Phương tiện truyền dẫn

1.1 C¸c ph−¬ng tiÖn truyÒn dÉn

Suy hao Chèng nhiÔu

L¾p ®Æt Attenuation Noise immunity B¨ng th«ng
Installation Bandwidth

Gi¸ thµnh B¶o mËt

Cost Security
Ph−¬ng tiÖn truyÒn dÉn
- Transmission Media -

Ph−¬ng tiÖn h÷u tuyÕn Ph−¬ng tiÖn v« tuyÕn M¹ng c«ng céng
- Guided Media - - Unguided Media - - Public Networks -
• Copper Cable • Radio • Telephone Network
Coaxial • Microwave • ISDN
Thinnet Terrestrial • X.25
Thicknet Satellite • ATM
Twisted Pair • Infrared • Frame Relay
UTP • Laser • MPLS
STP • CATV
• Fiber Optic Cable • Power Lines
Single Mode
Multi Mode

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1.1.1 CÊu t¹o vµ ph©n lo¹i c¸p ®ång trôc (Coaxial cable)

Or Thick Ethernet (Yellow Ethernet) Or Thin Ethernet (Black Ethernet)

IEEE 10Base5 IEEE 10Base2
RG-8/U, RG-11/U Impedance 50 Ω RG-58 A/U Impedance 50 Ω

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1.1.2 C¸p ®ång trôc dµy (Thicknet) kÕt nèi theo topo d¹ng BUS dïng bé thu/ph¸t ngoµi (External Transceiver)

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1.1.3 ChuÈn IEEE cho Thick ethernet (10Base5)

10BASE5 PARAMETERS AND WIRING RULES
• Bus topology. 10 Mbps Baseband (full-duplex not
supported). Using Manchester encoding.
• Maximum length per segment is 500 meters.
• Maximum of 101 segments in a standard Ethernet
(one backbone and 100 branch segments).
• Maximum of 1024 stations may be attached to a
10Base5 network..
• Up to 100 transceivers can be attached to a single
500 meter segment.
• Minimum distance between transceivers is 2.5
meters.
• Maximum length of standard AUI transceiver drop
cable is 50 meters.
• Maximum length of office transceiver cable is 12.5
meters.
• Both ends of the cable segment must be terminated
with a 50 ohm terminator.
• Repeaters may be used to extend the signal thereby
increasing overall cable segment length.
• Maximum of 2 repeaters may be used between
devices. In fact, we can use 4 repeaters by "the 5-4-
3 rule". So that maximum length of cable is 2.5 1. Transceiver 6. PVC Thinnet Cable
km. 2. Transceiver Cables 7. BNC T-Connector
3. 2 Port AUI Fanout 8. Thinnet BNC Network Card
4. Thicknet AUI Network Card 9. 50 Ohm Terminator
5. Thinnet Repeater 10. Thick Ethernet Trunk Cable

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1.1.4 C¸p ®ång trôc máng (Thinnet) kÕt nèi theo topo d¹ng BUS dïng T-Connector vµ NIC cã s½n bé thu ph¸t (Built-in Transceiver)

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1.1.5 ChuÈn IEEE cho Thinnet ethernet (10Base2)

10 BASE 2 PARAMETERS AND WIRING RULES
• Bus topology. 10 Mbps Baseband (full-duplex not
supported). Using Manchester encoding.
• Maximum length per segment is 185 meters.
• Maximum of 30 stations per segment are allowed.
• Maximum of 1024 stations may be attached to a 10Base2
network.
• NIC's come with built-in transceivers so connections are
made directly to NIC via T-connector.
• T-connectors must be plugged directly into NIC. There
can not be any cable between T-connector and NIC.
• Minimum of 0.5 meter is allowed between T-connectors.
• Both ends of the cable segment must be terminated with a
50 ohm terminator. One end of the cable must be
grounded, the other end must remain ungrounded.
• Terminator must be attached to open jack of T-connector
at both ends of the segment. Do not attach terminator
directly to cable without T-connector.
• Repeaters may be used to extend the signal.
1. 8 Port Repeater 2. Transceiver
• Maximum of 2 repeaters may be used between devices. In 3. 50 Ohm Terminator 4. PVC Thinnet Cable
fact, we can use 4 repeaters by "the 5-4-3 rule". 5. Thinnet Tap Wallplate 6. Thinnet Drop Cable
• So that maximum length of cable is 925 meters. 7. Self-terminating Drop Cable 8. Network Card
9. No Drop Wallplate 10. No Drop Cable
11. Thinnet Tap 4 Port Expansion Box
12. BNC T-Connector
13. Thick Ethernet Trunk Coax Cable

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S¬ ®å ®i d©y luËt 5-4-3 dïng 4 repeater

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1.1.6 CÊu t¹o vµ ph©n lo¹i c¸p xo¾n kÐp (Twisted-pair cable)

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Ph©n h¹ng C¸p UTP (ScTP) theo chuÈn EIA/TIA 568A (EIA/TIA Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association)
Category MAx Data rate
1 1 Mbps
2 4 Mbps
3 10 Mbps
4 20 Mbps
5 155 Mbps
5e 1000 Mbps
6 1000 Mbps
7 1000 Mbps
Application
one twisted-pairs for traditional telephone voice communication (but not data).
4 twisted-pairs for voice & data transmission (ISDN), 4 Mbps Token Ring, ARCNET.
4 twisted-pairs (3 twists per foot) for voice & data transmission, Ethernet 10Base-T.
(can use for Ethernet 100Base-T4 & 100Base-T2)
for 20 Mbps data transmission , Ethernet 10Base-T, 16 Mbps Token Ring.
4 twisted pairs (a higher number of twists per foot than previous categories and a teflon
based outer coating). Higher transmission rate (100Mhz) and better noise immunity. Used
for Ethernet 10Base -T, Fast Ethernet 100Base-TX, -T4 or -T2, Fast ARCNET 100Mbps,
16Mbps Token Ring, and ATM 155Mbps on UTP.
enhanced category 5 - more comprehensive testing is carried out on all four pairs to measure
the effect of transmitting data, particularly with regard to crosstalk. This category is
primarily intended for use in Gigabit Ethernet networks.
a proposed standard for cable having a transmission frequency of 200 MHz.
a proposed standard for cable having a transmission frequency of 600 MHz using fully
shielded cables (individual foil pairs and overall braid shield - ISTP).
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1.1.7 ChuÈn IEEE 802.3 cho c¸p xo¾n kÐp kÕt nèi ethernet topo d¹ng star
Standard IEEE Released Symbol Encoding Medium Full-duplex
rate
10Base-T 802.3i -1990 10Mbd Manchester Two pairs of 100 UTP CAT3 or better Supported
100Base-TX 802.3u - 1995 125Mbd 4B/5B Two pairs of 100 UTP CAT5 or 150 STP Supported
100Base-T4 802.3u -1995 33Mbd 8B/6T Four pairs of 100 UTP CAT3 or better Not
100Base-T2 802.3y - 1997 25Mbd PAM5x5 Two pairs of 100 UTP CAT3 or better Supported
1000Base-T 802.3ab -1999 125Mbd PAM5x5 Four pairs of 100 UTP CAT5 or better Supported
1000Base-X 802.3z -1999 1250Mbd 8B/10B Two pairs of 150 STP Supported

RJ-45 connector pin assignments for each of the Ethernet twisted pairs.

Pin 10Base-T Signal
1 TD+ (Transmit Data)
2 TD- (Transmit Data)
3 RD+ (Receive Data)
4 Not used
5 Not used
6 RD- (Receive Data)
7 Not Used
8 Not Used
100Base-TX Signal 100Base-T4 Signal 100Base-T2 Signal 1000Base-T Signal
TD+ (Transmit Data) TX_D1+ (Transmit Data) BI_DA+ (Bidi Data) BI_DA+ (Bidi Data)
TD- (Transmit Data) TX_D1- (Transmit Data) BI_DA- (Bidi Data) BI_DA- (Bidi Data)
RD+ (Receive Data) RX_D2+ (Receive Data) BI_DB+ (Bidi Data) BI_DB+ (Bidi Data)
Not used BI_D3+ (Bidi Data) Not used BI_DC+ (Bidi Data)
Not used BI_D3- (Bidi Data) Not used BI_DC- (Bidi Data)
RD- (Receive Data) RX_D2- (Receive Data) BI_DB- (Bidi Data) BI_DB- (Bidi Data)
Not Used BI_D4+ (Bidi Data) Not used BI_DD+ (Bidi Data)
Not Used BI_D4- (Bidi Data) Not used BI_DD- (Bidi Data)

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1.1.8 ChuÈn IEEE ethernet 10Base-T

10 BASE-T PARAMETERS AND WIRING RULES
• Star topology using HUB. 10Mbps Baseband. Using
Manchester encoding.
• Maximum length per segment is 100 meters. (10 meters
Patch cord + 90 meters horizontal cable)
• Maximum of 2 devices per segment; one is the station and
the other is the hub.
• Maximum of 2 Inter-Repeater Links between devices
without using bridge or switch (A hub is a repeater ).
• Certain hubs come with a standard BNC and/or AUI
connection.
• Hubs can connect to fiber optic or coax networks.
• Unsheilded twisted pair no less than Category 2 is
required for 10BaseT operation, however, Category 3 or
higher is preferred.
• UTP cabling is not recommended for areas with
electromagnetic or radio frequency interference
(EMI/RFI).
• NIC's come with built-in transceivers so connections are
made directly to the NIC. 1. Transceiver 2. Transceiver Cable
3. Cat 5 Wallplate (Outlet) 4. Cat 5 UTP Cable
• NIC's with standard AUI ports must use a 10Base-T 5. 10 Base-T Hub 6. Cat 5 Patch Panel
twisted pair transceiver. 7. Cat 5 Color Coded Patch Cables
8. 10 Base-T RJ45 Network Card
9. 50 Ohm Terminator
10. Thick Ethernet Trunk Cable
11. Equipment Rack

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Ethernet 100Base-T

1. 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Switch

2. Cross Pinned Cat5 UTP Cable
3. Straight Pinned Cat5 UTP Cable
4. Cat5 Wallplate Assembly
5. Cat5 Color Coded Patch Cables
6. 10 Base-T Network Card
7. 10 Base-T Ethernet Hub
8. 100 Base-T Network Card
9. 100 Base-T Fast Ethernet Hub

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ChuÈn mÇu d©y c¸p UTP vµ Jack ®Êu nèi RJ-45

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§Êu nèi c¸p th¼ng vµ c¸p chÐo

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C¸p STP th−êng dïng cho m¹ng Token Ring

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CÊu t¹o vµ ph©n lo¹i c¸p quang (Optical fiber)

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Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF)

• Multi-mode fiber typically has a core diameter of 50 or 62.5 micron.

• Allows good coupling from inexpensive LEDs light sources, and the use of inexpensive couplers and connectors.

• Support segment lengths 2000 meters for 10 and 100 Mbps Ethernet, and 550 meters for 1 Gbps Ethernet.

• Two types of multi-mode fiber :

1. Graded Index Fiber ---------> reducing modal dispersion of the signal.
2. Stepped Index Fiber ---------> lower bandwidths than graded index fibers.

Single-Mode Fiber (SMF)

• Core diameter that is so small (8 or 10 microns) that eliminates modal dispersion.

• More difficult to make coupling light into the fiber.

• Lasers must be used as light sources to attain high bandwidth.

• Supporting much longer segment lengths than multi-mode fiber. (5000 meters supported at all Ethernet).

• More expensive to deploy than multi-mode fiber.

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ChuÈn IEEE cho c¸p quang kÕt nèi ethernet

Standard Medium and wavelength connector Maximum Application

and encoding segment length
10Base-FL MMF 62.5/125 , 850 nm wavelength 2000 m Fiber Optic Inter-Repeater Link
(Fiber Link) ST connector, Manchester ideal for connecting between buildings.
10Base-FB MMF 62.5/125 , 850 nm wavelength 2000 m increases the number of repeaters by reducing the
(Fiber Backbone) ST connector, Manchester amount of interframe gap shrinkage.
10Base-FP MMF 62.5/125 , 850 nm 500 m using for "fiber optic passive star" system
(Fiber Passive) ST connector, Manchester
100Base-FL MMF 62.5/125 , 850 nm wavelength 2000 m for connecting between buildings.
(Fiber Link) ST connector, Manchester
100Base-FX MMF 62.5/125 , 1300 nm wavelength Half 420m essentially a "fiber" version of the
EC connector, 4B/5B. Full 2000 m 100Base-TX standard
1000Base-LX MMF 62.5/125 or 50/125 or Half 316 m able to drive longer distances.
(Long wavelength) SMF 10/125. 1300 nm wavelength. Full MMF: 550
duplex SC connector, 8B/10B. Full SMF: 5000
1000Base-SX MMF 62.5/125 or 50/125 MMF 62.5/125 Short wavelength lasers have the advantage of
(Short wavelength) 850 nm wavelength. Half 275 m being less expensive than long wavelength lasers.
duplex SC connector, 8B/10B. Full 275 m
MMF 50/125
Half 316 m
Full 550 m

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ChuÈn IEEE ethernet 10BASE-FL

10 BASE-FL PARAMETERS AND WIRING RULES

• Maximum length per segment is 2 km.
• Maximum of 2 devices per segment; one is the
station and the other is the hub.
• Star topology.
• 62.5-micron duplex multimode fiber cable is
recommended. 50 and 100 micron is also
available.
• Maximum of 2 repeaters may be used between
devices.
• Repeaters come in pairs. A pair counts as 1
repeater.
• NIC's with standard AUI ports must use a fiber
optic transceiver. 1. Fiber Optic Cable 2. Transceiver
• EMI/RFI is nonexistent. 3. Transceiver Cable 4. 10 Base T Hub
5. Thinnet Repeater 6. PVC Thinnet Cable
• Best security. 7. Cat 5 Color Coded Patch Cables
8. Thin Ethernet BNC Network Card
9. 10 Base-T RJ45 Network Card
10. BNC T-Connector
11. 50 Ohm Terminator

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Ph−¬ng tiÖn truyÒn dÉn v« tuyÕn

Type Characteristic FCC license ? Application

Terrestrial microwave Point to Point Yes Private remote links
GHz link, High bandwidth. LAN repeater connections
Disturbed by bad weather
Satellite microwave Point to Multipoint Yes One to many transmision
expensive, covers large area CATV
GHz link, 250 ms delay.
Radio Multipoint or Point to Point Yes for Private WANs
VHF & UHF radio channel for Wireless LANs
Mobile units are available Long-distance data communication
Infrared Point to Point No Wireless LANs
short-range link PC to PC connection
High bandwidth possible
Laser Point to Point No Short-links
Disturbed by bad weather (Private link between buildings)

FCC - Federal Communications Commission

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c¸c m« h×nh triÓn khai m¹ng WLAN

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Wireless ethernet (IEEE 802.11)

• IEEE 802.11 was the first of the wireless LAN

technologies and provided a data throughput of 1
- 2 Mbps and used a frequency range of about
900 Mhtz.
• 802.11 WLAN standard allows for transmission
over infrared light and two types of radio
transmission within the unlicensed frequency
band: frequency hopping spread spectrum
(FHSS) and direct sequence spread spectrum
(DSSS). FHSS is limited to a 2-Mbps data
transfer For all other WLAN applications, DSSS
is the better choice.
• IEEE 802.11b (referred to as 802.11 High Rate or
Wi-Fi), provides for a data rate of 11 Mbps over
DSSS with a frequency range of 2.4 Ghtz.
• IEEE 802.11a, which provides throughput of 54 1. Wireless Ethernet Bridge 2. Outdoor Antenna
Mbps and also uses DSSS on a frequency of 5 3. PVC Thinnet Cable 4. Thin Ethernet Network Card
Ghtz. the frequency will reach 5.7 Ghtz and allow 5. BNC T Connector 6. 50 Ohm Terminator
WLAN's to break the 100 Mbps threshold. 7. Cat5 UTP Cable 8. Cat5 Patch Cables
9. 10 Base-T Ethernet Hub 10. 10 Base-T Network Card
• IEEE 802.11g transmission over relatively short
distances Operates at up to 54 megabits per

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second (Mbps)
• Basic Access Methode is CSMA/CA.
• Using the Wired Equivalent Privacy 64/128 bits
(WEP) or the Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) to
secure.

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Nguyªn lý kÕt nèi m¹ng m¸y tÝnh qua m¹ng c«ng céng

PSTN - Public Switching Telephone Network ATM - Asynchronous Transfer

Mode

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PLMN - Public Land Mobile Network MPLS - Multiple Protocols Label

Switching
N-ISDN - Narrowband Integrated Services Digital Network CATV - CAble TeleVision
B-ISDN - Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network PLC - Power-Line Communication

§Æc tÝnh kÕt nèi qua m¹ng c«ng céng

• KÕt nèi qua ®−êng d©y thuª bao (Subscriber Line).

• Cã thÓ truyÒn ®ång thêi víi dÞch vô cña m¹ng c«ng céng.
• Ph¶i tr¶ c−íc phÝ cho ®−êng thuª bao.
• Dïng thiÕt bÞ thÝch øng ®Ó truyÓn ®æi d÷ liÖu thÝch hîp víi m¹ng c«ng
céng.
• Phô thuéc vµo ®Æc tÝnh cña ®−êng thuª bao m¹ng c«ng céng

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(lµ c¸c ph−¬ng tiÖn nh− c¸p ®ång, c¸p quang, hoÆc v« tuyÕn).
• Phô thuéc vµo tÝnh chÊt truyÒn dÉn cña m¹ng c«ng céng.
• Th−êng dïng ®Ó kÕt nèi m¹ng WAN, hoÆc truy nhËp tõ xa (Remote
Access).
• TruyÒn tÝn hiÖu b¨ng réng (Broadband).
• L¾p ®Æt dÔ dµng ë phÝa kh¸ch hµng.

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kÕt nèi tõ xa qua ®−êng thuª bao t−¬ng tù M¹ng PSTN

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C¸c ®Æc tÝnh kÕt nèi qua ®−êng thuª bao t−¬ng tù (ASL)
• Dïng 1 ®«i d©y ®ång xo¾n kh«ng bäc (UTP). Chèng nhiÔu kÐm.
• Kh«ng cã tÝnh di ®éng.
• D¶i th«ng sö dông lµ 300 Hz - 3400 Hz (POTS - Plain Old Telephone Service)
• Dïng Modem t−¬ng tù. Tèc ®é truyÒn d÷ liÖu thÊp (upstream <
33.6Kbps).
• Ph¶i quay sè thiÕt lËp kÕt nèi (Dial-up connection).
• Tr¶ c−íc phÝ theo thêi gian kÕt nèi (Tariff).
• L¾p ®Æt dÔ dµng, nhanh chãng, chi phÝ l¾p ®Æt thÊp.
• TÝnh b¶o mËt thÊp.
• §é an toµn ®iÖn kÐm (sÐt ®¸nh …).

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®−êng thuª bao dµnh riªng (leased-Line)

North America and Japan CCItt/itu and Europe

Level Number of PCM Data Rate Level Number of PCM Data Rate
DS-0 1 56 Kbps 0 1 64 Kbps
DS-1 (T1) 24 1.544 Mbps 1 (E1) 30 2.048 Mbps
DS-1 C 48 3.152 Mbps 2 120 8.448 Mbps
DS-2 (T2) 96 6.312 Mbps 3 (E3) 480 34.368 Mbps

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DS-3 (T3) 672 44.736 Mbps 4 1920 139.264

Mbps
DS-4 (T4) 4032 274.176 5 7680 565.148
Mbps Mbps
Liªn KÕt gi÷a DTE vµ DCE

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C¸c ®Æc tÝnh kÕt nèi qua ®−êng LEASED-LINE

• Dïng c¸p UTP 2 ®«i d©y xo¾n.
• Cã thÓ chia sÎ b¨ng th«ng víi dÞch vô cña m¹ng c«ng céng (Drop &
Insert).
• Dïng thiÕt bÞ thÝch øng lµ CSU/DSU.
• Tèc ®é truyÒn d÷ liÖu nhiÒu cÊp ®é, ®èi xøng vµ æn ®Þnh.
• KÕt nèi s½n sµng 24/24 (dedicated line), kh«ng ph¶i quay sè thiÕt lËp kÕt
nèi.
• Tr¶ c−íc phÝ chän gãi theo th¸ng th−êng kh¸ cao.
• TÝnh b¶o mËt tèt.
• DÔ qu¶n lý vµ cã c¸c dÞch vô hç trî.

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c«ng nghÖ xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

• C«ng nghÖ DSL dùa trªn kü thuËt ®iÒu chÕ sè ®Ó truyÒn trªn ®−êng thuª
bao c¸p xo¾n kÐp (Local Loop), cho phÐp truyÒn d÷ liÖu tèc ®é cao.
• xDSL lµ 1 nhãm c«ng nghÖ gåm ADSL, SDSL, HDSL, HDSL-2, IDSL,
VDSL (cßn cã Rate Adaptive DSL, G.SHDSL, Consumer DSL hay
G.lite).
• xDSL lµ c«ng nghÖ cho m¹ng truy nhËp tèc ®é cao vµ ph©n t¸n réng mµ
chØ cÇn nh÷ng thay ®æi nhá trong c¬ së h¹ tÇng truyÒn th«ng. TiÖn lîi ®Ó
triÓn khai c¸c dÞch vô nh− High-speed Internet access, Multimedia
services vµ Video on Demand...)
• KÕt nèi xDSL lµ d¹ng point-to-point connection vµ always-on gi÷a 3 ®èi
t¸c lµ Network Service provider's (NSP), Central office (CO) vµ
Customer.

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Hä c«ng nghÖ xDSL

DSL Technology Data rate Distance pair& coding Voice ?

ADSL (Asymmetric DSL) 16Kbps - 640Kbps Up < 5,5 km 1 pair Yes

ITU-T G.992.1, G.DMT full-rate 1.544 Mbps – 8.192 Mbps Down CAP/DMT
ADSL Lite or Splitterless ADSL 128Kbps - 384Kbps Up < 5,5 km 1 pair Yes
ITU-T G.992.2, G.lie 1.544Mbps – 6 Mbps Down CAP/DMT
RDSL (Rate Adaptive DSL) 272Kbps – 1.088 Mbps Up < 5,5 km 1 pair Yes
640 Kbps – 2.2 Mbps Down CAP/DMT
SDSL (Single-line DSL) 1.544Mbps Symmetric < 3.6 km 1 pair No

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ITU-T G.992.2, G.shdsl 2.048Mbps Symmetric 2B1Q

HDSL (High-bit-rate DSL) 1.544Mbps Symmetric (2 pairs) 3.6km – 4,5km 2 or 3 pairs No
ITU-T G.991.1, G.hdsl 2.048Mbps Symmetric (3 pairs) 2B1Q
HDSL-2 (High-data-rate DSL 2) 1.544Mbps Symmetric < 3.6km 1 pair 2B1Q No
IDSL (ISDN DSL) 144 Kbps Symmetric < 5.5 km 1 pair 2B1Q No
VDSL (Very high data rate DSL) 1.5Mbps - 2.3 Mbps Up 300 m - 1.5 km 1 pair Yes
ITU-T G.993 series, G.vdsl 12,96Mbps – 51,84Mbps Down CAP/DMT

Chó ý : C¸c chuÈn míi n¨m 2002-2003 : ADSL2 (ITU G.992.3 vµ G.992.4) vµ ADSL2+ (ITU
G.992.5)

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M« h×nh cung cÊp dÞch vô ADSL

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POTS - Plain Old Telephone Service ATU-R - ADSL Transmission Unit

Remote
MDF - Main Distribution Frame. ATU-C - ADSL Transmission Unit CO.
LPF, HPF - Low Pass, High Pass Filter. DSLAM - DSL Access Multiplexer.

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C¸c kü thuËt liªn quan ®Õn ADSL

DMT - Discrete Multi-Tone.

QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation.
CAP - Carrierless Amplitude & Phase.
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kü thuËt ®iÒu chÕ CAP vµ DMT trong ADSL

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M« h×nh VDSL vµ øng dông

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Xu h−íng c«ng nghÖ truy nhËp sè

FTTx, FFTH (Fiber To The Curb, Fiber To The Buiding & Fiber To The Home).
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KÕt nèi qua m¹ng CATV víi c«ng nghÖ Cable Modem

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M¹ng sè tÝch hîp ®a dÞch vô (b¨ng hÑp) N-ISDN

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KÕt nèi qua M¹ng chuyÓn m¹ch ATM (B-ISDN)

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M¹ng chuyÓn m¹ch gãi X.25

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M¹ng chuyÓn tiÕp khung Frame Relay

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M¹ng chuyÓn m¹ch nh∙n ®a giao thøc (MPLS)

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KÕt nèi m¹ng qua ®−êng truyÒn t¶i ®iÖn (PLC)

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