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Geologic Setting and Petroleum System of Heavy Oil Occurrences in Sedimentary Basins of India
P.K. Padhy and Daljit Singh, Oil Natural Gas Corporation, Baroda, India
Abstract
Heavy oil, in commercial quantity, has been on production from a linear tectonic belt in the central Cambay Cenozoic rift basin of western India. Recently heavy and nonbiodegraded oil has been discovered from the late Riphean-Vendian strata in Bikaner-Nagaur peripheral foreland basin situated to the north west of Indian shield. Heavy oil belt of Mehsana sub-basin of Cambay rift lies close proximity to the intrabasinal axial high (Mehsana horst) which has undergone synchronous episodic upliftment since early-middle Eocene i.e., deposition of Cambay shale source facies. Occurrence of heavy oil is conned to the pinch-outs of the post rift clastic sequence along the eastern peripheral part of the axial high and in an inversion structure, south-west of Mehsana horst. Generation and migration of oil of Cambay-Kalol(!) petroleum system ranges from Miocene onward. Depletion of nalkanes of the high asphaltic oil, in contrast to the oil of the surrounding elds, is probably due to mild biodegradation. The stable carbon isotopic study infers that oil is generated from the source rock of low maturity at an early stage of catagenesis. The Pan-African tectonism witnessed deposition of saltanhydrite, carbonate and sandstone in Bikaner-Nagaur basin, analogous to that of Gulf, Oman petroleum province, along the primeval late Proterozoic rift. Oil is originated from low thermal maturing source rock (Bilara dolomite) within an early oil window. Early rift sediment (Jodhpur Sandstone) constitutes the primary reservoir facies. Heavy oil deposit of Bilara-Jodhpur (.) petroleum system is likely to be prevalent along the basement controlled structures.
Non-biodegraded heavy oil occurrence has been recently discovered from Bikaner-Nagaur basin located in the northwestern India. Study on paleogeography and paleotec-tonic set up infers that the basin could be regionally a part of extension of Infracambrian Arabian platform. Interestingly presence of bituminous shale, oil shale had been inferred quite long back in this part1 from the Saline range of Infracambrian age.
Introduction
Heavy oil play fairways have a selected geographic distribution in Indian sedimentary basins. Since 1971 production of heavy altered oils has been started from the elds of Cenozoic Cambay rift basin situated in the western India. The moderate impedance heavy oil is found in the upper Eocene clastic reservoirs of north Cambay basin. The intragrabenal rift structural dynamics played an important bearing on the alteration of oil sourced from lower Eocene Cambay shale.
Onset of intensied rift propagation coincides concomitant with the eruption of huge Deccan basalt during upper Cretaceous time. The basin experienced four episodic rift related tectono-depositional systems viz infrarift systems tract, synrift systems tract, postrift systems tract and late postrift systems tract. The initiation of basin subsidence was emplaced along the basin bounding listric/planar normal faults with the upliftment of basin margin. Tectonic subsidence along the high angle fault system fairly controlled the basin ll geometry with distribution of minor-fault population, more intense towards exural margin. The basin is characterized by intrabasinal highs/ridges, oblique to the rift axis. The prominent among them is the Mehsana horst of Mehsana sub-basin/ block. These intragrabenal highs have strong structural overprint on depositional events corresponding to later part of early Eocene synrift regressive sequence in the north Cambay basin, Mehsana sub-basin in particular. Tilting of fault blocks and synchronous horsting subsequently caused alteration of oil entrapped in the structure close vicinity to the high. Distinct phase of episodic rift propagation resulted characteristic linked tectono-depositional systems, over Deccan trap (acoustic volcanic basement), separated by basin-bound unconformities.The basin witnessed the regional marine transgression during early Eocene time depositing Cambay shale source facies. Extensive middle Eocene sediments were deposited by the south westerly owing principle uvial system in different tectonic blocks along the topographic lows during postrift phase. Ankleshwar formation (South Cambay Basin) and Kadi and Kalol formations (North Cambay basin) of middle Eocene age are the main petroliferous stratigraphic units. The homotaxial equivalent of Younger Cambay Shale of south Cambay basin is characterized by development of three main regressive units known as Kadi formation (Figure 2) in the North Cambay basin. Basin-scale transgression prevailed during late Eocene/early Oligocene time depositing Tarapur shale which constitutes the regional cap rock facies. Towards the end of thermal sag stage, the basin experienced reverse tectonism, with adjustment of original extensional stress eld, resulting forced folding and other anticlinal arching. The hydrocarbon migration occurred during early Miocene coinciding with the terminal phase of basin inversion.
Mehsana horst constitutes one of the prominent intragrabenal positive features in Mehsana sub-basin (Figure 3) separating two half grabens Warosan low to the east and Bechraji low to the west. Seismic expression of rift structural style of Mehsana sub-basin exhibits the aggrading reector close to the rift shoulder representing the footwall derived sequence of earlyrift stage. The fault controlled subsidence continued during synrift time with rotation of fault block as evident from the divergent stratal package towards hanging wall fault plane, to the west of Mehsana horst, thus giving rise to asymmetry geometric conguration. The gentler dip package of reector over the steep ones infers diminishing effect of rotational effect with younger events onlapping over it (Figure 3). The basin-dip divergent reectors close to the east of Mehsana high during synrift time infers out passing of fault-controlled subsidence over sediment supply. The fairly lateral continuity of reector package close to basin-dip is attributed to near equilibrium condition. The parallel onlapping ll reectors (Figure 3) constitute the postrift sequence represented by upwarping folded features. Heavy oil entrapment of Lanwa, Balol, Santhal and Bechraji is conned to upwarping structure, resulted during basin inversion period. The deposition of sandstone-shale with strong coal cyclothem during the period of middle to early Eocene time towards basinal low and uplifted terrace/ramp part is attributed to prevalence of humid climatic condition under the inuence of relatively slow rate of basin subsidence. The Kalol reservoir facies pinchout on either side against the episodic rise of the Mehsana high. Paleotectonic analysis9 and crestal thinning of younger stratigraphic units over the high with downank thickening fairly conrm its synchronous upliftment (Figure 4) sinch early Eocene time due to episodic rejuvenation and rotation of conjugate listric faults. Presence of asphalt lled fractures within Cambay shale over the Mehasan high is an indirect evidence of contemporaneous upliftment. It remained as positive feature till late Eocene time and subsequently inundated by basin wide marine transgression during Oligocene depositing Tarapur shale (regional seal rock) over the high. The episodic upliftment imparted a sort of tectonic barrier for the westerly major paleo run-offs during later part of early Eocene10, 9. Evidently the parallel stratal conguration of considerable thickness (primarily sandstone-shale-coal facies of later part of early Eocene) in the east of Mehsana high is clearly seen where as it is poorly present to the west. The principle uvial system mainly got restricted to the eastern part by Mehsana Horst. Thus it created a two apparently marked tectono-sedimentary environment on either side of the horst. It was only during later part of middle Eocene (near dormant stage of Mehsana high reactivation) the uvial system corresponding to the upper part of Kalol formation could prevail on either side of the high depositing sandstone-shale and minor coal.
Mehsana Horst, Its Control on Depositional Events and Hydrocarbons (Heavy Oil) Accumulation
Geographically the main heavy oil elds (Lanwa, Balol, Santhal, and N.Kadi) constitute as a linear belt (Figure 1B) on the lowside of the fault block to the east of Mehsana Horst. Bechraji eld, situated to the south-west of the Mehsana Horst, constitutes a mild inversion structure for entrapment of oil.
is well correlated with the higher sterane rich (0.98 - 2.03) of Cambay shale.14 Also hopane/sterane ratio (11.0-23.4) of heavy oil exhibit close correlation with that of sediment extracts (8.5-28.3) of Cambay shale.14
Tectono-Stratigraphy of Bikaner-Nagaur
Bikaner-Nagaur basin constitutes a late Riphean-Vendian basin in the north western part of peninsular Indian shield. The tectonic tract of Rajasthan shelf comprises BikanerNagaur, Jaisalmer, and Barmer basins. Structurally ikanerNagaur basin is bounded in the east by Delhi- Aravalli folding and in the south, south-west by Pokra -Nachna high, separating Jaisalmer basin and to the north-east lies the Delhi-Sargoda ridge (Figure 14). The basin slopes to north and northwest and merges with the Indus shelf. The north-western shield (Rajasthan craton) had undergone proto-plate tectonics: a complex process of a Proterozoic accretionary collisional tectonics starting from 1300700 ma18. This accretionary process, with the development of trench-arc-marginal sea prograding westward, continued and the remnants are represented by suite of ophiolite melange. The collided subduction tectogen caused wide spread volcanic suite (Malani lgneous suite) of calc-alkaline18 which constitutes the basement of Rajasthan shelf. The Pan-African extensional tectonism witnessed deposition of synrift evaporite along the late Proterozoic rift (Arabian Infracambrian salt basin set up).19, 20 The Bikaner-Nagaur basin could probably an extension of the Infracambrian tectono-depositional system (Figure 15) of Arabian platform21. The major tectonic element is represented by basement highs trending meridional to submeridional direction, the prominent being the Pokran-Nachna high to the south-west. These could be related to basement block faulting with langitudinal basinal lows depositing maximum sediment thickness of around 2,000 mts. The prominent east-west basement high trend acts as a structural trap for heavy oil accumulation (Figure 14). Broadly two sedimentary systems (a) clastic-carbonate system (Infracambrian-Cambrian) (b) Clastic dominant system (Post Devonian). have been observed in this basin (Figure 16). The synrift clastic-carbonate system is correlated to the Salt range of Punjab basin and Harmuz of Gulf. Early Synrift Fluvio-Clastic Cycle: comprises of conglomerate, arkosic sandstone with minor shale and volcano-clastic fragments of Vendian age. The Jodhpur formation is unconformably underlain by Malani lgneous Suite and overlain by Bilara formation. Synrift Carbonate-Evaporite Cycle: The carbonate sedimentation corresponding to Bilara formation is deposited under shallow marine transgressive phase. The limestone is often stromatolitic in nature. It is overlain by evaporite sequence (Hanseran Evaporite formation)22, and laterally it can be correlated to Ara evaporite of Oman. Postrift Clastic Cycle: During lower Cambrian time, there seems sharp change in facies from carbonates to clastics (conglomerate, sandstone) deposited under high energy shallow water condition. The clastic dominated Nagaur formation grades upward to second cycle of carbonate-evaporite sedimentation. Permo-Triassic Fluvio-Glacial Cycle: The basin experienced a strong regional upliftment during post-Cambrian and it
remained emergent and non-depositional during Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian periods. The basin bound fault system got reactivated during Permo-Triassic time with deposition of conglomerate, gritty sandstone, chert with minor cherty dolomite (Bap and Badhaura formations). The faunal assemblages is correlated with Eury desma and Conularia beds of Salt range.23 The basin oor underwent north westerly tilting with the development of prominent Pokran-Nachna high. The basin remained uplifted for a considerable time during Mesozoic. Jurassic Cretaceous Fluvio-Deltaic Cycle: The subsurface geological data from the drilled well infers the Jurassic sediments (red brittle sandstone, pinkish ferruginous sandstone) unconformably overlies the Bap and Badhaura formation. The Jurassic sediments are overlain by a thin sequence of dark grey claystone with minor sandstone of Maestrichtian age sediments.22 Tertiary Cycle: Consequent to the upliftment during upper Cretaceous lower Paleocene time (initiation of Himalayan collision phase), the western Rajasthan shelf had a widespread marine regression during Paleocene with deposition of conglomerate, sandstone (Palana, Marh formations). Early Eocene marine transgression occurred with advancement of the sea in Bikaner-Nagaur basin depositing Jogira limestone. The Quaternary deposit mainly constitutes clay, claystone, sandstone.
The oil is nonbiodegraded as evident from the abundant presence of n-parafns and acyclic isoprenoids (Figure 18). Low aromatic steroid (22%), low gravity oil (17.6 API), high sulfur rich (1.2 wt%), high Pr/nc17 (0.91) and Ph/n18 (1.0) ratio of oil indicate that it originated from a low thermal maturity source rock within the early oil window.26 Within Infracambrian sequence, heavy oil occurs in sandstone reservoir of Jodhpur formation at a shallower depth (1,100m). Patches of heavy oil occurrence is also observed in siltstone of Hanseran evaporite sequence and within vugs and fractures of carbonate reservoir of Cambrian age.22 The oil is asphaltic in nature (asphaltene content is 42%) and is viscous (6,667 cp at 30C). Jodhpur sandstone is arkosic, course to ne grained with small scale cross bedding and deposited under braided river environment. Porosity of sandstone reservoir ranges from 1625%. Entrapment style is mainly structural controlled basement highs and it is envisaged that the heavy oil is accumulated mainly in the reservoir rocks deposited on these highs. As there is a prolonged hiatus in post Cambrian (Ordovician-Silurian-Devonian) time, it is presumed that trap might have formed during synrift stage with critical moment taking place around mid Cambrian time21 (Figure 19). The evaporite sequence, deposited under restricted environment, (supratidal) acts as an effective seal and this can be regionally correlated with the evaporite sequence of Salt range of north Pakistan, Harmuz of Gulf basin and Rezu-Desu-Ravan series of Kerman basin of central Iran. Presence of Infracambrian heavy oil has been inferred from one well in this basin, and based on regional correlation of the oil of Arabian platform, it is inferred that the source could be Vendian / Cambrian carbonates. Moreover age diagnostic biomarkers (high 24isopropyl/ n-propylcholestane ratio > 1) infer oil sourced from Vendian to early Cambrian rock.26
rock deposited in anoxic marine environment. The evaporite sequence acts as an ideal cap rock for entrapment of oil. It is envisaged that the basement high trends along the evaporite depositional locales could be the possible geographic extension of prevalence of Infracambrian petroleum system in the north western basinal part of the Indian shield.
Acknowledgment
The authors record their gratefulness to the Director (Exploration) for according permission for publication of the paper.
References
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Conclusion
Heavy oil fairways of Mehsana block of Cambay basin is basically controlled by episodic rejuvenation of intrabasinal structural high (Mehsana horst). The habitat of heavy oil petroleum system of Eocene age has both geographical and stratigraphic limitations. Geochemical analysis infers terrestrial inputs in source organics. Absence of n-alkanes and reduced isoprenoids in oil indicates that it might have undergone biodegradation/waterwashing. The synchronous upliftment with rejuvenation of conjugate fault systems possibly drived meteoric water, thus altering the reservoir oil. The discovery of upper Proterozoic petroleum system of Bikaner-Nagaur basin establishes the possible continuation of tectono-depositional salt basin set up of Arabian plate. The sedimentary system is primarily classied as synrift carbonate evaporite cycle and post rift clastic dominant cycle. The heavy, low thermal maturity, nonbiodegraded oil occurs in early synrift clastics and it is generated from carbonate source
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Figure 1A: Location Map of Cambay Basin Figure 1B: Location Map of Heavy Oil Fields of Mehsana Block
Figure 4: Seismic Paleotectonic Evolution of Mehsana Horst and Mild Basin Inversion
Figure 7: Events Chart for Cambay-Kalol Petroleum System of North Cambay System
Figure 8: Carbon Isotopic Ratio of Saturate versus Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Heavy Oils and Rock Extracts from Cambay Shale Figure 9: Predominance of C29 Sterane Homologues in Heavy Oil Belt: Bechraji Well Oil (BX-6) Shews Abundance of C3011
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Figure 10: Triterpane Distribution of Heavy Oil From M/Z 191 Mass Fragmentograms11 Figure 13: Oil Gravity (Kalol Formation) Against Depth
15, 11
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Figure 17: Terpane Mass Chromatogram for Saturate Fraction of Well-A Oil Bikaner-Nahgaur Basin26
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Figure 19: The Events Chart for Bilara-Jodhpur Petroleum System of Bikaner-Nagaur Basin21
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