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of Cell Biology
Signaling by G Proteins:
–– Heterotrimeric G Proteins
–– Ras Superfamily Small GTPases
❚ (1) synthesis of the signaling molecule by the signaling cell
❚ (2) release of the signaling molecule by the signaling cell
❚ (3) transport of the signal to the target cell
❚ (4) detection of the signal by a specific receptor protein
❚ (5) a change in cellular metabolism, function, or development
triggered by the receptorsignal complex
❚ (6) removal of the signal, which usually terminates the
cellular response
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Signaling molecules operate over various
distances in animals
Receptor proteins exhibit ligandbinding and effector specificity
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Hormones can be classed based on their
solubility and receptor location
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Cellsurface receptors belong to four
major classes
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Cellsurface receptors belong to four
major classes
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Signaling by Heterotrimeric G Proteins
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History of Transmembrane Signaling
❚ (1) Earl W. Sutherland’s Second Messenger Hypothesis
❚ (2) Fischer and Kreb’s Reversible Protein Phosphorylation
as a Biological Regulatory Mechanism
❚ (3) Martin Rodbell’s Transducer Model
❚ (4) Alfred G. Gilman’s Discovery of G Proteins
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Earl W. Sutherland’s
Second Messenger Hypothesis
Varied
Stimuli
5’AMP
Endocrine
gland Adenyl cAMP or Y
cyclase (second messenger(s))
or
X
Hormone
Enzymes, permeability, etc. ...
(first messenger)
Physiological responses
including
Inactivated hormone
Steroids, Thyroid hormones, etc.
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Fischer and Krebs’
Reversible Protein Phosphorylation
Adrenaline
Receptor
cyclase
ATP cAMP
PKA
Nonactivated Activated
Phosphorylase Phosphorylase
kinase kinase
Phosphorylase b Phosphorylase a
(inactive) (active)
Glycogen + Pi Glucose1P
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Rodbell’s
Transducer Model
GTP Mg 2+
ATP
Hormone
cAMP
GDP
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Gilman’s Purification of G Proteins
And G Protein Cycle
GDP
GTP
GαGDP.βγ GαGTP + βγ
GαGDP Effectors
RGS
βγ Effectors
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Pi
G proteincoupled receptors
❚ Many different mammalian cellsurface receptors are
coupled to a trimeric signaltransducing G protein
❚ Ligand binding activates the receptor, which activates the G
protein, which activates an effector enzyme to generate an
intracellular second messenger
❚ All G proteincoupled receptors (GPCRs) contain 7
membranespanning regions with their Nterminus on the
exoplasmic face and Cterminus on the cytosolic face
❚ GPCRs are involved in a range of signaling pathways,
including light detection, odorant detection, and detection of
certain hormones and neurotransmitters
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G proteincoupled receptors
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G Proteincoupled Receptors
Group I olfactory R, adenosine R, cannabinoid R, ......
Group II serotonin R, adrenergic R, dopamine R,
histamine R, muscarinic R, ......
Group III rhodopsins, endothelin R, thyrotropin
Family A releasing hormone R, ......
Group IV bradykinin R, ......
Group V angiotensin R, chemokine R, thrombin R, ......
Group VI melatonin R, ......
Group I calcitonin R, ......
Group II parathyroid hormone/parathyroidrelatedpeptide R
Family B Group III glucagon R, growth hormone releasing
hormone R, pituitary adenylyl cyclase
GPCR activating peptide R, ......
Group IV latrotoxin R, ......
Group I metabotropic glutamate R, ......
Family C Group II calcium R, ......
Group III GABAB R, ......
Family D STE2 R, ......
Family E STE3 R, ......
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Family F cAMP R, ......
Structure of GPCR and G Protein
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Structure of GPCR and G Protein
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Demonstration of functional domains in G
proteincoupled receptors
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Heterotrimeric G Proteins
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G Protein α Subunits
αs αs
α olf
α i1
α i3
α i2
α oA
α oB
αi
α t1
α t2
αg
αz
αq
α 11
α 14 αq
α 15
α 16
α 12
α 12
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α 13
60 80 100
% amino acid identity
Gs: linking βadrenergic receptors and
adenylyl cyclase
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Some bacterial toxins irreversibly modify G
proteins
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The structure of adenylyl cyclase
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The structure of Gsα∙GTP complexed with two
fragments from the adenylyl cyclase catalytic domain
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Kinase cascades permit multienzyme
regulation and amplify hormone signals
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Cellular responses to cAMP vary among
different cell types
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Gt (Transducin): Visual Transduction
Light
Receptor αt β Cyclic nucleotide
γ
(rhodopsin) G protein gated cation
(transducin) channel
cGMP phosphodiesterase Membrane
hyperpolarization
cGMP 5'GMP
Lower cGMP Sense of light
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Visual Transduction
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Gi: Inhibiting Certain Isotypes of Adenylyl
Cyclases
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Gq: Stimulating Phospholipase C β
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Hormoneinduced release of Ca2+ from the ER
is mediated by IP3
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IP3induced Ca2+ increases are used to trigger
various responses in different cells
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The effects of many hormones are
mediated by second messengers
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Effector Enzymes Interacting Proteins
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Direct effectors of Gβγ
Enzymes
Adenylyl cyclases
Phospholipase Cβ
PI3Kγ
GRK
Btk
Ion channels
K+ (GIRK)
Ca2+ (N, P/Q)
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From plasma membrane to nucleus
❚ Many cellular responses induced by watersoluble
hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters result from
their effects on gene expression
❚ Such pathways usually involve activation of protein kinases
that directly or indirectly phosphorylate specific transcription
factors
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CREB links cAMP signals to transcription
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