogether,thecurriculumisviewedasacompositewholeincludingthelearner, theteacher,teachingandlearningmethodologies,anticipatedandunanticipatedexperiences,outputs andoutcomespossiblewithinalearninginstitution. Curriculum definitions fit into 5 categories. 1. Curriculumasaproductprogram,document,electronicmedia,ormultimedia 2. Curriculumasaprogramofstudyusuallycoursesoffered,curriculumsequencesofstudyin standardsasbenchmarks,gateways, 3. Curriculumasintendedlearningsgoals,content,concepts,generalizations,outcomes 4. Curriculumasexperiencesofthelearneractivities,plannedandunplanned. 5. Hiddencurriculumwhatstudentslearnthatisn'tplanned(alsocalledunofficialorcounter) Curriculum as PRODUCT Advantages canbedescribedinconcretetermsand definiteways providesdirectionforplanningand developmentbyproducingadocument
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Curriculum as EXPERIENCES of the learner Advantages focusesonlearningandthelearner,rather thanteaching includesallexperiencesplannedand unplanned canallowforbroaderexperiences canbemoremeaningfullearningifit relatestostudentinterests,needs,orif studentshelpselectmeaningfullearning activities, canbegreaterretentionoflearning Elements of curriculum Thecurriculumhasfourelementsthatareinconstantinteraction: purpose(goalsandobjectives) contentorsubjectmatter methodsorlearningexperiences evaluation Fig:Interactionbetweendifferentelementsofcurriculum Purpose(Goalsandobjectives)
Methodsorlearningexperiences
Content(subjecttobestudied)
Evaluation(PerformanceMeasurement)
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Whatevereducationalplanningis,itiscertainlynotamiracledrugforailingeducational systems. Educationalplanning,initsbroadestgenericsense,istheapplicationofrational,systematic analysistotheprocessofeducationaldevelopmentwiththeaimofmakingeducationmore effectiveandefficientinrespondingtotheneedsandgoalsofstudentsandsociety. Educationalplanningisideologicallyneutral.Itsmethodologiesaresufficientlyflexibleand adaptabletofitsituationsthatdifferwidelyinideology,levelofdevelopment,and governmentalform. Itsbasiclogic,concepts,andprinciplesareuniversallyapplicable,butthepracticalmethodsfor applyingthemmayrangefromthecrudeandsimpletothehighlysophisticated,dependingon thecircumstances.
Itisthereforewrongtoconceiveofeducationalplanningasofferingarigid,monolithicformula
thatmustbeimposeduniformlyonallsituations.
DefinedrangeView i. Itshouldhaveashortrange(oneortwoyears),amiddlerange(fourtofiveyears)and alongrangeperspective(tentofifteenyears). ii. Obviouslyitsvisionwillgrowlessprecisethefartheraheaditlooks.Butconsideringthe longleadtimerequiredtoincreaseeducationalcapacityandtoenlargeeducational output,longrangeperspectiveshouldalsobeconsidered.Forexample,forthe productionofdoctorsorengineers,orevenofelementaryschoolteachers;itis necessarytoplanyearsahead. Educationalplanningshouldbecomprehensive. i. Itshouldembracethewholeeducationalsysteminasinglevisiontoensurethe harmoniousevolutionofitsvariousparts. ii. Moreover,itshouldtrytoextenditsvisiontoimportanttypesofnonformaleducation andtrainingtoensuretheireffectiveintegrationwithformaleducationandwiththe priorityneedsandgoalsofsociety. Educationalplanningshouldbeintegratedwiththeplansofbroadereconomicandsocial development. i. Ifeducationistocontributemosteffectivelytoindividualandnationaldevelopment, andtomakethebestuseofscarceresources,itcannotgoitsownway,ignoringthe realitiesoftheworldaroundit. Educationalplanningshouldbeanintegralpartofeducationalmanagement. i. Tobeeffective,theplanningprocessmustbecloselytiedtotheprocessesofdecision makingandoperations
Steps of Curriculum Developme ent Determineand dagreetheed ducationalor rprofessiona alcontextinw whichthepro ogrammeisto obe developedand ddelivered Definethenee edsofthelea arnersinlinewiththerequ uirementsofprofessionalbodies Determinethe eaimsandbroadlearningoutcomesof theprogram mme Id dentifyideasandconstrain nts Agreethebroa adstructurea andframewo orkofthepro ogramme,the emainareaso ofteachingand earning,thesequenceofthemaintopic csandtheke eyassessments le Allocatethedetaileddevel A lopmentofea achtopicorc courseareain ntermsofdef ives finingobjecti an ndlearningoutcomestoin ndividualsor rteams Channelanddirectteamstodevelopco oherentprogr rammeswhic chhavedefine edlearning metables,cont tent,appropr riateteaching g,learningand dassessment tmethodsan nd outcomes,tim whichutilisere w elevantanda availablelearn ningresource es Im mplementandrefinethep programme Agreeanappro opriateandd deliverableev valuationstra ategy Reviewandre evisethecour rseinlinewit thfeedback hasitmettheidentifiedneedsofthe e earnersandotherstakeholders? le
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RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
Disadvantages
Societyalwayschanging,sodifficulttomakechangesincurriculumaccordinglyfromtimeto time Needsintensiveworktodevelopagoodcurriculum.Hence,developmentofeffective curriculumrequireshighcost Makeslearningspecific,hencehighchanceofmanyrelevantcontentstobemissedout. Cantincludealllearningtheories Curriculummadeatonesettingmaynotbeapplicableinothersettings Curriculumchangerequiresintense,tediousprocesses Curriculumdevelopmenthighlyinfluencedbypoliticalfactors.Hence,challengetomakeit unbiased
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Content oriented d
Ancientmodel lofcurriculum mdesign Masteryofsub M bjectmatteriscentraltask k St tandardsaresetfor o Subjec ctmattercove ered o Learne ersmasteryo ontheconten nt Atextbookist theprimaryin nstructionaltool Breadthofthe esubjectcent teredcurriculumisdeterm minedbythen numberofsu ubjectstaught t achsubjecthasthreechar racteristics: Ea nt o Conten o Itsinte ellectualdiscipline o Patternfororganizi ingtheconte ent
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RajK.s subedi(BPH,MPH)
Sixpriorit tyareasfora acompetency ybasedcurric culuminpub blichealthare e cu ulturalcompe etency, healthpromot tionskills, le eadershipdev velopment, programmana agement, dataanalysis,a and ommunityorg ganizing co
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Fig: :Competency ybasedcurric culumdesign Character risticsofcom mpetencybase edcurriculum ms Competencies aremorehig ghlightedthan nobjectives Outcomesaremorehighlightedthanob O bjectives Le earneractivit tieswillbebasedonperformanceoflea arnerandacc complishmen ntofcriteria; Te eachingactivitiesarelearn nercentered; ; Fo ormativeevaluationisnec cessary.
Stepsofc competencyb basedcurricu ulumdesign 1. Co onductneedsassessment t Whatlearnersneed dtolearn Progra amrequireme ents,boardce ertificationre equirementsa and/orspecia alty,society,e etc. determ minemuchof fthecontentstudentsnee edtolearnon naparticularsubject
RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH) 2. Identifycompetenciesaddressed culturalcompetency, healthpromotionskills,leadershipdevelopment, programmanagement, dataanalysis, communityorganizing 3. Writegoalsandobjectivesintermsofcompetencies Thegoalsandobjectiveshelpto: Provideaninstructionalroadmap Provideclarityabouttheeducationalprogramtolearners,teachersandexternal stakeholders Encouragehigherorderlearning Determinetheassessmentmethod 4. Determineteachingmethods Didacticconferences, Clinicalexposure, Casebasedteaching, Rolemodeling, JournalClub, Mentoring, Simulation, Individualorgroupprojects, Researchprojectsetc. 5. Determineassessmentmethods toevaluatethestudentsperformance Bettertousemultiplemethods 6. Determineprogramimprovementmethods Studentevaluationsofthestudy Facultyevaluationsofthestudy Studentsattainmentofthespecificgoalsandobjectivesofeducationalexperience
RajK.s subedi(BPH,MPH)
RajK.subedi(BPH,MPH)
TrendsinMedicalEducation(BeforeandafterSPICESmodel)
Flexner(1910)model(ThiswasthemodelbeforeSPICES) Teachercentred Knowledgegiving Disciplineled Hospitaloriented Standardprogramme Opportunistic(apprenticeship)
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RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
6. 7.
8. 9.
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Differenthealthneeds/gap o Numberofhealthserviceproviders o Morbidity/disability o Mortality o NumberandtypeofHealthinstitutions o Qualityofexistinghealthservices o Adequacyofdrugsanddiagnosticequipments o Qualityofserviceproviders o Healthprofessionalspracticeandconduct o Costofhealthservices o Geographicalaccessibility o PeoplesparticipationinHealthServiceManagement o Informationmanagementsystemetc.
Factors influencing need assessment Societyrelatedfactorsinfluencingneedassessment o Socioeconomicstatusofpeople(education,incomeetc) o Religion o Tradition o Taboos o Availabilityofotherbasicfacilities o Trustonhealthsystem,pastexperiences o Politicalforceswithinsociety,formal&informalleaders o Burdenofdiseases o Populationdensityanddistribution Factorsrelatedtothosewhoassesstheneeds o Educationalstatusofthoseinvolvedinneedassessment o Communicationandcoordinationskills o Language o Financialcapacity o Degreeofobligation,Motivation o Volumeofassignedresponsibility o Complexity o Methodology o Technology o Time o Vestedinterest/hiddenagenda Politicalforcesinfluencingneedassessment o Donorinterestandinfluence o Politicalstabilityofthenation o Prioritybynation
2. Working Hypothesis
Aworkinghypothesisisahypothesisthatisprovisionallyacceptedasabasisforfurther research. Itmaynotbedirectlytestedbutprovidesusefulguidanceandagreeabledirections. Maynothaveconcretemathematicalandscientificbasisbutcanprovideideas,informationas wellasqualitativecontentsrequiredforcurriculumdesign. aworkinghypothesisisoftenusedasaconceptualframeworkinqualitativeresearch Initialcoursedesignisusuallyframedasworkinghypothesiswhichwouldbetestedinpractice andthenremodeledaccordingtothestudentsresponse. Settingworkinghypothesisdiscouragesputtingtheceilingonlearningprocessandfacilitates theredesigningofthecurricularelementsasperthefeedbackfromthedifferentstakeholders. Characteristicsofworkinghypothesis o Makeslearningflexible o Helpsinclusionofqualitativeaspectsoflearning o Savesresourcesforfurtherresearches o Complementsscientificandquantitativeassertions o Actsasapivotalfeatureintheprocessofinquiry o Providesprovisionalalertnessforerrorsincorrelationandcausation o Usefulduringbudgetarylimitations o Easytomodifyandchange Factorsinfluencingworkinghypothesis o Learningtheories o Technologicaladvancement,globalization o Politicalsituationofthecountry o Donorsinterest o Resources o Needofthesociety o Motivation,leadership,communication,coordinationandcommunication o Knowledge,attitudeandskillsofpeopleinvolvedincurriculumdesignetc.
Why educational objectives?? Tohelpcurriculumplanning,analysisandrenewal Easytogetfeedback Encouragesorganizedlearning Givesmeasurableindicators Standardizationofthecourseandprogramofstudy Writing educational objectives Useverbslikerecall,illustrate,demonstrate,generateetc.basedondifferentdomainsof learningprocess Usetheformat:WhoWhatbehavior.underwhatconditionhowwell??? Examples o Afterthecompletionofthecourse(condition),thestudents(who)willbeableto demonstrate(whatbehavior)thewaterpurificationbySODISmethodcorrectly(how well). Factors influencing the formation of educational objectives Interestofteacher,university,donoretc. Technology Budget Security Time Relevancetocurrentneedsofthesocietyandcountry Leveloftheprogramofstudy(eg.Basic,intermediate,advanced)
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Cognitivedomain
Itfurtherincludessixdomainslikeknowledge,comprehension,application,analysis,synthesis and,evaluation
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) o Knowledge o Recallingspecificandgeneralitemsofinformationandalsoinformationabout methods,processesandpatterns o KeyWords:defines,describes,identifies,knows,labels,lists,matches,names,outlines, recalls,recognizes,reproduces,selects,states. Comprehension o Recognitionofitemsofinformationsettingssimilartobutdifferentfromthosein whichtheywerefirstencountered. o KeyWords:comprehends,converts,defends,distinguishes,estimates,explains, extends,generalizes,givesanexample,infers,interprets,paraphrases,predicts, rewrites,summarizes,translates. Application o Explainingpreviouslyunseendataoreventsbyapplyingknowledgefromother situations o KeyWords:applies,changes,computes,constructs,demonstrates,discovers, manipulates,modifies,operates,predicts,prepares,produces,relates,shows,solves, uses. Analysis o Breakingdownblocksofinformationintoelementsforthepurposeofclarification. o KeyWords:analyzes,breaksdown,compares,contrasts,diagrams,deconstructs, differentiates,discriminates,distinguishes,identifies,illustrates,infers,outlines,relates, selects,separates. Synthesis o Combiningelementstoformcoherentunitsofinformation. o KeyWords:categorizes,combines,compiles,composes,creates,devises,designs, explains,generates,modifies,organizes,plans,rearranges,reconstructs,relates, reorganizes,revises,rewrites,summarizes,tells,writes. Evaluation o Makingjudgmentaboutthevalueofinformation,materialsormethodsforgiven purposes o KeyWords:appraises,compares,concludes,contrasts,criticizes,critiques,defends, describes,discriminates,evaluates,explains,interprets,justifies,relates,summarizes, supports.
Affectivedomain
Theaffectivedomainincludesthemannerinwhichwedealwiththingsemotionally,suchas o feelings,values,appreciation,enthusiasms,motivations,andattitudes.
Psychomotor domain
o o o o o Thepsychomotordomainincludesphysicalmovement,coordination,anduseofthemotorskill areas. Developmentoftheseskillsrequirespractice measuredintermsofspeed,precision,distance,procedures,ortechniquesinexecution. Ittalksaboutthethirdlevelofperformancewiththehelpofphysicalmovementwhenthe cognitiveandaffectivelevelshavealreadymet. Itgoesbeyondtheclassroomsettingandfocusesonabilitytoapplythelearntthingsinpractical life.
Detail of the domain Thedifferentcategoriesofthepsychomotordomainfromsimpletocomplexlevelaregivenbelow: 1. Perception:Theabilitytousesensorycuestoguidemotoractivity.Alsocalledtheselectionstep a. KeyWords:chooses,describes,detects,differentiates,distinguishes,identifies,isolates, relates,selects. 2. Set:Readinesstoact.Itincludesmental,physical,andemotionalsets. a. KeyWords:begins,displays,explains,moves,proceeds,reacts,shows,states, volunteers. 3. GuidedResponse:Theearlystagesinlearningacomplexskillthatincludesimitationandtrial anderror.Adequacyofperformanceisachievedbypracticing. a. KeyWords:copies,traces,follows,react,reproduce,responds 4. Mechanism:Thisistheintermediatestageinlearningacomplexskill.Learnedresponseshave becomehabitualandthemovementscanbeperformedwithsomeconfidenceandproficiency. a. KeyWords:assembles,calibrates,constructs,dismantles,displays,fastens,fixes,grinds, heats,manipulates,measures,mends,mixes,organizes,sketches. 5. ComplexOvertResponse: a. Theskillfulperformanceofmotoractsthatinvolvecomplexmovementpatterns. b. Proficiencyisindicatedbyaquick,accurate,andhighlycoordinatedperformance, requiringaminimumofenergy. c. Thiscategoryincludesperformingwithouthesitation,andautomaticperformance. d. TheKeyWordsarethesameasMechanism,butwillhaveadverbsoradjectivesthat indicatethattheperformanceisquicker,better,moreaccurate,etc. 6. Adaptation:Skillsarewelldevelopedandtheindividualcanmodifymovementpatternstofit specialrequirements. a. KeyWords:adapts,alters,changes,rearranges,reorganizes,revises,varies. 7. Origination:Creatingnewmovementpatternstofitaparticularsituationorspecificproblem. Learningoutcomesemphasizecreativitybaseduponhighlydevelopedskills. a. KeyWords:arranges,builds,combines,composes,constructs,creates,designs,initiate, makes,originates.
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
6.1. Levels of evaluation o Diagnosticevaluation o Formativeevaluation o Summativeevaluation 6.1.1.Diagnostic evaluation Doneatbeginningofprogram. Alsocalledinputevaluation Donetoknowifproperstepsarefollowedin o needassessment, o workinghypothesis, o settingobjectives, o Selectingcontent o selectingtheappropriatemethodsandresources 6.1.2. o o o Formative evaluation Doneinthemiddleofevaluation Alsocalledprogressevaluation Donetoknowifproperstepsarefollowedin o Deliveringthecontent o Usingtheselectedmethodsandresources o Observingandrecordingthebehavioroftrainees o Alsorecommendsthewaysandmeanstoimprovelearningprocedures
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) 6.1.3. Summative evaluation o Doneattheendoftheprogramme o Alsocalledachievementevaluation o Donetoanalyze: o Successoftheprogrammeasawhole.E.g.Developmentinknowledge,attitudeand skillsofstudentsafteroverallprogramme,Changeinthemorbidityandmortalityrate, Improvementofsocioeconomicstatusofpeople o Providesappropriatefeedbackforredesigningthecurriculum Criteria for evaluation (as recommended by WHO) o Adequacy o Relevancy(aspertheneeds) o Efficiency o Appropriateness(techniques,procedures) Methods of evaluation o Interview o Observation o Reviewofrecordsandreports o Meetinganddiscussion Process of evaluation (R.F Mager) o Formulatingtheobjectivesofevaluation o Determiningappropriatetechniquesandtools o Collectingdataandinformationusingdeterminedtechniquesandtools o Analyzingandinterpretingthecollecteddataandinformation o Preparingevaluationreportandrecommendtoconcernedauthorityfornecessaryaction Factors influencing analysis and evaluation o Resourcefactors(Man,material,money,time,technology) o Politicalfactors(instability,bureaucracy) o Performanceandachievementofstudents o Impactofoverallprogramonsociety o Abilityoftheanalystsandevaluators
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8. Objective Revise
1. Objectivesarethestatementofwhatlearnersareintendedto(afterthespecificsessionor/and theprogramofstudy): Know(cognitive) Think,believe(affective) Do(psychomotor) 2. Twotypes Courseorsessioninstructionalobjective(afterthespecificsessionorcourse) Programlearningobjective(afterthecompletionoftheprogramofstudy)
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) 3. ObjectiveRevisionishencetheRevisionofthestatementsofwhatthelearnersareexpectedto doaftercompletionofthesession,courseortheoverallprogram 4. Objectiverevisionisoneofthestepsincorrectiveactionincurriculumdesigninwhichchange ormodificationisdoneasperthe: Analysisandevaluationprocesses. Correctiveactionbasedonmanipulativevariables Changeintheconceptsandtheoriesoflearning 5.Suppose,thecorrectiveactionisdoneintheexaminationtechniqueasfollows:E.g.letus supposethat, Previouslyitwassubjectivequestionsinwhichstudentshadtoexplainaboutdomains oflearningandnow,itismultiplechoicequestionsinwhichstudentshavetoidentify whichbehaviorfallsunderwhatdomainoflearning. Hencethepreviousobjectiveandrevisedobjectivewillhavedifferentexpectationsfrom thestudents
Why revision of hypothesis?? Toavoiderrorsandfulfillgapsinthecurrenthypothesis Tomakecurriculummorestableandfunctional Tofacilitatethelearningprocess, torevisethecontentsasperthechangeintheneedsofthestudents,societyandcountry Toobeythediagnostic,formativeandsummativeevaluationprocedures Factors affecting revision of working hypothesis Changeintheneeds Changeinlearningtheories Researches Resources Findingsfromtheevaluationprocesses
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Curriculum change
Thedevelopmentinthefieldofeducationispossiblebythegradualimprovementand advancementi.e.change Curriculumalsoneedstochangeovercertainperiodoftimetocomplythetrendinthefieldof educationsoastomeettherequirementofstudents,colleges,university,recruitingagencies andthesociety Curriculumchangeishenceessentialandequallychallengingthatrequirescarefulprocedures startingfromreviewingandrevisingtheeducationalobjectivestotheevaluationofthe outcomesofeducation.
4. Organizationofcurriculumexperiencesandlearning 5. Evaluationoftheoutcomesofcurriculum
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
1. Objectives of education:
organizededucationcontainvariedpossibilitiesforlearning,whetherornotthepersons involvedinplanningthecurriculumcontenttakethemintoaccountinmakingdecisions. Unfortunately,thepossibilitiesfornegativelearningarealsoavailablelike: Inadequategoodfeelingstoselfandothers Mechanicalresponseswithoutcompleteunderstanding Overdependence Jumpingtoconclusionswithoutmuchthoughtorevidenceetc.
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)
2.1. achievement
Thediagnosiscanbedoneindifferentways.Achievementisoneofthem.TheAcademicperformanceof thestudentsaswellastheirpracticalskillscanbeevaluatedinordertomakenewcurriculum experiencewiththeaimofdevelopingcurriculumexperiencetoimproveperformance Thediagnosisintheachievementisdonetoevaluatethefollowing: Theexaminationperformanceofthestudents(Writtenandverbalexaminations) Proficiencyincompetenciestoservethesociety Evaluationofperformanceintheprofessionalorganizationsbymeasuring competencies(directmeasurement) Feedbackfromtherecruitingagencies,communitypeopleetc(indirect measurement)
Thecurriculumexperienceisselectedinsuchawaythatitmeetsthenewlyrefinedand designedobjectivesofeducation(Rationalselection)
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Rationalselectionisdoneforbothcontentsaswellasexperiences Therationalselectionofcontentsisdoneonthebasisofproblemestablishingcriterialike: Rationalselectionofcurriculumexperiencesisdoneby: Properselectionofteachingmethodologyasperthecontent Properselectionofactivitiesasperthemethodology Properselectionoftheresourcesforcarryingoutactivities Rationalselectionhelpsformutualinteractionbetweentheteacher,studentandcontent Theselectionisinfluencedby:budget,time,competencytouseresources,technological advancementetc. Significance Depthandbreadth Adaptability Appropriateneedandinterestoftrainees
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH) Sequence Sequencereferstotheorganisationofcontentandtheextenttowhichitfosterscumulativeand continuouslearning(referredtoasverticalrelationshipamongsectionsofthecurriculum). Thefollowingaresomeprinciplesidentifiedasguidelinesinsequencing the curriculum:(Ornsteinand Hunkins,1998,Taba,1962,Bruner,1960). a) Simple to complex content is organised going from simple subordinate components to complexcomponentsdepictinginterrelationshipsamongcomponents.Optimallearningoccurs when students are presented with easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstractcontent. b) SpiralInaspiralcurriculum,conceptsmaybeintroducedonasimplelevelintheearlygrades, thenrevisitedwithmoreandmorecomplexityandapplicationlateron(Bruner,1960) c) Prerequisitesitworksontheassumptionthatbitsofinformationorlearningmustbegrasped beforeotherbitsofinformationcanbeunderstood. d) Wholetopartcontentisbetterunderstoodifanoverview(whole)isfirstpresentedtoshow theconnectionsbetweentheparts. e) Chronology this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in subjects such as history,politicalscienceandworldevents. f) VerticalorganisationThissimplymeansthatcontentandskillsarearrangedsothattheybuild on one another; that they align with the general sequence of cognitive development. They indicatewhatstudentshavelearnedandwhattheywilllearnlater. g) HorizontalorganisationItinvolveshowskillsandcontentthataretaughtduringonelevelor oneperiodoftimerelatetoanother.Forexample,inasocialsciencecourse,youmightconsider particularissuesfromahistorical,sociological,politicalandeconomicpointofview. Integration Integrationisthebringingtogetheroftheconcepts,skillsandvaluesofdifferentsubjectareasto reinforceeachother.Bitsofinformationfromdifferentsubjectareasarebroughttogetherinsuchaway topresentthelearnerwithaunifiedpictureofknowledge. Exampleoftheintegratedcurriculumincludessciencetechnologysociety.Inthesciencetechnology society(STS)curriculum,scienceiscombinedwithsocialsciencesinattemptingtosolvepractical, everydayproblems.Theintegratedapproachtakesthestudentoutsidethelaboratoryandawayfrom thetextbookintothelocalcommunity. Continuity Continuityensuresthatideas,themesandskillsarerepeatedasthelearnerprogressesthroughthe grades.Forexample,studentsintheprimarygradesaretaughttheprinciplesofessaywriting.Thesame principlesarerepeatedinthesucceedingyears.Continuityensuresthereappearanceofcertainmajor ideasatdifferentgradelevelsatincreaseddepthandcomplexityoverthelengthofthecurriculum.
RajK.Subedi(BPH,MPH)