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Quality is good or bad. To determine if its good or bad, one has to measure. So go measure it. Since measurement is the foundation of any science, some would say the quest for quality begins with measurement. Measurement is a numerical value assigned to any element for conveying information about the element. In the Measure phase, expect to measure the existing system and establish a reliable method for monitoring progress toward a goal. Data is information used for the basis of reasoning, discussion, or calculation. The data should be bias-free, reliable, reproducible, repeatable, stable, and valid. To better understand this concept, the ASQ Body of Knowledge provides the following topics: Process analysis and documentation Develop and review process maps, written procedures, work instructions, flowcharts, etc. Identify process input variables and process output variables, and document their relationships through cause and effect diagrams, relational matrices, etc.
Probability and statistics Distinguish between enumerative (descriptive) and analytical (inferential) studies, and distinguish between a population parameter and a sample statistic. Define the central limit theorem and describe its significance in the application of inferential statistics for confidence intervals, control charts, etc. Describe and apply concepts such as independence, mutually exclusive, multiplication rules, etc.
Collecting and summarizing data Identify and classify continuous (variables) and discrete (attributes) data. Describe and define nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio measurement scales. Define and apply methods for collecting data such as check sheets, coded data, etc. Define and apply techniques such as random sampling, stratified sampling, sample homogeneity, etc. Define, compute, and interpret measures of dispersion and central tendency, and construct and interpret frequency distributions and cumulative frequency distributions. Depict relationships by constructing, applying, and interpreting diagrams and charts such as stem-and-leaf plots, box-and-whisker plots, run charts, scatter diagrams, Pareto charts, etc. Depict distributions by constructing, applying, and interpreting
diagrams such as histograms, normal probability plots, etc. Probability distributions Describe and interpret normal, binomial, Poisson, chi square, Students t, and F distributions.
Measurement system analysis Calculate, analyze, and interpret measurement system capability using repeatability and reproducibility (Gauge R&R), bias, linearity, percent agreement, and precision/tolerance (P/T).
Process capability and performance Identify, describe, and apply the elements nof designing and conducting process capability studies, including identifying characteristics, identifying specifications and tolerances, developing sampling plans, and verifying stability and normality. Distinguish between natural process limits and specification limits, and calculate process performance metrics such as percent defective. Define, select, and calculate Cp and Cpk, and assess process capability. Define, select, and calculate Pp, Ppk, Cpm, and assess process performance. Describe the assumptions and conventions that are appropriate when only short-term data are collected and when only attribute data are available. Describe the changes in relationships that occur when long-term data are used, and interpret the relationship between long- and short-term capability as it relates to a 1.5 sigma shift. Compute the sigma level for a process and describe its relationship to P
Written Documentation
Unfortunately, many organizations either lack written documentation or have poorly written and poorly organized materials. Written procedures and work instructions benefit organizations in many ways, including: increased accuracy
increased documentation use increased compliance increased process consistency decreased performance errors increased empowerment of users to solve problems improved communication within an organization improved customer communication decreased training time
Although generally lacking specific details, written procedures describe the process at a general/conceptual level. These procedures help to conceptualize the entire operation and the individual processes within the operation. Written instructions, on the other hand, provide step-by-step details sequencing particular tasks within a process.
Auditing Documentation
Examining existing written documentation helps clarify the current condition and may provide clues to quality issues. To start an audit of written documentation, obtain a copy of the procedures, study them, and construct a process map (flowchart) to display the actions. Following the initial study, see each area below to learn questions to research.
Document
Is the procedure available to users? Is the procedure easily accessible to the users? Is the procedure in legible condition? Does the procedure show evidence of use? Does the procedure use a legible font type and font size? Is the procedure in easy-to-understand language for the user? Is each step clear?
Use
Does the documentation match what they do? Are the users doing what it says to do? Are the users ignoring any steps? Are the users adding any steps? Do users refer to the procedures? If so, when, how, and why? Do users document that they follow procedures? Do physical abilities such as eyesight, hearing, and strength need to be re-evaluated?
Users
Have users read the written procedures? Do users have a common understanding of the specifics? Do users agree that all steps in the procedure are correct? Do users think that it is important to management that they follow directions? Were users involved in creating the procedures? Did users review the previews before implementation? Are users properly trained in using documentation?
Operation
Do users know how to revise a procedure? How often are procedures revised? Do users have ideas on improving the procedures? Has training kept pace with the job requirements? Has training kept pace with technology?
Process maps also serve functions in other phases of DMAIC: Improve: Define and communicate the proposed changes to the process Control: Document the revised process
Use When
Developing an understanding of the steps in a process. Studying a process for improvement. Communicating how the process works. Documenting a process.
User Tips
Focus on identifying the process before worrying about correctly drawing the process map. Focus on those areas that appear complex with an excessive number of potential decision points or delays. Look for duplication, redundancy, complexity or too many handoffs in the process. Ask the following types of questions: o Why are we performing the task in this manner? o Does the current process deviate from the designed process? Why? o What are the value-added activities? o What are the non-value-added activities? o How much time, money or work hours are required for each task? These may be the outputs (Ys) of the steps in the process.
SIPOC
Purpose
SIPOC (suppliers, inputs, process, outputs, customer) is a tool for identifying all elements involved in a process improvement project. SIPOC is similar to process mapping.
Benefits
Clarifies the important chain involved in the process Identifies who the process serves, inputs required for a successful process, who provides the required inputs, the necessary steps for completing the process, and the results delivered by the process Defines a complex project Is easy to complete
Using SIPOC
Procedure
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Begin with the process by identifying steps. Identify the outputs of the process. Identify the customers who will receive the outputs from the process. Identify the inputs needed by the process. Identify the supplies of the required inputs.
Fishbone Diagram
Description Created by Kaoru Ishikawa, fishbone diagrams are a problem-analysis tool for identifying, sorting, and displaying as many possible causes for an effect or problem. Also called cause-and-effect diagram and/or Ishikawa diagram. Benefits Sorts the ideas into useful categories Breaks down ideas into smaller chunks Shows the interaction between various causes Displays the information as a graphic Encourages group participation Helps identify areas to collect data for further study
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
People Policies Procedures (Process) Equipment o The 4 Ps Place Procedure People Policies o The Right Stuff Right tools Right materials Right instructions Right supervision Right feedback Write the categories of causes as branches from the main arrow. Brainstorm the possible causes for each area. Continue to ask Why? for each cause and record as a sub-cause branching off the causes. When the group runs out of ideas, focus attention to places on the chart where ideas are few. Return to each cause to prioritize the list.
2. List the output variables (Ys) across the top along the horizontal axis. 3. Rate each output below the output variables (green box) in terms of its overall importance to the customer. In this example, a scale of 1 (low importance) to 5 (high importance) is used. Other scales may also be used. 4. Identify potential inputs (Xs) that can impact the various outputs (Ys). List them on the left side along the vertical axis. The Xs should come directly from the process map. 5. Rate the effect of each X on each Y (red association table). In the following example, a scale of 0 (no relationship), 1 (weak relationship), 3 (moderate relationship), or 9 (strong relationship) is used. The rating is based on how much effect that particular input has on the quality of its corresponding output. Other scales may also be used. 6. The customer importance rating (Y) serves as a weighted response that is multiplied by the association rating (X) for each relationship. 7. Sum each column on the association table (weighted ratings), and multiply by the customer importance ranking to get an importance score. These scores are ranked from highest to lowest. Use the results to analyze and align future team activities, prioritizing where the team can begin its focus.
Example:
Types of Studies
The diagram below compares enumerative studies to analytical studies:
Frequently used symbols: n = Sample Size x-bar= Sample Mean s = Sample Standard Deviation s2 = Sample Variance N = Population Size = Population Mean = Population Standard Deviation 2 = Population Variance
Probability Problem
Given one standard deck of playing cards answer the questions below. If you are not familiar with a standard deck, read background below, to check your work, answers appear at the bottom of the page.
1. What is the probability of drawing one ace from a standard deck of cards? What is the probability of drawing three aces in a row if the
drawn card is returned to the deck after each draw, and then the deck is reshuffled? 2. What is the probability of selecting a spade? 3. Given two people, if Person 1 selected a spade, without replacing and reshuffling, what is the probability that Person 2 also selects a spade from the same deck?
A standard deck of playing cards: Composed of 52 cards Equally divided into four suits (hearts, spades, diamonds, and clubs) Each suit is composed of 13 cards: 1 (Ace) through 10, plus three face cards: Jack (J), Queen (Q), and King (K)
Answers
1) Drawing 1 ace: P = 4 / 52= 1/13 = 0.0769 2) P (3 aces replacement) = 4 / 52 x 4 / 52 x 4 / 52 = 64 / 140, 608 or 0.0004552 3) Given a standard deck of 52 playing cards, the probability for Person 1selecting a spade is 13 of 52 (or 0.25) 4) Given two people, if Person 1 selected a spade, without replacing and reshuffling, the probability that Person 2 also selects a spade from the same deck is 12/51 (or 0.235) because the second selection is dependent on the first selection.
Probability Terminology
Key Definitions
Probability - The chance of something happening Outcome - The result Sample Space - Set of all possible outcomes (heads, tails) Event - A collection of all outcomes o Independent events - If one event provides no information about the other event occurring o Dependent events - If one event provides information or influences other events o Mutually exclusive events - Two events not possible to occur (one coin cant be both heads and tails) Frequency - The number of observations for each sample
Measurement guides the improvement process. Since the purpose of measurement is to guide, forewarn, and inform, properly implementing a data collection effort requires planning and know how.
Discrete Data
Discrete Data Also called attribute data Countable data
Examples Number of units unfit for sale Number of imperfections on an automobile Number of successes in n trials Number of surface flaws Choice-based classifications such as good/bad, yes/no, pass/fail, tall/short
Uses Computing proportions (defects per unit, calls per associate, or transactions per day) Categorizing counts (types of defects, calls, or transactions)
Questions
1. Is the run chart below showing part width in millimeters an example of continuous or discrete data?
Answers
1. The run chart describes a continuous variable because continuous data generally involves a measuring device and answers questions such as how much, how far, and how long. 2. The check sheet is an example of discrete data because the data involves counts of classifications rather than measurements.
Measurement Scales
Variables differ in how well they can be calculated (i.e., the amount of measurable information their measurement scale provides). Two Key Factors Determining the Amount of Obtainable Information 1. Amount of error (found in every measurement) 2. Type of measurement scale
To help insure the data are relevant to the problem statement and project objective, consider these key factors when choosing a data collection method(s): Length of time (per hour, day, shift, batch, etc.) Type (cost, errors, ratings, etc.) Source (reports, observations, surveys, etc.) Cost (internally and externally) Collector (team member, associate, subject matter expert, etc.)
Understanding how the data relates to the process parameters is the beginning of data-based decision-making. There are many types of data collection methods available to the quality process analyst. In this lesson, we concentrated on: Check sheets Coded data Automatic gaging and other gaging
Check sheets and coded data could also be seen as a form of gage as well. The most common of all measurements are ones taken with various types of gages for continuous and discrete data that are not automatic. For example, a person physically makes a measurement when he/she does such things as taking a temperature reading, taking a blood pressure reading, timing an operation, or running a chemical test.
Check Sheets
Check sheets are tools for collecting improvement data. The Quality Tools section of the Continuous Improvement lesson covers this tool. A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data. It is usually comprised of a list or lists of items, and some way to indicate how often each item occurs.
Strengths Easy to use Provide a choice of observations Good for determining frequency of observations Applicable for identifying many common problems
Weaknesses Must be carefully constructed to be useful May omit pertinent information such as type of data collected, the part number, date, or operator(s)
Coded Data
Coding (any method of classifying or reducing data without significantly reducing accuracy) is a technique to either reduce or eliminate data or to assign a value to attribute data. Coding involves transforming numbers or using abbreviations for long strings. Assigning a number that is crossreferenced to a meaning is a common example of coding. Banks may code bounced checks to the branch location. Customer service may log complaints by codes.
Weaknesses Loss of information: There is no need to code numerical data such as age, time, temperature. Lack of correct identification: If coding is not explicitly stated, misclassification or data entry errors will occur.
Random Sampling
Besides acceptance sampling, additional sampling methods are available. The upcoming pages cover four other common methods: stratified, random, sequential and fixed. Random sampling and sequential sampling are approaches that physically take a sample. Sequential and fixed sampling refer to approaches defining how samples are taken and evaluated in order to make a decision about the lot. Random Sampling is the process of selecting sample units so all units have the same probability of being selected. True random sampling requires giving every unit (n) an equal chance of being selected for the sample. The sample cannot be effective unless it is truly representative of the group. All acceptance samples are randomly selected to remove systematic error from the sampling process.
Examples
A random number generator is used in the decennial census conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau to ascertain information about the United States population. A random number generator is used in a fast-food chain to print a survey number on the receipt for customers to call and answer questions about their experience at the restaurant. Using a random number table to determine house numbers in a neighborhood in order to conduct a survey, Following is a random number table and instructions for use.
Sequential Sampling
Sequential samples are taken from a lot and examined individually or in groups. After each examination a decision is made between: Accepting the lot Rejecting the lot Examining another sample from the same lot
Sequential sampling has the advantage of requiring fewer observations, on average, than fixed sample size tests for a similar degree of accuracy. The following are appropriate situations for using sequential sampling: Inspection testing involving costly equipment with limited capacity A supplier having a history of producing a very good product
Stratified Sampling
There may often be factors which divide the population into subpopulations (groups/strata). One may expect the measurement of interest to vary among the different subpopulations. This variance is accounted for when selecting a sample from the population that is representative of the population. The selection is achieved by stratified sampling. A stratified sample is obtained
by taking samples from each stratum or subgroup of a population. When we sample a population with several strata, we generally require that the proportion of each stratum in the sample should be the same as in the population. Stratified sampling techniques are generally used when the population is heterogeneous (or dissimilar), or when certain homogeneous (or similar) subpopulations can be isolated (strata). Some reasons for using stratified sampling over simple random sampling are: the cost per observation in the survey may be reduced. estimates of the population parameters may be wanted for each subpopulation. increased accuracy at given cost.
Strata must be defined before data collection begins to ensure each data point is tagged with the correct stratum.
The second example assumes that each of the eight areas has different product. If this is not true, a random sample would be adequate.
Central Tendencies
Central tendency is a measure that characterizes the central value of a collection of data that tends to cluster somewhere between the high and low values in the data. Central tendency refers to a variety of key measurements like mean (the most common), median, and mode. Mean Median Mode Represents the value with the highest frequency of occurrence (the most-often repeated value) Typically used with non-normal data The distributions center point (middle value) An equal number of data points occur on either side of the median Useful when the data set has extreme high or low values Typically used with non-normal data Gives the distributions arithmetic average (center) Provides a reference point for relating all other data points Typically used with normal data
Purpose
Gives direct information about how many data points are at each value
Purpose
To show the number of data at or below a particular variable
Depicting Relationships
One of the most effective tools for the visual evaluation of data is a graph showing the relationship between variables. Quality professionals use graphical methods as a complement to numerical methods because visuals are sometimes better suited than numerical methods for identifying patterns in the data. Tools depicting relationships can be divided into two general categories: those depicting relationships and those depicting distributions. This topic looks at several types of graphical displays showing relationships: stemand-leaf plots and box-and-whisker plots. Quality Control Tools in the Continuous Improvement lesson already covered other applicable tools for depicting relationships such as flowcharts, Pareto charts, cause and effect diagrams, check sheets, scatter diagrams, and run charts.
Stem-and-Leaf Plots
Designed by John Tukey (1977) as a type of histogram, a stem-and-leaf plot is a visual representation of data values directly incorporating the data points. A stem-and-leaf plot separates each number into a stem (all numbers but the last digit) and a leaf (the last digit). Example: The data 95, 99, 100, 110 yields stems: 9, 9, 10, 11 and leaves: 5, 9, 0, 0. Although stem-and-leaf plots are traditionally displayed as the image below, some people use a table to display them. Recall the following observations of the speed of cars used in an earlier example: 32, 29, 41, 36, 34, 39, 28, 37, 36, 36, 30, 32, 31, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 33, 34. The stem-and-leaf plot would be the following:
The stems here are divided into the groups 0-10, 11-20, 21-30 and 31-40, and stems 3 and 4 are divided into smaller subintervals. The purpose of creating these subintervals is to guarantee that the data displays some type of shape. As in the earlier explanation of frequency, the same rule of thumb about the number of classes to use applies also to stem-and-leaf plots: the number of classes should be at about the square root of the sample size. Again in this case, the square root of 20 is about 4.5, so 5 classes are more appropriate.
Stem-and-Leaf Answers
1. Determine the median by averaging the 20th and 21st data values 210 and 212, respectively; therefore, the median =211. 2. Determine the range by subtracting the high and the low values: R = 258 175 = 83 3. Determining quartiles: Q1: The median for the lower half below Q2 Q2 = 211 (median) Q3 = The median for the upper half above Q2
Stem-and-Leaf Summary
Benefits Easy and quick to construct Shows shape and distribution Visually compact Convenient to use Displays both variable and categorical data sets Allows for the data to be read directly from the diagram, whereas with a histogram the individual data values may be lost as frequencies within a category
Procedure 1. Some professionals find it helpful to first write (sort) the data in numerical (ranking) order. 2. Separate the numbers into stems and leaves. 3. Group the numbers with the same stems. 4. Prepare an appropriate title and legend for the plot.
Box-and-Whisker Plots
Credited to Tukey, box-and-whisker plots use five key data points to graphically compare data produced from different sources (different machines, operators, work centers, etc.). 1. The ends of the box are the first and third quartiles, Q1 and Q3. 2. The median forms the centerline (vertical line) within the box. 3. The high and low data points (illustrating the range) serve as end points to lines that extend from the box (the whiskers). Each whisker (including outliers) contains 25% of the data. 4. The box serves as the middle half of the data containing 50% of the distribution. 5. Asterisks or diamonds represent data outside the range (outliers).
Run Charts
A predecessor of control charts, a run chart displays how a process performs over time. With data points plotted in chronological order and connected as a line graph, run charts may detect special causes of variation. Since shifts have an assignable special cause, run charts provide a signal that leads to the cause. Run charts are also called trend charts (variations on a control chart, but without the limits)
Benefits
Recognizes problem trends or patterns Displays sequential data Serves as a visual aid in spotting patterns and abnormalities Monitors and communicates process performance Presents information around a middle value (centerline)
Procedure
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Scatter diagrams are also called scatter plots, X-Y graphs or correlation charts
Example
Service issues Wasted time Number of jobs that have to be redone Customer inquiries Number of errors
first bar showing the percentage of the category it represents. (Use the scale on the right-most y-axis for this display.) Next, add the percentages for the first and second categories, and place a dot above the second bar indicating that sum. To that sum, add the percentage for the third category, and place a dot above the third bar for that new sum. Continue the process for all the bars.
Histogram
A histogram is a graphical representation of the information provided in a frequency distribution. The horizontal axis is the measurement scale used. Adjacent boxes are constructed so that the length (or height) of the box represents the frequency (or relative frequency) for each class. Because the boxes are quantitative, we can get a good idea of the shape of the distribution. Return again to the example of 20 observations of the speed of cars passing a checkpoint. In the image below, notice the shape similarity of the histogram and the stem-and-leaf plot. Data set: 32, 29, 41, 36, 34, 39, 28, 37, 36, 36, 30, 32, 31, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 33, 34
Histograms History
Histograms were created in 1833 by French statistician A. M. Gerry to present a pictorial analysis of crime data. Because Gerry presented data pictorially rather than in columns of numbers, his audience found it easier to see his conclusions about crime in France. Today, histograms are a commonly used tool for summarizing, analyzing, and displaying data. As a Quality Progress article, The Tools of Quality, Part IV: Histograms, notes: A picture can be worth more than a thousand numbers when the picture is a histogram.
Histogram Description
According to the ASQ Auditing Handbook, third edition, a histogram is a graphic summary of variation in a set of data. The Quality Progress article The Tools of Quality, Part IV: Histograms describes four simple concepts that help explain the power of histograms: Concept 1: Values in a set of data almost always show variation.Variation is an inevitable part of any process manufacturing, service, or administration. It is impossible to keep all factors in a constant state all of the time. Concept 2: Variation displays a pattern. Different phenomena has different variation, but there is always some pattern to the variation.
Patterns of variation in data are called distributions. Concept 3: Patterns of variation are difficult to see in simple tables of numbers. While there are patterns in looking at a table of numbers, the patterns are difficult for our eyes and mind to discern. Concept 4: Patterns of variation are easier to see when the data is summarized pictorially in a histogram. Because a histogram provides a picture of data, it enables us to easily see variation patterns.
For Example
The example below (taken from The Quality Toolbox, second edition) shows how a histogram is constructed from a table of data: The Bulldogs bowling team wants to improve its standing in the league. Team members decided to study their scores for the past month. The 55 bowling scores are: Bulldogs Team Bowling Scores 115 118 119 129 134 135 147 148 148 155 155 156 167 170 172
The number of bars in a histogram can be determined by using the following table (adapted from The Quality Toolbox, second edition). Using the table below, they estimate B (the number of bars) to be 7. Number of Data Points 50 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Number of Bars
The highest score was 198 and the lowest was 103, so the range of values is R= largest smallest R= 198 103 = 95
Constructing a Histogram
According to The Quality Toolbox, second edition, the following are basic procedures for constructing a histogram: 1. Collect at least 50 consecutive data points from a process. If you dont have that much data, use the point graph variation (points arranged as with a line graph with no line connecting the points). 2. Use the histogram worksheet to set up the histogram. After calculating W in step 2 of the worksheet, use your judgment to adjust it to a convenient number. For example, you might decide to round 0.9 to an even 1.0. The value for W must not have more decimal places than the numbers you will be graphing. 3. Draw x- and y-axes on graph paper. Mark and label the y-axis for counting data values. Mark and label the x-axis with the L values from the worksheet. The spaces between these numbers will be the bars of the histogram. Do not create spaces between bars. 4. For each data point, mark off one count above the appropriate bar with an X or by shading that portion of the bar. For numbers that fall directly on the edge of a bar, mark the bar to the right. Histograms can be used for the following purposes: To provide a clearer and more complete picture of data patternsto see if a change has occurred over time To analyze and visually communicate information about variation in process behaviorto communicate the distribution pattern To make decisions about where to focus improvement effortsto see if the output of a process has a distribution that might need to be studied Repeated use of histograms allows a person to see if a change has occurred over time