Biodiversity

Definition:

 Biodiversity or biological diversity simply

means the variety of life
 The more formal definition is “the the variability
among living organisms from all sources including
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of
which they are part; this includes diversity
within species, between species and
ecosystems.”
 Three Elements of Biodiversity

Biodiversity

Genetic Diversity Organismal Diversity Ecological Diversity

Organismal Diversity

The elements Kingdom

of organismal Phyla

diversity are Family

based in human
Genera
constructs used to
classify Species

organisms based Subspecies

on their Populations

evolutionary traits Individuals

and features.
Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity
revolves around the
components of the Populations
genetic material that
makes up organisms Individuals
and the variations in
the genetic construct Chromosomes

between individuals of
Genes
a certain population
and between Nucleotides
populations .
Ecological Diversity

The elements show the

different and varying
Biomes
scales of ecological
Bioregions
differences.
Landscapes

Ecosystems

Habitats

Niches

Populations
Measuring Biodiversity

There have many studies regarding how to measure biodiversity

in nature. But even today, no sufficient and accurate result has
been found.
There are two elements of “measuring biodiversity.”
1. The number of entities
2. Degree of difference between those entities
Methods for Measuring Biodiversity

Because of the lack of a proper consensus regarding the definition

of biodiversity, there is no concise way of measuring biodiversity.
Currently, there are two methods that scientists resort to, to measure
biodiversity.

1. Genetic Coding – catalogue variations in the genes of different

species to study their differences.

2. Counting of species present in a certain area – the global standard

for biodiversity.
Studying Past Biodiversity
Studying Past Biodiversity

There are two ways how scientists study past biodiversity.

1. Molecular Evidence
2. Fossil Record

1. Molecular Evidence
- The comparison of molecular data of different organisms that
enables the generation of evolution trees.
Studying Past Biodiversity

2. Fossil Record
Fossils – remains left behind by past organisms
Disadvantages:
- The number of species that left behind fossils are small
compared to the total number of species who dwelt on Earth.
- Only a tiny percentage of remains of a complete fossil have
been recovered so there is none or rarely a complete fossil set of a
certain species.
- Fossils recorded are more inclined to the more abundant,
prevalent, and longer lived species.
History of Biodiversity

1. All species came from a single ancestor and its

evolution was a slow process.
2. The arrival of multicellular organisms produce a great
effect in the diversification of organisms.
3. The growth of varying biodiversity came from the
developments or mutation of certain genes which gave a
significant change to organisms.
4. A massive explosion of varying organisms came which
resulted in many species diversifying.
Process of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is a process that involves three steps

1. Diversification – a period on increase in the number of
species
2. Stabilization – a period of stasis in the number of
species
3. Extinction – a period decrease in the number of
species
These pattern produces an S-shaped graph
involving a small increase, a rapid increase, then an
approach to an asymptote.
Process of Biodiversity

Another important factor in biodiversity is the number of

families present in any given area.
The general pattern is that throughout all the ages the number
of families present increases and when plotted yields an
exponential graph that approaches an asymptote.
 There is no general pattern for biodiversity and no general
explanation but rather many internal and external
mechanisms which drive it.

1. In any given era, there is a dominating species which is

more diverse than the other species.
2. The number of species present result from the relationship
of the rates of speciation (adding species) and rates of
extinction.
3. Extinctions are a general part of biodiversity. Mass
extinctions or massive phenomena that kills many species
changes the biodiversity and the emerging biodiversity will
be different from the previous biodiversity.
Due to the fact the biodiversity is measured by counting the
number of species present in a certain area, there are five
main methods used by scientists to measure biodiversity.

1. Estimation of the overall numbers of species based on the

opinions of experts.
2. Patterns of species description
3. Proportion of undescribed species
4. Well-studied areas
5. Well-studied groups

** These are all just assumptions so an accurate answer is

impossible.**
Quantifying Biodiversity
Quantifying Biodiversity

“Biodiversity is not distributed evenly across the Earth.

Rather, species numbers form a richly textured surface of
highs and lows, and species composition (the particular
set of species) changes in spatially complex ways.
(Biodiversity)”

- Species diversity depends on spatial scales.

1. Species – Area relationships
2. Local – Regional Area Relationships
Quantifying Biodiversity

- As the area increases, the species number also increases. The

relationship for this is:
S = cAZ
Log S = Log c + Z Log A
where S is the number of species, A is the area, and Z and c
are constants and known as the Arrenhius relationship.
Quantifying Biodiversity

There are 4 reasons why such a relationship exists.

1. More species are documented from larger areas

because typically more individuals live there.
2. Larger areas have more diverse habitats thus allowing
more varied species to exist.
3. The number of species in an area forms a balance
between those species that colonized the area and those
that have gone extinct.
Quantifying Biodiversity

4. The larger the area, the higher the potential geographic

range of the species existing there which means that if a
certain species has a high rate of speciating due to
geographic boundaries they also tend to have lower
extinction rates due to their numbers which helps the
species thrive.

- Although this relationship covers most aspects it doesn’t

mean it’s always true if other factors are considered.
Quantifying Biodiversity

The species richness of a local area is not independent

of the region where it can be found. There are 2
possible relationships.
1. “Local richness may be directly proportional to but
less than, regional richness.”
2. “As regional richness increases, local richness might
attain a ceiling above which it does not rise despite
continued increases in regional richness.”
- The majority of areas exhibit the first
relationship.
Categorization of Areas

There are many ways by which areas of the world are

categorized based on their biodiversity.
1.Oceans and Lands
Categorization of Lands
-Eight Biogeographic Regions
» Fourteen Habitats or Biomes
» 867 Ecoregions
Categorization of Oceans
- Four Major Biomes
Hotspots

There are 25 certain areas that contain a

disproportionate amount of species compared to
other areas. These areas having mega-diversity are
called hotspots. Some countries having such
diversity are:
Hotspots

1. Brazil 9. India
2. Indonesia 10. Peru
3. Colombia 11. Papua New Guinea
4. Mexico
12. Ecuador
5. Australia
13. USA
6. Madagascar
14. Venezuela
7. China
15. Malaysia
8. Philippines
16. South Africa
17. Democratic Republic
of Congo
Endemism

A species is endemic to a certain area if it exists nowhere else in

the planet. There are two types of endemism.
1. Neoendemics – species which evolved newly
2. Palaeoendemics – evolutionary relicts
Factors that affect endemism:
1. Area – as area increases, the number of endemic species
also increases
2. Latitude – Endemism increases towards the equator
3. Species Richness – Species number and endemism often
have opposite values.
Endemism

Reasons for Endemism:

1. Unusual Environment Conditions - local species
evolve more differently to survive their habitats
2. Isolation - the separation of a certain species due to
barriers may cause them to evolve differently
3. Historical - varying environmental conditions can
limit certain species to a specific area
Biodiversity Gradients
Certain factors that affect biodiversity:
1. Latitude
2. Altitude
3. Depth
4. Shapes of Landmass
Latitude:
1. Biodiversity increases from the polar areas to the
equator.
2. The peak of biodiversity is in the 20-30°N.
3. The gradient increases rapidly from the north to the
equator then declines slowly to the south.
Biodiversity Gradients

In the oceans, the pattern increases from the north, then a

sudden increase in the temperate zone after which the pattern
return to normal.
Reasons for latitude gradients:
1. Area effects – the tropics have a large surface area thus
increased rates of speciation
2. The availability of energy – there are more food available in
the tropics
3. Time – the equator is less likely to be affected by large scale
phenomena like ice age giving the organisms more time to
evolve.
Altitude

The Earth is three dimensional so altitude is a key player

in biodiversity. Temperature change due to altitude change
also affects biodiversity.
As elevation increases, biodiversity decreases:
Two graphs:
1. Simple Linear Decline Graph
2. Hump Shaped Graph - an increase from low to mid
height followed by a decrease from mid to high height.
Altitude

Factors of Biodiversity
1. Area
2. Energy Availability
3. Isolation
4. Zonation
Depth

- Depth plays a huge part in the biodiversity of marine

systems.
- As depth increases, temperature decrease, pressure increases,
and light and nutrients decline.
Two possible graphs:
1. Simple Linear Decline Graph
2. Hump – Shaped Graph – the majority of organisms in the
oceans follow this pattern
Depth

Factors of Biodiversity:
1. Area
2. Energy Availability
3. Isolation
4. Zonation
5. Sediment Characteristics
Shapes of Land Masses

The shapes of land mass also affects biodiversity. An example

of this is the shape of peninsulas and bays.

Species richness declines towards the tip of the

peninsulas (the peninsula effect).

Marine species richness in bays “declines across bays

with distance from the open sea (the bay effect).
Importance of Biodiversity

I. Direct-Use Values
II. Indirect-Use Values
III. Non-Use Values
Direct-Use Values

Direct-Use Values
Food

Food
Medicine

Medicine
Biological Control

Biological Control
Industrial Materials

Industrial Materials
Recreational Harvesting

Recreational Harvesting
Ecotourism

Ecotourism
Indirect-Use Values

Indirect-Use Values
Indirect-Use Values

Indirect-Use Values
Non-Use Values

Non-Use Values
Non-Use Values

Non-Use Values
Human Impacts on Biodiversity
Extinctions of Species

Extinctions of Species
Overexploitation

Overexploitation
Habitat Loss and Degradation

Habitat Loss and Degradation

Habitat Loss and Degradation

Habitat Loss and Degradation

Introduced Species

Introduced Species
Extinction Cascades

Extinction Cascades
Size and Growth of Human
Population

Size and Growth of Human

Population
Maintaining Biodiversity
Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

Convention on Biological Diversity

Summary

Biodiversity  has  played  a  fundamental  part  in  the  history  of 

our world. It plays a key role in the sustenance of every life on 
Earth. But because of human activities, biodiversity has come 
under fire, and its collapse will also lead to our demise. Such 
is  the  importance  of  biodiversity  and  the  role  that  humans 
have  for  protecting  it.  Human  beings  with  their  technology 
should  strive  to  protect  biodiversity  because  it  is  not  just  the 
key to their survival but also for their future
Reference

Gaston, Kevin, and John Spicer. Biodiversity: 

An Introduction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing, 2004.