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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project To Study the Setting of Cement
Chemistry Project To Study the Setting of Cement
Setting of Cement
AIM To Study the Setting of Cement CERTIFICATE This is to certify that this project work is submitted by ROHIT GUPTA to the Chemistry department, Aditya Birla Public School, Kovaya was carried out by him under the guidance & supervision during academic year 2009-2010. Principal Mr. B D Kotwani Aditya Birla public School (Head of chemistry dept.) Kovaya ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to Principal, Raji Jayaprasad, Aditya Birla public school, kovaya for her encouragement and for all the facilities that she provided for this project work. I sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by taking me into her fold for which I shall remain indebted to her.
I extend my hearty thanks to Mr. B D Kotwani, chemistry teacher, who guided me to the successful completion of this project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for his invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic attitude and immense motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work. I cant forget to offer my sincere thanks to my classmates who helped me to carry out this project work successfully & for their valuable advice & support, which I received from them time to time. ROHIT GUPTA. DECLARATION I do hereby declare that this project work has been originally carried under the guidance and supervision of Mr. B D Kotwani, head of chemistry department, Aditya Birla Public School, kovaya. ROHIT GUPTA. Experiment 1 AIM : To study the setting of mixtures of cement with lime, sand, of different qualities, rice husk, fly ash, etc.. Requirements : Beakers, glass rod, weights, small wooden boxes or empty match boxes. Lime, pit sand, river sand, cement, fly ash, rice husk Introduction Cement is essentially a finely ground mixture of calcium silicates (3Cao. SiO2) and aluminates (3Cao. ALO3) which sets to a hard mass treated with water. This property makes cement capable of joining rigid masses like bricks, stones, tiles etc. into coherent structures. The cements have property of setting and hardening under water due to certain physicochemical process and are, therefore, called hydraulic cements. During setting of cement, the physical changes taking place are gel formation and crystallization and chemical changes are hydration and hydrolysis. The process of solidification of cement paste involves: (i) setting, and (ii) hardening. Setting is stiffening of the original plastic mass into initial gel formation. After setting, hardening starts due to gradual start of crystallization in the interior of the mass. The strength developed by cement at any time depends upon the amount of gel formed and the extent of crystallization. A mixture of cement, sand, small pieces of stone (gravel) and
water is known as concrete and sets to an extremely hard structure. When cement is used for construction purposes, it is always mixed with sand and little water to make a pasty material called mortar. Here cement or lime forms the binding material and function of sand is to prevent shrinking and cracking and to increase the bulk, thereby reducing the cost of the mortar. When cement is used as the binding material it is called cement mortar and when lime is used as the binder it is called lime-mortar. Sand in addition to its other functions also increases the adhesive qualities of the binding material. Effect of quality of sand on setting of cement mortar. Sand obtained from different sources has different qualities. For example, sea sand obtained from sea contains some unwanted salts and retards the setting of cement and is unsuitable for making mortar. On the other hand, pit sand obtained from pits in the soil and river sand obtained from river bed are considered excellent for preparing mortar and concrete. Effect of time on setting of cement mortar. Time has an important role on the strength developed by cement mortar. When a cement sand paste in the ratio 1:3 in water is allowed to dry, the strength of the solid mass keeps on increasing with increase in the time given for setting. It acquires nearly full strength in 28 days. Procedure :1. Prepare the sets of mixtures of various compositions as given in the observation table. 2. Take each of the mixtures in different beakers and prepare their pastes by adding minimum quantity of water. 3. Take 10 empty match-box inner cases and mark them from 1 to 10. 4. Transfer the prepared pastes immediately into the matchboxes and compact them by pressing with hand. 5. Spray water from time to time over the pastes so that they are always moist. 6. Take out the slabs after three days and test for its strength. For that hold a weight of 10g on the hand at a fixed height (say 50 cm above the ground) and drop the weight on the slab. See if the slab breaks or not. If it does not break then take 20g weight and drop it from the same height. This way keep on increasing the weight and note down the minimum weight required to break the slab.
Observations Setting time allowed = 3 days.
COMPOSITION OF MORTAR (Ratio by volume of various components) SL.NO CEMENT RIVER SAND PIT SAND LIM E 1 2m 31 41 5 6 7 8 9 10 Experiment 2 3 6 **** **** 6 9 3 3 1 3 **** **** 3 6 **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** 1 2 **** **** **** **** **** **** 1 1 **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** **** 1 2 FLYASH RICEHUSK
MINIMUM WEIGHT
REQUIRED TO BREAK THE SLAB
g g g g g g g g g g
AIM : To study the setting of mixtures of cement with sand, lime and fly-ash with respect to time and strength. Requirements Beakers, glass rod, weights, small wooden boxes or empty match boxes. Lime, pit sand, river sand, cement, fly-ash, rice husk. Procedure 1. Prepare mixtures of the various compositions as given in the following observation table. 2. Take each of the mixtures in different beakers and prepare their pastes by adding minimum quantity of water. 3. Take 9 empty match-box inner cases and mark them from 1 to 9. 4. Fill three cases with paste of each composition. 1. Spray water from time to time over the pastes so that they remain moist all the time. 2. After three days take out one slab of each composition and test for their strength by the method described in previous experiment. 3. Similarly, take out a set of three slabs after 7 days and then after 30 days and test for their strengths.
Observations :S.NO Composition of mixture Minimum weight required to break the slab after 3 Days A 2V 3 Cement : River sand 1:03 Cement: River sand: Fly-ash V 2:09:01 Cement: River sand: Lime 1:03:01 Conclusions The strength of the slab increases with increase in the setting time allowed! DEDICATION:I DEDICATE THIS PROJECT WORK TO THE LOTUS FEET OF MY FATHER MR. VINOD GUPTA & MY MOTHER MRS. SUNITA GUPTA BIBILOGRAPHY :1. PRACTICAL MANUAL 1. 2. WIKIPEDIA.COM 2. www.icbse.com . gm . gm . gm . gm #.. gm . gm . gm 7 Days . gm 30 Days . gm
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Sterilization of Water using Bleaching Powder
Chemistry Project on Sterilization of Water using Bleaching Powder
STERILIZATION OF WATER USING BLEACHING POWDER

A CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROGECT ANSHUL KUMAR PANDEY XII B PTHIS PROJECT LOOKS AT THE TECHNIQUE CALLED STERILIZATION OF WATER USING BLEACHING POWDER WHICH IS USED TO PURIFY WATER AND MAKES IT FIT FOR DRINKING.] INDEX 1. Certificate of Authenticity 2. Acknowledgement 3. Introduction -Need of Water -Purification of Water
-Need for a stable purification technique 4. Theory -History of Water purification -Bleaching powder and its preparation -Use of Bleaching powder in Sterilization of water 5. Experiment -Aim -Pre-Requisite Knowledge -Requirements -Procedure 1. Result 2. Bibliography CERTIFICATE OF AUTHENTICITY This is to certify that Anshul Kumar Pandey, a student of class XII has successfully completed the research project on the topic Sterilization of Water by using Bleaching Powder under the guidance of Mrs. Mohini Belani (Subject Teacher). This project is absolutely genuine and does not indulge in plagiarism of any kind. The references taken in making this project have been declared at the end of this report. Signature ( Subject Teacher) Signature ( Examiner) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I feel proud to present my Investigatory project in Chemistry on the topic Sterilization of Water using Bleaching powder which aims at using Bleaching powder as a disinfectant and purifier to make water fit for drinking. This project wouldnt have been feasible without the proper and rigorous guidance of my Chemistry teacher Mrs. Mohini Belani who guided me throughout this project in every possible way. An investigatory project involves various difficult lab experiments which have to be carried out by the
student to obtain the observations and conclude the report on a meaningful note. These experiments are very critical and in the case of failure, may result in disastrous consequences. Thereby, I would like to thank both Mrs.Belani and Lab Asst.Mr.Rajkumar for guiding me on a step by step basis and ensuring that I completed all my experiments with ease. Rigorous hard work has been put in this project to ensure that it proves to be the best. I hope that this project will prove to be a breeding ground for the next generation of students and will guide them in every possible way. Need of water Water is an important and essential ingredient in our quest for survival on this planet. It is very essential for carrying out various metabolic processes in our body and also to carry out Hemoglobin throughout the body. A daily average of 1 gallon per man is sufficient for drinking and cooking purposes. A horse, bullock, or mule drinks about 11 gallons at a time. standing up, an average allowance of 5 gallons should be given for a man, and 10 gallons for a horse or a camel. An elephant drinks 25 gallons, each mule or ox drinks 6 to 8 gallons, each sheep or pig 6 to 8 pints. These are minimum quantities. One cubic foot of water = 6 gallons (a gallon = 10 lbs.). In order to fulfill such a huge demand of water, it needs to be purified and supplied in a orderly and systematic way. But with the increasing world population, the demand for drinking water has also increased dramatically and therefore it is very essential to identify resources of water from which we can use water for drinking purposes. Many available resources of water do not have it in drinkable form. Either the water contains excess of Calcium or Magnesium salts or any other organic impurity or it simply contains foreign particles which make it unfit and unsafe for Drinking. Purification of Water There are many methods for the purification of water. Some of them are 1. Boiling 2. Filtration 3. Bleaching powder treatment 4. SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) And the list goes on. Boiling is perhaps the most commonly used water purification technique in use today. While in normal households it is an efficient technique; it cannot be used for industrial and large scale purposes. It is
because in normal households, the water to be purified is very small in quantity and hence the water loss due to evaporation is almost negligible. But in Industrial or large scale purification of water the water loss due to evaporation will be quite high and the amount of purified water obtained will be very less. Filtration is also used for removing foreign particles from water. One major drawback of this purification process is that it cannot be used for removing foreign chemicals and impurities that are miscible with water. SODIS or Solar Water Disinfection is recommended by the United Nations for disinfection of water using soft drink bottles, sunlight, and a black surface at least in hot nations with regularly intense sunlight. Water-filled transparent bottles placed in a horizontal position atop a flat surface in strong sunlight for around five hours will kill microbes in the water. The process is made even more safe and effective if the bottom half of the bottle or the surface its lying on is blackened, and/or the flat surface is made of plastic or metal. Its the combination of heat and ultraviolet light which kills the organisms. The major drawback of this purification technique is that it cannot be used in countries with cold weather. Also, the time consumed for Purification process is more and it also needs a blackened surface, much like solar cookers. Need for a stable purification technique Therefore we need a purification technique which can be used anytime and anywhere, does not require the use of any third party content and which is also economically feasible on both normal scale and large scale. Hence we look at the method of purification of water using the technique of treatment by bleaching powder commonly known as Chlorination. THEORY History of water purification in different parts of the world. In 1854 it was discovered that a cholera epidemic spread through water. The outbreak seemed less severe in areas where sand filters were installed. British scientist John Snow found that the direct cause of the outbreak was water pump contamination by sewage water. He applied chlorine to purify the water, and this paved the way for water disinfection. Since the water in the pump had tasted and smelled normal, the conclusion was finally drawn that good taste and smell alone do not guarantee safe drinking water. This discovery led to governments starting to install municipal water filters (sand filters and chlorination), and hence the first government regulation of public water.
In the 1890s America started building large sand filters to protect public health. These turned out to be a success. Instead of slow sand filtration, rapid sand filtration was now applied. Filter capacity was improved by cleaning it with powerful jet steam. Subsequently, Dr. Fuller found that rapid sand filtration worked much better when it was preceded by coagulation and sedimentation techniques. Meanwhile, such waterborne illnesses as cholera and typhoid became less and less common as water chlorination won terrain throughout the world. But the victory obtained by the invention of chlorination did not last long. After some time the negative effects of this element were discovered. Chlorine vaporizes much faster than water, and it was linked to the aggravation and cause of respiratory disease. Water experts started looking for alternative water disinfectants. In 1902 calcium hypo chlorite and ferric chloride were mixed in a drinking water supply in Belgium, resulting in both coagulation and disinfection. The treatment and distribution of water for safe use is one of the greatest achievements of the twentieth century. Before cities began routinely treating drinking water with chlorine (starting with Chicago and Jersey City in US in 1908), cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery and hepatitis A killed thousands of U.S. residents annually. Drinking water chlorination and filtration have helped to virtually eliminate these diseases in the U.S. and other developed countries. Meeting the goal of clean, safe drinking water requires a multi-barrier approach that includes: protecting source water from contamination, appropriately treating raw water, and ensuring safe distribution of treated water to consumers taps. During the treatment process, chlorine is added to drinking water as elemental chlorine (chlorine gas), sodium hypochlorite solution or dry calcium hypochlorite. When applied to water, each of these forms free chlorine, which destroys pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms. Almost all systems that disinfect their water use some type of chlorine-based process, either alone or in combination with other disinfectants. In addition to controlling disease-causing organisms, chlorination offers a number of benefits including:
Reduces many disagreeable tastes and odors; Eliminates slime bacteria, molds and algae that commonly grow in water supply reservoirs, on the walls of water mains and in storage tanks; Removes chemical compounds that have unpleasant tastes and hinder disinfection; and Helps remove iron and manganese from raw water.
As importantly, only chlorine-based chemicals provide residual disinfectant levels that prevent microbial re-growth and help protect treated water throughout the distribution system. For more than a century, the safety of drinking water supplies has been greatly improved by the addition of bleaching powder. Disinfecting our drinking water ensures it is free of the microorganisms that can cause serious and life-threatening diseases, such as cholera and typhoid fever. To this day, bleaching powder remains the most commonly used drinking water disinfectant, and the disinfectant for which we have the most scientific information. Bleaching powder is added as part of the drinking water treatment process. However, bleaching powder also reacts with the organic matter, naturally present in water, such as decaying leaves. This chemical reaction forms a group of chemicals known as disinfection byproducts. Current scientific data shows that the benefits of bleaching our drinking water (less disease) are much greater than any health risks from THMs and other by-products. Although other disinfectants are available, bleaching powder remains the choice of water treatment experts. When used with modern water filtration methods, chlorine is effective against virtually all microorganisms. Bleaching powder is easy to apply and small amounts of the chemical remain in the water as it travels in the distribution system from the treatment plant to the consumers tap, this level of effectiveness ensures that microorganisms cannot recontaminate the water after it leaves the treatment. But what is bleaching powder and how is it prepared? Bleaching powder or Calcium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with formula Ca(ClO) 2. It is widely used for water treatment and as a bleaching agent bleaching powder). This chemical is considered to be relatively stable and has greater available chlorine than sodium hypochlorite (liquid bleach). It is prepared by either calcium process or sodium process. Calcium Process 2 Ca(OH)2 + 2 Cl2 Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O Sodium Process 2 Ca(OH)2 + 3 Cl2 + 2 NaOH Ca(ClO)2 + CaCl2 + 2 H2O + 2 NaCl But how can this chemical be used to sterilize water? This chemical can be used for sterilizing water by Using 5 drops of bleach per each half gallon of water to be purified, and allowing it to sit undisturbed for half an hour to make it safe for drinking. Letting it sit several hours more will help reduce the chlorine taste, as the chlorine will slowly evaporate out. A different reference advises when using household bleach for purification; add a single drop of bleach per quart of water which is visibly clear, or three drops per quart of water where the water is NOT visibly clear. Then allow the water to sit undisturbed for half an hour. What are the actual processes involved in disinfecting and purifying water?
The combination of following processes is used for municipal drinking water treatment worldwide: 1. Pre-chlorination for algae control and arresting any biological growth 2. Aeration along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron and manganese 3. Coagulation for flocculation 4. Coagulant aids also known as polyelectrolytes to improve coagulation and for thicker floc formation 5. Sedimentation for solids separation, that is, removal of suspended solids trapped in the floc 6. Filtration for removal of carried over floc 7. Disinfection for killing bacteria Out of these processes, the role of Bleaching powder is only in the last step i.e. for Disinfection of water. EXPERIMENT Aim: To Determine the dosage of bleaching powder required for sterilization or disinfection of different samples of water. Requirements: Burette, titration flask, 100ml graduated cylinder, 250ml measuring flask, weight box, glazed tile, glass wool. Bleaching Powder, Glass wool, 0.1 N Na2S2O3 solution, 10% KI solution, different samples of water, starch solution. Pre-Requisite Knowledge: 1. A known mass of the given sample of bleaching powder is dissolved in water to prepare a solution of known concentration. This solution contains dissolved chlorine, liberated by the action of bleaching powder with water. CaOCl2+H20 I >> Ca(OH)2+Cl2 2. The amount of Chlorine present in the above solution is determined by treating a known volume of the above solution with excess of 10% potassium iodide solution, when equivalent amount of Iodine is liberated. The Iodine, thus liberated is then estimated by titrating it against a standard solution of Sodium thiosulphate, using starch solution as indicator. Cl2+2KI i > 2KCl+I2 I2+2Na2S2O3 i > Na2S4O6+2NaI
1. A known Volume of one of the given samples of water is treated with a known volume of bleaching powder solution. The amount of residual chlorine is determined by adding excess potassium iodide solution and then titrating against standard sodium thiosulphate solution. 2. From the readings in 2 and 3, the amount of chlorine and hence bleaching powder required for the disinfection of a given volume of the given sample of water can be calculated. Procedure: 1. Preparation of bleaching powder solution. Weigh accurately 2.5g of the given sample of bleaching powder and transfer it to a 250ml conical flask. Add about 100-150ml of distilled water. Stopper the flask and shake it vigorously. The suspension thus obtained is filtered through glass wool and the filtrate is diluted with water (in a measuring flask) to make the volume 250ml. The solution obtained is 1% bleaching powder solution. 2. Take 20ml of bleaching powder solution in a stoppered conical flask and add it to 20ml of 10% KI solution. Stopper the flask and shake it vigorously. Titrate this solution against 0.1N Na2S2O3 solution taken in the burette. When the solution in the conical flask becomes light yellow in color, add about 2ml starch solution. The solution now becomes blue in color. Continue titrating till the blue color just disappears. Repeat the titration to get a set of three concordant readings. 3. Take 100ml of the water sample in a 250ml stoppered conical flask and add it to 10ml of bleching powder solution. Then add 20ml of KI solution and stopper the flask. Shake vigorously and titrate against 0.1N Na2S2O3 solution using starch solution as indicator as described in step 2. 4. Repeat the step 3 with other samples of water and record the observations. RESULT Amount of the given sample of bleaching powder required to disinfect one litre of water Sample I =.. g Sample II=.. g Sample III=.. g BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.The Medical front-Water Supply http://www.vlib.us/medical/sancamp/water.htm 2. Chemistry Projects http://www.icbse.com
3.How to live on Very,Very Little-Clean drinking water: How to develop low cost sources of drinking water just about anywhere http://www.jmooneyham.com/watp.html 4.Calcium Hypochloride http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_powder 5.Water Treatment http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment 6.Bleach http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleach 7.Drinking Water Treatment:Continuous Chlorination http://www.ianrpubs.unl.edu/epublic/pages/publicationD.jsp?publicationId=358 8.Chlorination of Drinking Water http://www.water-research.net/watertreatment/chlorination.htm 9.Chlorination Of Drinking Water (2) www.edstrom.com/doclib/mi4174.pdf 10.Wagenet, L, K. Mancl, and M. Sailus, 1995. Home Water Treatment, Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service, Cooperative Extension, Ithaca, N.Y. 11.Treatment Systems for Household Water Supplies: Chlorination, North Dakota State University Extension Service 12.Water Treatment Notes: Chlorination of Drinking Water, Cornell Cooperative Extension, New York State College of Human Ecology,USA 13.Drinking Water Standards, www.epa.gov/safewater/mcl.html 14.Understanding the New Consumer Confidence Report, www.awwa.org/Advocacy/bluethumb98/consumer.cfm 15.Testing for Drinking Water Quality, NebGuide G89-907 Cooperative Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln,USA 16.DISINFECTING YOUR WELL WATER: SHOCK CHLORINATION http://www.fcs.uga.edu/pubs/PDF/HACE-858-4.pdf
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1. dilip kumar September 7th, 2010 at 10:29 | #1 Reply | Quote i want to put all the information to copy
2. adith October 5th, 2010 at 16:29 | #2 Reply | Quote nice!! but i think its too long..
3. naveen October 7th, 2010 at 09:54 | #3 Reply | Quote it is so nice
4. senthil October 8th, 2010 at 10:21 | #4
Reply | Quote ok yaa but we neet some more points!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5. senthil October 8th, 2010 at 10:22 | #5 Reply | Quote ok yaa !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!111 very nice for school level projects

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Study the Quantity of Caesin in Milk
Chemistry Project to Study the Quantity of Caesin in Milk
STUDY OF QUANTITY OF CAESIN PRESENT IN DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF MILK

A FILE REPORT SUBMITTED TO INTERNAL EXAMINER CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT ADITYA BIRLA PUBLIC SCHOOL KOVAYA, GUJARAT CERTIFICATE This is to certify that this dissertation titled STUDY OF QUANTITY OF CAESIN PRESENT IN DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF MILK submitted by BHARAT JAIN to Chemistry department of THE ADITYA BIRLA PUBLIC SCHOOL, KOVAYA, was carried under guidance and supervision during the academic year 2009-2010. Principal Mr..
B.D.Kotwani Aditya Birla public School (Head of chemistry dept.)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to the Principal, Raji Jayaprasad, Aditya Birla public school, Kovaya for her encouragement and for all the facilities that she provided for this project work. I sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by taking me into her fold for which I shall remain indebted to her. I extend my hearty thanks to Mr. B.D.Kotwani, chemistry teacher, who guided me to the successful completion of this project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for his invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic attitude and immense motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work. I cant forget to offer my sincere thanks to Mr. Pankaj Bajpayee & also to my classmates who helped me to carry out this project work successfully & for their valuable advice & support, which I received from them time to time. BHARAT JAIN
B.. AS DEDICATION I DEDICATE THIS PROJECT WORK TO THE LOTUS FEET OF MY FATHER Mr. SATISH JAIN & MY MOTHER Mrs. MADHU JAIN
DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that this project work has been originally carried under the guidance and supervision of Mr. B.D.KOTWANI, head of chemistry department, Aditya Birla Public
School, kovaya.
BHARAT JAIN INDEX
1. 1. Introduction 1 2. 2. Aim 3 3. 3. Requirements. 4 4. 4. Theory.. 5 5. 5. Procedure.. 7 6. 6. Observations. 8 7. 7. Conclusions .. 9 8. 8. References .. 15 Introduction Milk is a complete diet as it contains in its Minerals, Vitamins Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats And Water. Average composition of milk from different sources is given below: Source of milk Cow Human Water (%) 87.1 87.4 Mineral s (%) 0.7 0.2 Protei ns(%) 3.4 1.4 Fats (%) 3.9 4.0 Carbohydra tes (%) 4.9 4.9
Goat Sheep
87.0 82.6
0.7 0.9
3.3 5.5
4.2 6.5
4.8 4.5
Caesin is a major protein constituent in milk & is a mixed phosphor-protein. Casein has isoelectric pH of about 4.7 and can be easily separated around this isoelectric pH. It readily dissolves in dilute acids and alkalies. Casein is present in milk as calcium caseinate in the form of micelles. These micelles have negative charge and on adding acid to milk the negative charges are neutralized. Ca2+-Caesinate + 2CH3COOH(aq)^Caesin+(CH3COO)2Ca
AIM To study the quantity of Casein in different samples of milk.
REQUIREMENTS > Beakers (250 ml) > Filter-paper > Glass rod > Weight box > Filtration flask > Buchner funnel > Test tubes
> Porcelain dish > Different samples of milk > 1 % acetic acid solution > Ammonium sulphate solution
Theory Natural milk is an opaque white fluid Secreted by the mammary glands of Female mammal . The main constituents of natural milk are Protein, Carbohydrate, Mineral Vitamins,Fats and Water and is a complete balanced diet . Fresh milk is sweetish in taste. However , when it is kept for long time at a temperature of 5 degree it become sour because of bacteria present in air . These bacteria convert lactose of milk into lactic acid which is sour in taste. In acidic
condition casein of milk starts separating out as a precipitate. When the acidity in milk is sufficient and temperature is around 36 degree, it forms semi-solid mass, called curd. PROCEDURE Urn1. A clean dry beaker has been taken, followed by putting 20 ml of cows milk into it and adding 20 ml of saturated ammonium sulphate solution slowly and with stirring. Fat along with Caesin was precipitate out. 2. The solution was filtered and transferred the precipitates in another beaker. Added about 30 ml of water to the precipitate. Only Caesin dissolves in water forming milky solution leaving fat undissolved.
3. The milky solution was heated to about 40oC and add 1% acetic acid solution drop-wise, when casein got precipitated. 1. 4. Filtered the precipitate, washed with water and the precipitate was allowed to dry. 2. 5. Weighed the dry solid mass in a previously weighed watch glass. 3. 6. The experiment was repeated with other samples of milk. Visit www.icbse.com for more projects OBSERVATIONS CONCLUSION
Different samples of milk contain different percentage of Caesin.
REFERENCES >Comprehensive Practical Chemistry; Laxmi Publications. WEBSITES:
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1. Vishal Chouksey
August 12th, 2010 at 12:08 | #1 Reply | Quote gooood project ;;;;;;;;;;;;; But should be more ebalorated :::::::::::
2. Vishal Chouksey August 12th, 2010 at 12:09 | #2 Reply | Quote @Vishal Chouksey it should be atleast of 10 pages :::::::::::
3. M.N.Fathimath Aashina September 1st, 2010 at 03:34 | #3 Reply | Quote GOOD PROJECT
4. priya September 12th, 2010 at 07:36 | #4 Reply | Quote very nice projectbt observation table is not completed. but still very nice project.
5. Jibin Vasudev Kuzhimattathilj September 12th, 2010 at 15:57 | #5 Reply | Quote a gud project. realy nice. and thankzzz
6. sarah September 17th, 2010 at 15:36 | #6 Reply | Quote can u pls tell me observation abt this i.e; weight of caesin which u hd taken nd wat is the total % of caesin present in cows milk rply as soon as possible
7. NADA ALI September 23rd, 2010 at 13:05 | #7 Reply | Quote LILLE ORE ELABORATED
8. jins October 6th, 2010 at 14:47 | #8 Reply | Quote nice project but i want to know how much percent of caesin you got for different samples can you please say
9. Shardool October 7th, 2010 at 08:11 | #9 Reply | Quote Thanx dude ur gr8.
10. senthil
October 8th, 2010 at 10:24 | #10 Reply | Quote good project !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11 for school levels

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Chemistry Project to To Determine which Antacid Neutralizes Stomach Acid Most Chemistry Project to Determine the Caffeine in Tea Samples
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Study the Adulterants in Food
Chemistry Project to Study the Adulterants in Food
Adulterants in Food
Name: Taher Shabbir Hussain Class: XII-B School: Indian Public School Year: 2009-2010 Certified to be the bonafide work done by Mr. / Miss TAHER SHABBIR HUSSAIN of class______________ XII B____________ in the________ CHEMISTRY LAB_____________ during the year 2009-2010 Date____________________________________ P.G.T. in CHEMISTRY INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL Salmiya-Kuwait Submitted for ALL INDIA SENIOR SCHOOL CERTIFICATE PRACTICAL Examination held in CHEMISTRY LAB___________________ at INDIAN PUBLIC SCHOOL Salmiya , Kuwait. Examiner
Date__________________ Seal I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry mentor M.rs._Shjrjejy Zachanah, for her vital support, guidance and encouragement -without which this project would not have come forth. I would also like to express my gratitude to the lab assistant Mrs..Julje_Sa.m for her support during the making of this project. S.No. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. Contents Objective Introduction Theory Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Experiment 3 Result Conclusion Bibliography 10 11 12 13 14 15 II Page No. 6 8
The Objective of this project is to study some of the c.ommonfood..a.dult.erants present in different food stuffs. Adulteration in food is normally present in its most crude form; prohibited substances are either added or partly or wholly substituted. Normally the contamination/adulteration in food is done either for financial gain or due to carelessness and lack in proper hygienic condition of processing, storing, transportation and marketing. This ultimately results that the consumer is either cheated or often become victim of diseases. Such types of adulteration are quite common in developing countries or backward countries. It is equally important for the consumer to know the common adulterants and their effect on health. TfflDRy The increasing number of food producers and the outstanding amount of import foodstuffs enables the producers to mislead and cheat consumers. To differentiate those who take advantage of legal rules
from the ones who commit food adulteration is very difficult. The consciousness of consumers would be crucial. Ignorance and unfair market behavior may endanger consumer health and misleading can lead to poisoning. So we need simple screening, tests for their detection. In the past few decades, adulteration of food has become one of the serious problems. Consumption of adulterated food causes serious diseases like cancer, .diarrhoea., , .asthma., .ulcers., etc. Majority of fats, oils and butter are paraffin wax, castor oil and hydrocarbons. Red chilli powder is mixed with brick powder and pepper is mixed with dried papaya seeds. These adulterants can be easily identified by simple chemical tests. Several agencies .have been set up by the Government of India to remove adulterants from food stuffs. AGMARK acronym for agricultural marketing.this organization certifies food products for their quality. Its objective is to promote the Grading and Standardization of agricultural and allied commodities. To detect the presence of adulterants in fat, oil and butter. REQUIREMENTS Test-tube, acetic anhydride, conc. H2SO4, acetic acid, conc. HNO3. PROCEDURE Common adulterants present in ghee and oil are paraffin wax, hydrocarbons, dyes and argemone oil. These are detected as follows : (i) Adulteration of paraffin wax and hydrocarbon in vegetable ghee Heat small amount of vegetable ghee with acetic anhydride. Droplets of oil floating on the surface of unused acetic anhydride indicates the presence of wax or hydrocarbons. (ii) Adulteration of dyes in fat Heat 1mL of fat with a mixture of 1mL of conc. sulphuric acid and 4mL of acetic acid. Appearance of pink or red colour indicates presence of dye in fat. (iii) Adulteration of argemone oil in edible oils To small amount of oil in a test-tube, add few drops of conc. HNO3 and shake. Appearance of red colour in the acid layer indicates presence of argemone oil. To detect the presence of adulterants in sugar REQUIREMENTS Test-tubes, dil. HCl.
PROCEDURE Sugar is usually contaminated with washing soda and other insoluble substances which are detected as follows : (i) Adulteration of various insoluble substances in sugar Take small amount of sugar in a test-tube and shake it with little water. Pure sugar dissolves in water but insoluble impurities do not dissolve. (ii) Adulteration of chalk powder, washing soda in sugar To small amount of sugar in a test-tube, add few drops of dil. HCl. Brisk effervescence of CO2 shows the presence of chalk powder or washing soda in the given sample of sugar. To detect the presence of adulterants in samples of chilli powder, turmeric powder and pepper REQUIREMENTS Test-tubes, conc. HCl, dil. HNO3, KI solution PROCEDURE Common adulterants present in chilli powder, turmeric powder and pepper are red coloured lead salts, yellow lead salts and dried papaya seeds respectively. They are detected as follows : (i) Adulteration of red lead salts in chilli powder To a sample of chilli powder, add dil. HNO3. Filter the solution and add 2 drops of potassium iodide solution to the filtrate. Yellow ppt. indicates the presence of lead salts in chilli powder. (ii) Adulteration of yellow lead salts to turmeric powder To a sample of turmeric powder add conc. HCl. Appearance of magenta colour shows the presence of yellow oxides of lead in turmeric powder. (iii) Adulteration of brick powder in red chilli powder Add small amount of given red chilli powder in beaker containing water. Brick powder settles at the bottom while pure chilli powder floats over water. (iv) Adulteration of dried papaya seeds in pepper Add small amount of sample of pepper to a beaker containing water and stir with a glass rod. Dried papaya seeds being lighter float over water while pure pepper settles at the bottom.
EXPERIMENT Adulteration of paraffin wax and
II
PROCEDURE Heat small amount of vegetable ghee with acetic anhydride. Droplets of oil floating on the surface of unused acetic anhydride indicate the presence of wax or hydrocarbon.
OBSERVATION Appearance of oil floating on the
hydrocarbon in vegetable ghee
surface.
Adulteration of dyes in fat
Heat 1mL of fat with a mixture of 1mL of conc. H2SO4 and 4mL of acetic acid.
Appearance of pink colour.
Adulteration of
To small amount of oil in a test tube, add few drops of conc. HNO3 & shake. Take small amount of sugar in a test tube and shake it with little water.
No red colour
argemone oil in edible oils Adulteration of
observed
Pure sugar
various insoluble substances in sugar
dissolves in water but insoluble impurities do not dissolve.
Adulteration of chalk
To small amount of sugar in a
No brisk
powder, washing soda in sugar Adeulteration of yellow lead salts to turmeric powder Adulteration of red
test tube, add a few drops of dil. HCl. To sample of turmeric powder, add conc. HCl.
effervescence
observed. Appearance of magenta colour
To a sample of chilli powder, add dil. HNO3. Filter the solution and add 2 drops of KI solution to the filtrate.
No yellow ppt.
lead salts in chilli powder
Adulteration of brick
Add small amount of given red chilli powder in a beaker containing water.
Brick powder settles at the bottom while
powder in chilli
powder
pure chilli powder floats over water.
Adulteration of dried papaya seeds in pepper
Add small amount of sample of pepper to beaker containing water and stir with a glass rod.
Dried papaya seeds
being lighter float over water while pure pepper settles at the bottom.
Selection of wholesome and non-adulterated food is essential for daily life to make sure that such foods do not cause any health hazard. It is not possible to ensure wholesome food only on visual examination when the toxic contaminants are present in ppm level. However, visual examination of the food before purchase makes sure to ensure absence of insects, visual fungus, foreign matters, etc.
Therefore, due care taken by the consumer at the time of purchase of food after thoroughly examining can be of great help. Secondly, label declaration on packed food is very important for knowing the ingredients and nutritional value. It also helps in checking the freshness of the food and the period of best before use. The consumer should avoid taking food from an unhygienic place and food being prepared under unhygienic conditions. Such types of food may cause various diseases. Consumption of cut fruits being sold in unhygienic conditions should be avoided. It is always better to buy certified food from reputed shop. a ENCARTA ENCYCLOPEDIA 2009 a www.wikipedia.com a www.answers.com a www.icbse.com a www.google.com
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1. rajul ratnawat August 5th, 2010 at 07:27 | #1 Reply | Quote i read this project as i am in need of such project , this is very good.
2. Vishal
September 6th, 2010 at 16:49 | #2 Reply | Quote This experiment is kind of messed up. Recheck it..
3. kishore October 4th, 2010 at 16:12 | #3 Reply | Quote thx a lot frnd!!! this project literally saved my life!!
4. Jaina October 5th, 2010 at 17:39 | #4 Reply | Quote This is a good attempt,I appreciate it!! :) :)
5. deepika singh October 6th, 2010 at 12:31 | #5 Reply | Quote HEY ITS GREAT..

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables
Chemistry Project on Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables
Presence of Insecticides & Pesticides in Fruits & Vegetables

Toc H (RESIDENTIAL) PUBLIC SCHOOL PUNALUR CHEMISTRY PROJECT REPORT 2009-2010 STUDY THE PRESENCE OF INSECTICIDES AND PESTICIDES IB FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Name : Class : Reg. No : Examiner Teacher-in charge.
CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project was done by Reg. No .. Is in partial fulfillment of Chemistry Practical Examinations AISSCE 2008. I certify that this project is done by him/ her with his/her own effort with guidance of the teacher. Teacher in charge Head of the institute ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I place my sincere thanks to my chemistry teacher SUSAN JACOB for her guidance and advices to complete my work successfully. I also thank our principal Mr. GEORGE. P .GEORGE for providing me all the facilities to finish the project on time. I also take this opportunity to place on record my deep gratitude to LORD ALMIGHTY for the countless blessings showered on me while doing the work and to complete it. Last but not least I thank my parents for their encouragement and support in my humble venture. CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 2. AIM . 3. MATERIALS REQUIRED. 4. PRECEDURE.. 5. OBSERVATIONS 6. BIBLIOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION In the past decade there has been a tremendous increase in the yields of
various crops to meet the demand of overgrowing population, achieved by using pesticides and insecticides. These are chemicals that are sprayed over crop to protect it from pests. For example, DDT, BHC, zinc phosphide, Mercuric chloride, dinitrophenol, etc. All pesticides are poisonous chemicals and are used in small quantities with care. Pesticides are proven to be effective against variety of insects, weeds and fungi and are respectively called insecticides, herbicides and fungicides. Most of the pesticides are non-biodegradable and remain penetrated as such into plants, fruits and vegetables . From plants they transfer to animals , birds and human beings who eat these polluted fruits and vegetables. Inside the body they get accumulated and cause serious health problems. These days preference is given to biodegradable insecticides like malathion. The presence of Insecticides residues in even raw samples of wheat, fish, meat , butter etc. have aroused the concern of agricultural administrators, scientists and health officials all over the world to put a check over the use of insecticides and to search for non insecticidal means of pest control. AIM To study the presence of insecticides or pesticides (nitrogen containing) in various fruits and vegetables. MATERIALS REQUIRED Mortar and pestle , beakers, funnel , glass rod , filter paper china dish , water bath, tripod stand, fusion tube, knife, test tube.
Samples of various fruits and vegetables, alcohol, sodium metal, ferric chloride, ferrous sulphate crystals, distilled water and dil. Sulphuric acid. PROCEDURE Take different types of fruits and vegetables and cut them into small pieces separately. Transfer the cut pieces of various fruits and vegetables into it separately and crush them . Take different kinds for each kind of fruits and vegetables and place the crushed fruits and vegetables in these beakers and add 100 ml of alcohol to each of these . Stir well and filter. Collect the filtrate in separate china dishes, Evaporate the alcohol by heating the china dishes one by one over a water bath and let the residue dry in the oven . Heat a small piece of sodium in a fusion tube , till it melts. Then add one of the above residues from the china dish to this fusion tube and heat it till red hot. Drop the hot fusion tube in a china dish containing about 10 ml of distilled water. Break the tube and boil the contents of the china dish for about 5 minutes . Cool and filter the solution. Collect the filtrate . To the filtrate add 1 ml of freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution and warm the contents. Then add 2-3 drops of ferric chloride solution and acidify with dilute HCl. If a blue or green ppt. or colouration is obtained it indicates the presence of nitrogen containing insecticides. Repeat the test of nitrogen for residues obtained from other fruits and vegetables and record the observation. OBSERVATIONS S.no Name of the fruit or Test for the presence Presence of insecticide
vegetable
Of nitrogen (positive or negative)
Or pesticide residues
1. 2. 3. 4.
Apple Grapes Brinjal tomato
positive positive positive positive
yes yes yes yes
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Moderns abc of practical chemistry-XII 1. Comprehensive practical chemistry XII 1. NCERT chemistry -XII
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1. nancy gill September 25th, 2010 at 13:25 | #1 Reply | Quote this website is complete in all respects.
2. Simi September 30th, 2010 at 09:22 | #2
Reply | Quote thanks for your kind help
3. piyush September 30th, 2010 at 10:13 | #3 Reply | Quote this is the best to get any of the project of science or maths
4. arpit October 6th, 2010 at 16:38 | #4 Reply | Quote good help in making project in science.
5. harsheen October 7th, 2010 at 17:16 | #5 Reply | Quote umm..!! this is a nice project..!! bt 2 short,,..!! i want a lennghty project on this topic
6. parikshit October 9th, 2010 at 07:24 | #6 Reply | Quote @Simi thanks simmi to get ur project from here. i want my every frnd to get their project frm here.

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Preparation of Soyabean Milk
Chemistry Project on Preparation of Soyabean Milk
Project on preparation soyabean milk and its comparison with the natural milk
This is to certify that Master Hiren P Patel ,A student of class XII of the Atomic Energy Central School, Roll No.: 07 session 2009-2010, has satisfactorily completed the required chemistry project work as per the syllabus of Standard XII in the laboratory of the school. Date: Chemistry Teacher (Mr.R K Sawhney) Principals Signature External examiners Signature I selected this project as a part of my studies, titled PREAPARATION OF SOYABEAN MILK AND ITS COMPARISION WITH NATURAL MILK. As a gratitude, I convey my sincere thanks to Mr.R K Sawhney and Lab. Assistant Smt. Raksha Pandya who was the constant guide during the period of study and without whose help it would not have been possible for us to complete this project. HIREN P PATEL XII-B (SCIENCE)
2009-2010 Project 55: Aim: Preparation of soya bean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect to curd formation, effect of temperature and taste. Theory:
Natural milk is an opaque white fluid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammal. The main constituents of natural milk are proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, fats and water and are a complete balanced diet. Fresh milk is sweetish in taste. However, when it is kept for a long time at a temperature of 35 5 0C it becomes sour because of bacteria present in air. These bacteria convert lactose of milk starts separating out as a precipitate.
o o
When the acidity in milk is sufficient and temperature is around 36 0C, it forms semi-solid mass, called curd. Soya bean milk is made from soya beans. It resembles natural milk.
The main constituents of soya bean milk are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins. It is prepared by keeping soya beans dipped in water for sometime.

Materials required:
The swollen soya beans are then crushed to a paste which is then mixed with water. The solution is filtered and filtrate is soya bean milk.
Beakers, pestle and mortar, measuring cylinder, glass-rod, tripod-stand, thermometer, muslin cloth, burner. Soya beans, buffalo milk, fresh curd, distilled water. Procedure:
Soak about 100 g of soya beans in sufficient amount of water for 24 hours.
o o o
Take out swollen soya beans and grind them to a very fine paste with a pestle-mortar. Add about 250 ml of water to this paste and filter it through a muslin cloth. Clear white filtrate is soya bean milk.
Compare its taste with buffalo milk.
Take 50 ml of buffalo milk in three beakers and heat the beakers to 30 0, 400 and 500 C respectively. Add spoonful curd to each of the beakers and leave the beakers undisturbed for 8 hours and curd is ready. Similarly, take 50 ml of soya bean milk in three other beakers and heat the beakers to 300,400 and 500 C respectively. Add
1
spoonful curd to each of these beakers. Leave the beakers
4 undisturbed for 8 hours and curd is formed. Type of milk Buffalo milk Beaker no 1 2 3 4 Soya bean milk 5 6 400C 500C Temperature 300C 400C 500C 300C Quality of curd Taste of curd
Result: For buffalo milk, the best temperature for the formation of good quality and tasty curd is oC and for soya bean milk, it is . oC.
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed
Chemistry Project on Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed
Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed (Saunf)

Bal Bharati Public School Ntpc-jhanor CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT TOPIC:- Extraction of Essential Oil from Aniseed (Saunf). NAME:- Siontan Ghosh Roll no:CLASS:- XII SESSION:- 2009-2010 Faculty:- MR. Ashish pagare
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Siontan Ghosh a bonafide student of Class XII has successfully completed the project on Extraction of Essential oil from aniseed (Saunf) in the academic year 2009-2010.
Principal (Mr. K.T.Johnson) Incharge Teacher External Examiner (Mr. Ashish Pagare) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I hereby express my gratitude to my Principal Sri K. T. Johnson and Sri Ashish Pagare for their guidance throughout my studies. I also thank my parents who supported me in all my endeavors. I also thank my classmates who have equally worked hard to make my project a success. I also thank my partner Ayushi Vyas for helping me during the project. And last but not the least I thank the almighty for whatever I have achieved till now. INDEX S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. AIM:To extract essential oil present in Saunf (aniseed). Topic Certificate Acknowledgement Index Aim Introduction Aniseed Essential Oil Uses of Aniseed Essential Oil Requirements & Procedure Observations Experimental Setup Project Pictures Bibliography Page Number 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 11 13 15 16 17
INTRODUCTION We are all familiar with the pleasant odours coming out from flowers, spices and many trees. The essence or aromas of plants are due to volatile oils present in them. These smelling volatile oils present in plants are called essential oils. Cinnamon, clove, cumin, eucalyptus, garlic, jasmine, peppermint, rose, sandalwood, spearmint, thyme, wintergreen are a few familiar examples of valuable essential oils. The term essential oils literally means oils derived from the essence of plants. Essential oils are mainly used for their pleasant odours and flavors in perfumes and as flavoring agents in foods. Some are used in medicines (e.g., camphor, wintergreen, eucalyptus) others as insect repellants (e.g., citronella). Chemically essential oils are composed of complex mixtures of ester, alcohols, phenols, aldehydes, ketones and hydrocarbons. They are essentially non-polar compounds and are thus soluble in non-polar solvents such as petroleum ether, benzene etc. Essential oils may occur in all parts of the plant, but they are often concentrated in the seeds or flowers. They are obtained from the plants by the process of steam distillation and extraction. The technique of steam distillation permits the separation of volatile components from non-volatile materials without raising the temperature of the distillation above 100 C. Thus steam distillation reduces the risk of decomposition of essential oils. ANISEED ESSENTIAL OIL Aniseed Plant v Aniseed, on steam distillation, yields an essential oil, known as `Oil of Aniseed`, which has now replaced the fruits for medicinal and flavoring purposes. Aniseed oil is a colorless or pale-yellow liquid having the characteristic odor and taste of the fruit. The yield of oil generally varies from 1.9 to 3.1 per cent. Higher values up to 6 per cent have been reported from Syrian aniseed. Crushing of fruits prior to distillation gives better yields of oil. The material should be distilled soon after the crushing to prevent any loss of oil due to evaporation. Aniseed oil is a highly refractive liquid, which solidifies on cooling. The congealing point depends much on the anethole content and is a valuable criterion for evaluating the oil. Exposure of the oil to air causes polymerization, and some oxidation also takes place with the formation of anisaldehyde and anisic acid. v The chief constituent of aniseed oil is anethole, which is present to the extent of 80 to 90 per cent and is mainly responsible for the characteristic flavor of the oil. The oil also contains methyl chavicol, p-methoxyphenyl acetone, and small amount of terpenes and sulfur containing compounds of disagreeable odour.
Aniseed Essential Oil vCommon Method of Extraction:- Steam Distillation vColor:- Clear vBotanical Name:- Pimpinella anisum vAromatic Description:- Distinctive scent of licorice. Rich and sweet. vConstituents:- a-pinene, camphene, B-pinene, linalool, cis-anethole, trans-anethole, safrole, anisaldehyde, acetoanisole. Uses of Aniseed Oil:-
In aromatherapy, aniseed essential oil is used to treat colds and flu. Aniseed oil can be made into a liquid scent and is used for both hunting and fishing. It is put on fishing lures to attract fish. Anethole, the principal component of anise oil, is a precursor that can eventually produce 2,5-dimethoxybenzaldehyde which is can be used in the clandestine synthesis of psychedelic drugs such as 2C-B, 2C-I and DOB.
Oil of aniseed is also reported to be used as an aromatic carminative to relieve flatulence, and as an ingredient of cough lozenges in combination with liquorice. Essential oil is also used externally as an insecticide against small insects such as head lice, mites and vermin. It also has fungicidal properties.
REQUIREMENTS:Steam generator (Copper Vessel), round bottom flask (500 ml), conical flask, condenser, glass tubes, iron stand, sand bath, separatory funnel, tripod stands, burners, Ajwain(Carum), Petroleum ether(6080C),Saunf(Aniseed) . PROCEDURE:1. Set the apparatus as shown in the picture of Experimental Setup. The apparatus consists of a steam generator connected to the round bottom flask through a glass inlet tube. The flask is connected to a water condenser through a glass outlet tube. Condenser is further attached to a receiver through an adaptor. 2. Take about 750 ml of water in the steam generator and start heating to produce steam. 3. In the round bottom flask take about 75 gm of crushed saunf. 4. A vigorous current of steam from steam generator is passed through the round bottom flask.
5. A part of the steam condenses in the round bottom flask. As more and more steam is passed, the steam volatile components of saunf pass through the condenser along with steam. These contents on condensation are collected in the receiver. 6. The contents in the round bottom flask may be heated by a bunsen burner to prevent excessive condensation of steam. 7. The process of steam distillation is continued for about half an hour. 8. Transfer the distillate to a separating funnel and extract with 20 ml portions of petroleum ether 3 times. 1. Combine the petroleum ether extracts in a 250 ml conical flask and dry it with the help of anhydrous sodium sulphate. 2. Remove the solvent from the dried filtrate by careful distillation in a water bath. The essential oil is left behind in the distillation flask. 3. Find the weight of the extracted essential oil. Note the colour, odour and weight of the essential oil. OBSERVATIONS:1.) Saunf (Aniseed):Weight of Saunf taken = 100 gm Initial Weight of the bottle = 10gm(x) Weight of bottle + essential oil = 11.25 gm(y) Weight of essential oil extracted =(y-x) =1.25 gm Percentage of essential oil = (y/100)*100=1.25 % Colour of the oil = Colourless Odour of the oil = Saunf like smell. 2.) Ajwain (Carum):Weight of Saunf taken = 75 gm Initial Weight of the bottle = 10 gm(x) Weight of bottle + essential oil = 11 gm(y)
Weight of essential oil extracted =(y-x) =1 gm Percentage of essential oil = (y/75)*100=1.33% Colour of the oil = Colourless Odour of the oil = Ajwain like smell. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Comprehensive Chemistry Practical Class-XII. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anise http://www.essentialoils.co.za/essential-oils/aniseed.htm
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Antacids
Chemistry Project on Antacids
Commercial Antacids
It is my foremost duty to express my deep regards & gratitude to my Chemistry teacher MRS. GAURI MASHRU under whose guidance & supervision I am able to undertake this project. It is her who has been my primary source of inspiration and who motivated, guided and encouraged me at different stages to make this project. I am also thankful for the help rendered by the lab assistant who made available the various apparatus and chemicals needed for the experiments, else it would have been a difficult task to perform this project successfully. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (i) v ANTACIDS 1 v ACTION MECHANISM 1 v INDICATIONS 1 v SIDE EFFECTS 1 2 v SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS 2 3 v HYPERACIDITY 3 4 v SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS 4 5
v DRUG NAMES 5 v SOME COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS 6
ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE 6 -7 MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE 8 9 CALCIUM CARBONATE 10 13 SODIUM BICARBONATE 14 16 BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE 17 18
v INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT 19 21 v BIBLOGRAPHY (ii) ANTACIDS An Antacid is any substance, generally a base or basic salt, which neutralizes stomach acidity. They are used to relieve acid indigestion, upset stomach, sour stomach, and heartburn. ACTION MECHANISM Antacids perform a neutralization reaction, i.e. they buffer gastric acid, raising the pH to reduce acidity in the stomach. When gastric hydrochloric acid reaches the nerves in the gastrointestinal mucosa, they signal pain to the central nervous system. This happens when these nerves are exposed, as in peptic ulcers. The gastric acid may also reach ulcers in the esophagus or the duodenum. Other mechanisms may contribute, such as the effect of aluminium ions inhibiting smooth muscle cell contraction and delaying gastric emptying. INDICATIONS Antacids are taken by mouth to relieve heartburn, the major symptom of gastro esophageal reflux disease, or acid indigestion. Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms. Peptic ulcers may require H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors. The utility of many combinations of antacids is not clear, although the combination of magnesium and aluminium salts may prevent alteration of bowel habits. SIDE EFFECTS Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the milk-alkali syndrome, which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the Sippy
regimen of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments were developed for peptic ulcer disease. But during the past 15 years, it has been reported in women taking calcium supplements above the recommended range of 1200 to 1500 mg daily, for prevention and treatment of osteoporosis, and is exacerbated by dehydration. Calcium has been added to over-the-counter products, which contributes to inadvertent excessive intake. The New England Journal of Medicine reported a typical case of a woman who arrived in the emergency department vomiting and altered mental status, writhing in pain. She had consumed large quantities of chewable antacid tablets containing calcium carbonate (Tums). She gradually recovered.[1] Compounds containing calcium may also increase calcium output in the urine, which might be associated with kidney stones.[2] Calcium salts may cause constipation. Other adverse effects from antacids include: 1. 1. Carbonate : Regular high doses may cause alkalosis, which in turn may result in altered excretion of other drugs, and kidney stones. A chemical reaction between the carbonate and hydrochloric acid may produce carbon dioxide gas. This causes gastric distension which may not be well tolerated. Carbon dioxide formation can also lead to headaches and decreased muscle flexibility. 2. 2. Aluminum hydroxide : May lead to the formation of insoluble aluminium-phosphatecomplexes, with a risk for hypophosphatemia and osteomalacia. Although aluminium has a low gastrointestinal absorption, accumulation may occur in the presence of renal insufficiency. Aluminium-containing drugs may cause constipation. 3. 3. Magnesium hydroxide : Has laxative properties. Magnesium may accumulate in patients with renal failure leading to hypermagnesemia, with cardiovascular and neurological complications. See Milk of magnesia. 4. 4. Sodium : Increased intake of sodium may be deleterious for arterial hypertension, heart failure and many renal diseases. SOME MORE SIDE EFFECTS Fortunately, because acid reflux is such a common problem, antacids are among the medicines available and free of side effects for most people. Side effects from antacids vary depending on
individual and other medications they may be taking at the time. Those who experience side effects most commonly suffer from changes in bowel functions, such as diarrhea, constipation, or flatulence. Although reactions to any drug may vary from person to person, generally those medications that contain aluminum or calcium are the likeliest to cause constipation, those that contain magnesium are the likeliest to cause diarrhea. Some products combine these ingredients, which essentially cancels them out, to forestall unpleasant side effects. In general, people with kidney problems should probably not take antacids as this can sometimes cause a condition known as alkalosis. In other people, side effects may occur if substances such as salt, sugar, or aspirin, are added to a particular medication. As with all medications, always carefully read the product label on the package and check with your doctor or pharmacist if you have any question about potential drug interactions or side effects. Some side effects, such as constipation and diarrhea, are fairly obvious. Other more serious side effects, such as stomach or intestinal; bleeding, can be more difficult to recognize. In general, any sign of blood in the stool or the presence of vomiting is a danger sign and should be brought to the immediate attention of a physician. If your symptoms persist for more than 10 days to two weeks while you are using the medication, you should stop taking it and consult your doctor. Persistent symptoms may indicate that you have more a serious problem than occasional acid reflux. Pregnant or nursing baby should always consult your doctor before taking this medication. Generally, you should not give these medications to children under the age of 12 unless under the advice and supervision of your doctor or the package label has indicated that the product is safe for young children. Constant use of antacids leads to a condition called acid rebound where the stomach begins to over secrete acid in order to make up for the quantity that is being neutralized. HYPERACIDITY, CAUSE FOR INTAKE OF ANTACIDS Hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia simply means increase of acidity in the stomach. The human stomach secretes hydrochloric acid which is necessary for the digestion of food. When the stomach contains an excessive amount of hydrochloric acid, then the condition is called as hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia. Sometimes, hyperacidity is confused for a simple bellyache. This is because people with hyperacidity usually generally get pains in their stomachs with similar symptoms as bellyaches. This confusion is more rampant in children who cannot differentiate between different kinds of stomach ailments. However, hyperacidity can be found out with the sour belching and aftertaste of the already eaten food in the mouth. The prime medical factors of hyperacidity or acid dyspepsia are as follows : (i) Stomach Ulcers: Ulcers in the stomach are one of the prime causes of
hyperacidity. Once this is diagnosed, the treatment will be done by the surgical removal of the stomach ulcers. (ii) Acid Reflux Disease: Some people have a gastric disorder called as the acid reflux disease. In this condition, the acids of the stomach, i.e. gastric acids or hydrochloric acid, get refluxed up to the food pipe, which is biologically called as the esophagus. When this happens, it builds up the level of acidity in the stomach. (iii) Stomach Cancers: Stomach cancers can also cause hyperacidity as one of their symptoms. This is a very rare case, but the mortality rate is quite high. Hence, a hyperacidity that lasts more than two weeks must be immediately shown to the doctor and got checked for any cancer. A timely diagnosis can enable complete treatment of the disease. SYMPTOMS OF HYPERACIDITY Hyperacidity symptoms are observed a couple of hours after eating, when the food has been digested and still excess acids are left within the stomach. At this stage, the following symptoms are seen:1. 1. A typical feeling of restlessness 2. 2. Feeling of nausea (wanting to throw up) and actual vomiting 3. 3. Sour belching with an aftertaste of the already-eaten food 4. 4. Stiffness in the stomach, which is called as atonic dyspepsia 5. 5. Lack of desire for any other type of food 6. 6. Indigestion 7. 7. Constipation INTERACTIONS Altered pH or complex formation may alter the bioavailability of other drugs, such as tetracycline. Urinary excretion of certain drugs may also be affected. PROBLEMS WITH REDUCED STOMACH ACIDITY Reduced stomach acidity may result in an impaired ability to digest and absorb certain nutrients, such as iron and the B vitamins. Since the low pH of the stomach normally kills ingested bacteria, antacids increase the vulnerability to infection. It could also result in reduced bioavailability of some drugs. For example, the bioavailability of ketoconazole (antifungal) is reduced at high intragastric pH (low acid content). SOME FAMOUS ANTACID BRANDS 1. 1. Alka-Seltzer NaHCO3 and/or KHCO3
2. 2. Equate Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2 3. 3. Gaviscon Al(OH)3 4. 4. Maalox (liquid) Al(OH)3 and Mg(OH)2 5. 5. Maalox (tablet) CaCO3 6. 6. Milk of Magnesia Mg(OH)2 7. 7. Pepto-Bismol HOC6H4COO 8. 8. Pepto-Bismol Childrens CaCO3 9. 9. Rolaids CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 10. Tums CaCO3 11. Mylanta DRUG NAMES Some drugs used as antacids are : 1. 1. Aluminium hydroxide 2. 2. Magnesium hydroxide 3. 3. Calcium carbonate 4. 4. Sodium bicarbonate 5. 5. Bismuth subsalicylate 6. 6. Histamine 7. 7. Cimetidine 8. 8. Ranitidine 9. 9. Omeprazole 10. Lansoprazole SOME IMPORTANT COMMONLY USED ANTACIDS 1.ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3, Alum, is the most stable form of aluminium in normal conditions. It is found in nature as the mineral gibbsite (also known as hydrargillite) and its three, much more rare, polymorphs: bayerite, doyleite and nordstrandite. Closely related are aluminium oxide hydroxide, AlO(OH), and aluminium oxide, Al2O3, differing only by loss of water. These compounds together are the major components of the aluminium ore bauxite. Freshly precipitated aluminium hydroxide forms gels, which is the basis for application of aluminium salts as flocculants in water purification. This gel crystallizes with time. Aluminium hydroxide gels can be dehydrated (e.g., with the utility of watermiscible non-aqueous solvents like ethanol) to form an amorphous aluminium hydroxide powder,
which is readily soluble in acids. Heat-dried aluminium hydroxide powder is known as activated alumina and is used in gas purification, as a catalyst support and an abrasive. PRODUCTION Bauxites are heated in pressure vessels with sodium hydroxide solution at 150200 C through which aluminium is dissolved as aluminate (Bayer process). After separation of ferruginous residue (red mud) by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled and seeded with fine grained aluminium hydroxide. The aluminium hydroxide is further calcined to give alumina, which may be smelted in the Hall-Hroult process in order to produce aluminium. CHEMISTRY Gibbsite has a typical metal hydroxide structure with hydrogen bonds. It is built up of double layers of hydroxyl groups with aluminium ions occupying two-thirds of the octahedral holes between the two layers. Aluminium hydroxide is amphoteric. It dissolves in acid, forming Al(H2O)63+ (hexaaquaaluminate) or its hydrolysis products. It also dissolves in strong alkali, forming Al(OH)4- (tetrahydroxoaluminate). PHARMACOLOGY Pharmacologically, this compound is used as an antacid under names such as Alu-Cap, Aludrox or Pepsamar. The hydroxide reacts with excess acid in the stomach, reducing its acidity. This decrease of acidity of the contents of the stomach may in turn help to relieve the symptoms of ulcers, heartburn or dyspepsia. It can also cause constipation and is therefore often used with magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate, which have counterbalancing laxative effects. This compound is also used to control phosphate (phosphorus) levels in the blood of people suffering from kidney failure. Aluminium hydroxide, alum, is included as an adjuvant in some vaccines (e.g., Alhydrogel, Anthrax Vaccine), since it appears to contribute to induction of a good antibody (Th2) response. Its pharmacological action is not known. However, it has little capacity to stimulate cellular (Th1) immune responses, important for protection against many pathogens. Because the brain lesions found in Alzheimers disease sometimes contain traces of aluminium, there is concern that consumption of excess aluminium compounds may cause or contribute to the development of this and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, multiple epidemiological studies have found no connection between exposure to aluminium and neurological disorders. In addition, elevated aluminium levels in blood, resulting from kidney dialysis with well water containing high aluminium, may result in dementia that is similar to but probably different from that of Alzheimers disease. However, this hypothesis is controversial.
In 2007, tests with mice of the anthrax vaccine using aluminium hydroxide adjuvant were reported as resulting in adverse neuropathy symptoms. USE AS A FIRE RETARDANT Aluminium hydroxide also finds use as a fire retardant filler for polymer applications in a similar way to magnesium hydroxide and hydromagnesite. It decomposes at about 180 C giving off water vapour. 2.MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE Magnesium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula Mg(OH)2. As a suspension in water, it is often called milk of magnesia because of its milk-like appearance. The solid mineral form of magnesium hydroxide is known as brucite. Magnesium hydroxide is common component of antacids and laxatives; it interferes with the absorption of folic acid and iron. Magnesium hydroxide has low solubility in water, with a K sp of 1.51011; all of magnesium hydroxide that does dissolve does dissociate. Since the dissociation of this small amount of dissolved magnesium hydroxide is complete, magnesium hydroxide is considered a strong base. HISTORY In 1829, Sir James Murray used a fluid magnesia preparation of his own design to treat the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Marquis of Anglesey. This was so successful (advertised in Australia and approved by the Royal College of Surgeons in 1838) that he was appointed resident physician to Anglesey and two subsequent Lords Lieutenants, and knighted. His fluid magnesia product was patented two years after his death in 1873. The term milk of magnesia was first used for a white-colored, aqueous, mildly alkaline suspension of magnesium hydroxide formulated at about 8%w/v by Charles Henry Phillips in 1880 and sold under the brand name Phillips Milk of Magnesia for medicinal usage. Although the name may at some point have been owned by GlaxoSmithKline, USPTO registrations show Milk of Magnesia to be registered to Bayer, and Phillips Milk of Magnesia to Sterling Drug. In the UK, the non-brand (generic) name of Milk of Magnesia and Phillips Milk of Magnesia is Cream of Magnesia (Magnesium Hydroxide Mixture, BP). PREPARATION Magnesium hydroxide can be precipitated by the metathesis reaction between magnesium salts and sodium, potassium, or ammonium hydroxide:
Mg2+ (aq.) + 2 OH (aq.) Mg(OH)2 (s) USES Suspensions of magnesium hydroxide in water (milk of magnesia) are used as an antacid to neutralize stomach acid, and a laxative. The diarrhea caused by magnesium hydroxide carries away much of the bodys supply of potassium, and failure to take extra potassium may lead to muscle cramps. Magnesium hydroxide is also used as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant. Milk of magnesia is useful against canker sores (aphthous ulcer) when used topically. Milk of magnesia is sold for medical use as chewable tablets, capsules, and as liquids having various added flavors. It is used as an antacid, though more modern formulations combine the antimotility effects of equal concentrations of aluminum hydroxide to avoid unwanted laxative effects. Magnesium hydroxide powder is used industrially as a non-hazardous alkali to neutralise acidic wastewaters. It also takes part in the Biorock method of building artificial reefs. Solid magnesium hydroxide has also smoke suppressing and fire retarding properties. This is due to the endothermic decomposition it undergoes at 332 C (630 F) : Mg(OH)2 MgO + H2O BIOLOGICAL METABOLISM When the patient drinks the milk of magnesia, the suspension enters the stomach. Depending on how much was taken, one of two possible outcomes will occur. As an antacid, milk of magnesia is dosed at approximately 0.51.5g in adults and works by simple neutralization, where the hydroxide ions from the Mg(OH)2 combine with acidic H+ ions produced in the form of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells in the stomach to produce water. Only a small amount of the magnesium from milk of magnesia is usually absorbed from a persons intestine (unless the person is deficient in magnesium). However, magnesium is mainly excreted by the kidneys so longterm, daily consumption of milk of magnesia by someone suffering from renal failure could lead in theory to hypermagnesemia. 3.CALCIUM CARBONATE Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rock in all parts of the world, and is the main component of shells of marine organisms, snails, pearls, and eggshells. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural
lime, and is usually the principal cause of hard water. It is commonly used medicinally as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Calcium carbonate shares the typical properties of other carbonates. Notably:
it reacts with strong acids, releasing carbon dioxide:
CaCO3(s) + 2 HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
it releases carbon dioxide on heating (to above 840 C in the case of CaCO 3), to form calcium oxide, commonly called quicklime, with reaction enthalpy 178 kJ / mole:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2 Calcium carbonate will react with water that is saturated with carbon dioxide to form the soluble calcium bicarbonate. CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O Ca(HCO3)2 This reaction is important in the erosion of carbonate rocks, forming caverns, and leads to hard water in many regions. PREPARATION The vast majority of calcium carbonate used in industry is extracted by mining or quarrying. Pure calcium carbonate (e.g. for food or pharmaceutical use), can be produced from a pure quarried source (usually marble). Alternatively, calcium oxide is prepared by calcining crude calcium carbonate. Water is added to give calcium hydroxide, and carbon dioxide is passed through this solution to precipitate the desired calcium carbonate, referred to in the industry as precipitated calcium carbonate (PCC): CaCO3 CaO + CO2 CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O GEOLOGY
Carbonate is found frequently in geologic settings. It is found as a polymorph. A polymorph is a mineral with the same chemical formula but different chemical structure. Aragonite, calcite, limestone, chalk, marble, travertine, tufa, and others all have CaCO3 as their formula but each has a slightly different chemical structure. Calcite, as calcium carbonate is commonly referred to in geology is commonly talked about in marine settings. Calcite is typically found around the warm tropic environments. This is due to its chemistry and properties. Calcite is able to precipitate in warmer shallow environments than it does under colder environments because warmer environments do not favour the dissolution of CO2. This is analogous to CO2 being dissolved in soda. When you take the cap off of a soda bottle, the CO2 rushes out. As the soda warms up, carbon dioxide is released. This same principle can be applied to calcite in the ocean. Cold water carbonates do exist at higher latitudes but have a very slow growth rate. In tropic settings, the waters are warm and clear. Consequently, you will see many more coral in this environment than you would towards the poles where the waters are cold. Calcium carbonate contributors such as corals, algae, and microorganisms are typically found in shallow water environments because as filter feeders they require sunlight to produce calcium carbonate. USES Industrial applications The main use of calcium carbonate is in the construction industry, either as a building material in its own right (e.g. marble) or limestone aggregate for roadbuilding or as an ingredient of cement or as the starting material for the preparation of builders lime by burning in a kiln. Calcium carbonate is also used in the purification of iron from iron ore in a blast furnace. Calcium carbonate is calcined in situ to give calcium oxide, which forms a slag with various impurities present, and separates from the purified iron. Calcium carbonate is widely used as an extender in paints, in particular matte emulsion paint where typically 30% by weight of the paint is either chalk or marble. Calcium carbonate is also widely used as a filler in plastics. Some typical examples include around 15 to 20% loading of chalk in unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) drain pipe, 5 to 15% loading of stearate coated chalk or marble in uPVC window profile. PVC cables can use calcium carbonate at loadings of up to 70 phr (parts per hundred parts of resin) to improve mechanical properties (tensile strength and elongation) and electrical properties (volume resistivity). Polypropylene compounds are often filled with calcium carbonate to increase rigidity, a requirement that becomes important at high use temperatures. It also routinely used as a filler in thermosetting resins (Sheet and Bulk moulding compounds) and has also been mixed with ABS, and other ingredients, to form some types of compression molded clay Poker chips.
Fine ground calcium carbonate is an essential ingredient in the microporous film used in babies diapers and some building films as the pores are nucleated around the calcium carbonate particles during the manufacture of the film by biaxial stretching. Calcium carbonate is known as whiting in ceramics/glazing applications, where it is used as a common ingredient for many glazes in its white powdered form. When a glaze containing this material is fired in a kiln, the whiting acts as a flux material in the glaze. It is used in swimming pools as a pH corrector for maintaining alkalinity buffer to offset the acidic properties of the disinfectant agent. It is commonly called chalk as it has traditionally been a major component of blackboard chalk. Modern manufactured chalk is now mostly gypsum, hydrated calcium sulfate CaSO42H2O. HEALTH AND DIETARY APPLICATIONS Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement or antacid. It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia (primarily in patients with chronic renal failure). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert filler for tablets and other pharmaceuticals. Calcium carbonate is used in the production of toothpaste and is also used in homeopathy as one of the constitutional remedies. Also, it has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as organic apples or food. Excess calcium from supplements, fortified food and high-calcium diets, can cause the milk alkali syndrome, which has serious toxicity and can be fatal. In 1915, Bertram Sippy introduced the Sippy regimen of hourly ingestion of milk and cream, and the gradual addition of eggs and cooked cereal, for 10 days, combined with alkaline powders, which provided symptomatic relief for peptic ulcer disease. Over the next several decades, the Sippy regimen resulted in renal failure, alkalosis, and hypercalemia, mostly in men with peptic ulcer disease. These adverse effects were reversed when the regimen stopped, but it was fatal in some patients with protracted vomiting. Milk alkali syndrome declined in men after effective treatments for peptic ulcer disease. A form of food additive is designated as E170. It is used in some soy milk products as a source of dietary calcium; one study suggests that calcium carbonate might be as bioavailable as the calcium in cows milk. 4.SODIUM BICARBONATE Sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate is the chemical compound with the formula NaHCO3. Sodium bicarbonate is a white solid that is crystalline but often appears as a fine powder. It
can be used to experiment and is not very dangerous. It has a slight alkaline taste resembling that of washing soda (sodium carbonate). It is a component of the mineral natron and is found dissolved in many mineral springs. The natural mineral form is known as nahcolite. It is found in its dissolved form in bile, where it serves to neutralize the acidity of the hydrochloric acid produced by the stomach, and is excreted into the duodenum of the small intestine via the bile duct. It is also produced artificially. Since it has long been known and is widely used, the salt has many related names such as baking soda, bread soda, cooking soda, bicarbonate of soda. Colloquially, its name is shortened to sodium bicarb, bicarb soda, or simply bicarb. The word saleratus, from Latin sal ratus meaning aerated salt, was widely used in the 19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. The term has now fallen out of common usage. HISTORY The ancient Egyptians used natural deposits of natron, a mixture consisting mostly of sodium carbonate decahydrate and sodium bicarbonate. The natron was used as a cleansing agent like soap. In 1791, a French chemist, Nicolas Leblanc, produced sodium bicarbonate as we know it today. In 1846 two New York bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church, established the first factory to develop baking soda from sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide. PRODUCTION NaHCO3 is mainly prepared by the Solvay process, which is the reaction of calcium carbonate, sodium chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in water. It is produced on the scale of about 100,000 ton/year (as of 2001).[2] NaHCO3 may be obtained by the reaction of carbon dioxide with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide. The initial reaction produces sodium carbonate: CO2 + 2 NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O Further addition of carbon dioxide produces sodium bicarbonate, which at sufficiently high concentration will precipitate out of solution: Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2 NaHCO3 Commercial quantities of baking soda are also produced by a similar method: soda ash, mined in the form of the ore trona, is dissolved in water and treated with carbon dioxide. Sodium bicarbonate precipitates as a solid from this method:
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2 NaHCO3 CHEMISTRY Sodium bicarbonate is an amphoteric compound. Aqueous solutions are mildly alkaline due to the formation of carbonic acid and hydroxide ion: HCO3 + H2O H2CO3 + OH Sodium bicarbonate can be used as a wash to remove any acidic impurities from a crude liquid, producing a purer sample. Reaction of sodium bicarbonate and an acid to give a salt and carbonic acid, which readily decomposes to carbon dioxide and water: NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + H2CO3 H2CO3 H2O + CO2 (g) Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid (CH3COOH) to form sodium acetate: NaHCO3 + CH3COOH CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 (g) Sodium bicarbonate reacts with bases such as sodium hydroxide to form carbonates: NaHCO3 + NaOH Na2CO3 + H2O Sodium bicarbonate reacts with carboxyl groups in proteins to give a brisk effervescence from the formation of CO2. This reaction is used to test for the presence of carboxylic groups in protein. APPLICATIONS Sodium bicarbonate is primarily used in cooking (baking) where it reacts with other components to release carbon dioxide, that helps dough rise. The acidic compounds that induce this reaction include phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, vinegar, etc. Sodium bicarbonate can be substituted for baking powder provided sufficient acid reagent is also added to the recipe. [3] Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with one or more acidic phosphates (especially good) or cream of tartar. It can also be used for softening peas ( tsp. per pint of water and bring to boil for one hour) Many laboratories keep a bottle of sodium bicarbonate powder within easy reach, because sodium bicarbonate is amphoteric, reacting with acids and bases. Furthermore, as it is relatively innocuous in most situations, there is no harm in using excess sodium bicarbonate. Lastly, sodium bicarbonate powder may be used to smother a small fire.
Sodium bicarbonate is used in an aqueous solution as an antacid taken orally to treat acid indigestion and heartburn. It may also be used in an oral form to treat chronic forms of metabolic acidosis such as chronic renal failure and renal tubular acidosis. Sodium bicarbonate may also be useful in urinary alkalinization for the treatment of aspirin overdose and uric acid renal stones. Sodium bicarbonate can be used to extinguish small grease or electrical fires by being poured or dumped over the fire. However, it should not be poured or dumped onto fires in deep fryers as it may cause the grease to splatter. Sodium bicarbonate is used in BC dry chemical fire extinguishers as an alternative to the more corrosive ammonium phosphate in ABC extinguishers. The alkali nature of sodium bicarbonate makes it the only dry chemical agent, besides Purple-K, that was used in large scale fire suppression systems installed in commercial kitchens. Because it can act as an alkali, the agent has a mild saponification effect on hot grease, which forms a smothering soapy foam. Dry chemicals have since fallen out of favor for kitchen fires as they have no cooling effect compared to the extremely effective wet chemical agents specifically designed for such hazards. 5.BISMUTH SUBSALICYLATE Bismuth subsalicylate, with a chemical formula C7H5BiO4, is a drug used to treat nausea, heartburn, indigestion, upset stomach, diarrhea, and other temporary discomforts of the stomach and gastrointestinal tract. Commonly known as pink bismuth, it is the active ingredient in popular medications such as Pepto-Bismol and modern (since 2003) Kaopectate. PHARMACOLOGY As a derivative of salicylic acid, bismuth salicylate displays anti-inflammatory action and also acts as an antacid. ADVERSE EFFECTS AND CONTRAINDICATIONS There are some adverse effects. It can cause a black tongue and black stools in some users of the drug, when it combines with trace amounts of sulfur in saliva and the gastrointestinal tract. This discoloration is temporary and harmless. Some of the risks of salicylism can apply to the use of bismuth subsalicylate. Children should not take medication with bismuth subsalicylate while recovering from influenza or chicken pox, as epidemiologic evidence points to an association between the use of salicylatecontaining medications during certain viral infections and the onset of Reyes syndrome. For the same reason, it is typically recommended that nursing mothers not use medication containing bismuth subsalicylate (such as Pepto-Bismol) because small amounts of the medication are excreted in breast milk and pose a theoretical risk of Reyes syndrome to nursing children.
RADIOACTIVITY While bismuth is technically radioactive, its half life is so long, on the order of hundreds of billions of years, that its radioactivity presents absolutely no threat under all medical and other ordinary purposes. DECOMPOSITION Bismuth subsalicyclate is the only active ingredient in an over the counter medication that will actually leave a shiny metal slag behind. INVESTIGATORY EXPERIMENT OBJECTIVE : To analyse the given samples of commercial antacids by determining the amount of hydrochloric acid they can neutralize. REQUIREMENTS : Burettes, pipettes, titration flasks, measuring flasks, beakers, weight box, fractional weights, sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein. PROCEDURE : 1. Prepare 1 litre of approximately HCl solution by diluting 10 ml of the concentrated acid for one litre. 2. Similarly, make 1 litre of approximately NaOH solution by dissolving4.0g of NaOH to prepare one litre of solution. 3. Prepare Na2CO3 solution by weighing exactly 1.325 g of anhydrous sodium carbonate and then dissolving it in water to prepare exactly 0.25 litres (250 ml) of solution. 4. Standardize the HCl solution by titrating it against the standard Na2CO3 solution using methyl orange as indicator. 5. Similarly, standardize NaOH solution by titrating it against standardized HCl solution using phenolphthalein as indicator. 6. Powder the various samples of antacid tablets and weigh 1.0 g of each. 7. Add a specific volume of standardised HCl to each of the weighed sample is taken in conical flasks. The acid should be in slight excess, so that it can neutralize all the alkaline component of the tablet.
8. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein and warm the flask till most of powder dissolves. Filter off the insoluble material. 1. 9. Titrate this solution against the standardised NaOH solution, till a permanent pinkish tinge is obtained. Repeat this experiment with different antacids. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS : Standardisation of HCl solution : Volume of Na2CO3 solution taken = 20.0 ml S No. of obs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Burette readings Initial Final 0 ml 15.0 ml 0 ml 15.1 ml 0 ml 15.0 ml 0 ml 15.0 ml 0 ml 15.0ml Volume of acid used 15.0 ml 15.1 ml 15.0 ml 15.0 ml 15.0 ml Standardisation of NaOH solution : Volume of the given NaOH solution taken = 20.0 ml S No. of obs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Burette readings Initial Final 0 ml 26.5 ml 0 ml 26.8 ml 0 ml 26.6 ml 0 ml 26.6 ml 0 ml 26.6ml Volume of acid used 26.5 ml 26.8 ml 26.6 ml 26.6 ml 26.6 ml Analysis of antacid tablet : Weight of antacid tablet powder = 1.0 g Volume of HCl solution added = 20.0 ml Antacid Vol. Of NaOH soln. Used to Vol. Of HCl soln. Used to neutralise Concordant volume = 26.6 ml Applying normality equation, = Concordant volume = 15.0 ml Applying normality equation, N1V1 = N2V2 N1 * 15.0 = * 20 Normality of HCl, N1 = = 0.133 N
11
22
0.133 * 26.6 =
* 20 = = 0.176 N
Normality of NaOH,
neutralise unused HCl 1. Gelusil 2. Digene 3. Aludrox 4. Logas 5. Ranitidine 6. Ocid 20 12.1 ml 16.0 ml 19.3 ml 24.3 ml 21.4 ml 22.7 ml
1.0 g of antacid matter 12.0 ml 16.2 ml 18.9 ml 24.4 ml 21.7 ml 21.9 ml
CONCLUSION : The antacid which has maximum volume of HCl is used for neutralizing i.e. OCID 20 is more effective. THIS PROJECT IS MADE WITH THE HELP OF FOLLOWING LINKS : 1. 1. WEBSITES :
www.wikipedia.org www.google.com www.yahoo.com www.pharmaceutical-drugmanufacturers.com
2. BOOKS :
Comprehensive Practical Manual for class XII Pradeeps New Course Chemistry NCERT Class XII Part II
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1. L August 1st, 2010 at 18:52 | #1 Reply | Quote
thanks a lot u helped me complete my project thanks!!!
2. saurabh September 13th, 2010 at 11:44 | #2 Reply | Quote thanks!!! it helped me alot to complete my project work.

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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Preparation of Potash Alum
Chemistry Project on Preparation of Potash Alum
Preparation of Potash Alum

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT DIST: AMRELI GUJARAT BY:-ANURAG AGARWAL ROLL NO: XII SCI. 2009-2010 PRINCIPAL INTERNALEXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER CERTIFICATE Certificate This is to certify that this project work is submitted by ANURAG AGARWAL to the Chemistry department, Aditya Birla Public School, Kovaya was carried out by him under the guidance & supervision during academic year 2008-2009. Principal Teacher Mrs. Raji Jayaprasad Mr. B.D.KOTWANI Aditya Birla public School (Head of chemistry dept.) Kovaya ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Acknowledgement
I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to Principal, Mrs. Raji Jayaprasad, Aditya Birla public school, kovaya for her encouragement and for all the facilities that she provided for this project work. I sincerely appreciate this magnanimity by taking me into her fold for which I shall remain indebted to her. I extend my hearty thanks to Mr. B.D.KOTWANI, chemistry HOD, who guided me to the successful completion of this project. I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for his invaluable guidance, constant encouragement, constructive comments, sympathetic attitude and immense motivation, which has sustained my efforts at all stages of this project work. I am also thankful to Mr. Pankaj Bajpai who has helped in each step of my project work. I cant forget to offer my sincere thanks to my classmates who helped me to carry out this project work successfully & for their valuable advice & support, which I received from them time to time. ANURAG AGARWAL. DECLARATION Declaration I do hereby declare that this project work has been originally carried under the guidance and supervision of Mr. B.D. KOTWANI, head of chemistry department, Aditya Birla Public School, Kovaya. ANURAG AGARWAL. Roll NO. INDEX Index 1) Certificate (ii) 2) Acknowledgement (iii) 3) Declaration (iv) 4) Dedication (vi) 5) Introduction 07 6) Aim 10
7) Requirements 10 8) Theory 11 9) Reactions 12 10) Procedure 13 11) Observations 15 12) Result 15 13) Bibliography 16 DEDICATION Dedication I DEDICATE THIS PROJECT WORK TO THE LOTUS FEET OF MY FATHER MR.K.M.AGARWAL & MY MOTHER MRS. RAMA AGARWAL INTRODUCTION Introduction Aluminium because of its low density, high tensile strength and resistance to corrosion is widely used for the manufacture of aeroplanes, automobiles lawn furniture as well as for aluminium cans. Being good conductor of electricity it is used for transmission of electricity. Aluminium is also used for making utensils. The recycling of aluminium cans and other aluminium products is a very positive contribution to saving our natural resources. Most of the recycled aluminium is melted and recast into other aluminium metal products or used in the production of various aluminium compounds, the most common of which are the alums. Alums are double sulphates having general formula X2SO4.M2(SO4)3.24H2O
X = Monovalent cation; M = Trivalent cation Some important alum and their names are given below: K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O Potash Alum Na2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O - Soda Alum Introduction K2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3.24H2O Chrome Alum (NH)2SO4.Fe2(SO4)3.24H2O - Ferric Alum Potash alum is used in papermaking, in fire extinguishers, in food stuffs and in purification of water soda alum used in baking powders and chrome alum is used in tanning leather and water proofing fabrics. In addition to these primary uses, alum is also used as 1. An astringent a substance or preparation that draws together or constricts body tissues and is effective in stopping the flow of blood or other secretions. Alum has also been used by conventional hairdressers for treating shaving cuts, 1. A mordant substances used in dyeing to fix certain dyes on cloth. Either the mordant (if it is colloidal) or a colloid produced by the mordant adheres to the fiber, attracting and fixing the colloidal mordant dye. The insoluble, colored precipitate that is formed is called a lake. Alum is a basic mordant used for fixing acid dyes. Introduction 1. For the removal of phosphate from natural and waste waters the aluminium ions of alum combine with the orthophosphate around pH 6 to form the solid aluminum hydroxyphosphate which is precipitated and 1. For fireproofing fabrics The major uses of alums are based on two important properties, namely precipitation of Al(OH)3 and those related to the acidity created by the production of hydrogen ions. Al(H2O)6+3 Al(OH)3 + 3H2O + 3H+
The H+ ions generated are used foe reacting with sodium bicarbonate to release CO 2. This property is made use of in baking powder and CO2 fire extinguishers. AIM Aim To prepare potash alum from aluminium scrap REQUIREMENT Requirement v 250 ml flask v Funnel v Beaker v Scrap aluminium or cola can v Potassium hydroxide solution (KOH) v 6 M Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) v Water Bath v Ethanol THEORY Theory Aluminum metal is treated with hot aqueous KOH solution. Aluminium dissolves as potassium aluminate, KAl(OH)4, salt. 2Al(s) + 2KOH(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2KAl(OH)4 (aq) + 3H2 Potassium aluminate solution on treatment with dil. Sulphuric acid first gives precipitate Al(OH) 3, which dissolves on addition of small excess of H2SO4 and heating. 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) 2Al(OH)3 (s) + K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3 H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq) +6H2O(l) The resulting solution is concentrated to near saturation and cooled. On cooling crystals of potash alum crystallize out. K2SO4(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 24H2O(l) K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O(s) REACTIONS Reactions 2Al(s) + 2KOH (aq) + 6H2O (l) 2KAl (OH)4 (aq) + 3H2 K2SO4(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 24H2O(l) K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O(s) 2Al(OH)3 (s) + 3 H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq) +6H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) 2Al(OH)3 (s) + K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) K2SO4(aq) + Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 24H2O(l) K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O(s) PROCEDURE Procedure
Clean a small piece of scrap aluminium with steel wool and cut it into very small pieces. Aluminium foil may be taken instead of scrap aluminium.
Put the small pieces of scrap aluminium or aluminium foil (about 1.00g) into a conical flask and add about 50 ml of 4 M KOH solution to dissolve the aluminium.
The flask may be heated gently in order to facilitate dissolution. Since during this step hydrogen gas is evolved this step must be done in a well ventilated area.
Continue heating until all of the aluminium reacts. Filter the solution to remove any insoluble impurities and reduce the volume to about 25 ml by heating.
Allow the filtrate to cool. Now add slowly 6 M H2SO4 until insoluble Al(OH)3 just forms in the solution.
Procedure
Gently heat the mixture until the Al(OH)3 precipitate dissolves. Cool the resulting solution in an ice-bath for about 30 minutes whereby alum crystals should separate out. For better results the solution may be left overnight for crystallization to continue.
In case crystals do not form the solution may be further concentrated and cooled again. Filter the crystals from the solution using vacuum pump, wash the crystals with 50/50 ethanol-water mixture.
Continue applying the vacuum until the crystals appear dry. Determine the mass of alum crystals.
OBSERVATION Observation Mass of aluminium metal =.g Mass of potash alum =.g Theoretical yield of potash alum =g Percent yield =% RESULT Result Potash alum of % yield was prepared from aluminium scrap. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bibliography
v iCBSE.com v Wikipedia, v Chemicalland.com v books.google.co.in
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Study the Constituents of an Alloy
Chemistry Project to Study the Constituents of an Alloy
Study Of Constituents Of An Alloy

CHEMISTRY PROJECT AIM- Study Of Constituents Of An Alloy N3m0 Souradip Sen Board roll no- 5664184 Contents PAGE NO 1. Acknowledgement 3/13 2. Introduction 4/13 3. Aim of the experiment 5/13 a- General objective b- Specific objective 1. Materials Required 6/13 2. Theory 7/13 1. Details of procedure and 9/13 Observations 2. Conclusion 12/13 3. Bibliography 13/13 4. Signature 13/13 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I, Souradip Sen of class XLL -C express my gratitude to my school authorities for allowing me to undertake the project titled Alloy Analysis I naturally could not have done justice to my delicate assignment, had I not been privileged to get the animate guidance from Mr.T.N.Dey, Chemistry teacher of Deepika E.M School. I also express sincere thanks to my family who extended helping hand in completing this project. Souradip Sen fitudent Internal External
Examiner Examiner Introduction An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and non-metal. They are generally harder than their components with reduced malleability and ductility. Alloys are prepared to enhance certain characteristics of the constituent metals, as per requirement. In this project, we shall qualitatively anayze the chemical composition of two alloys: J$rass and J$ronze Aim of the Experiment General objective: This project is being carried out with a view to increase the appreciation of alloy-analysis as an important branch of chemistry. The hands-on laboratory experience gained is highly beneficial in understanding the general procedure of qualitative analysis of an unknown sample. Specific objective: In this project, we shall be analyzing the constituents of Brass and Bronze. MATERIALS REQUIRED 1) BRASS AND BRONZE PIECES 2) china dishes 3)) FILTRATION APPARATUS 4) NITRIC ACID 5) HYDROGEN SULPHIDE GAS 7)) AMMONIUM CHLORIDE 8)) POTASSIUM FERROCYANIIDE 9) AMMONIUM SULPHIDE
10) DIL HYDROCHLORIC ACID Theory Brass Brass contains Cu and Zn . Both dissolve in nitric acid. 4Zn+ 10 HNO3= 4Zn{NO)i + N2O + 5HO 3Cu + 8 HNO3= 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4HO+2NO Further analysis is carried out for respective ions. Cu dissolves in H2S to give black ppt. of CuS. It is filtered to get the soln of Zinc Sulphide. It precipitates out in the form of ZnCl2 in an ammoniacal soln. of Ammonium chloride. The precipitate is dissolved in dilute HCl and then treated with Potassium ferrocyanide to get a bluish-white ppt. of Zn2[Fe(CN)6]. Bronze Bronze contains Cu and Sn. Their nitrates are obtained by dissolving the sample in conc. Nitric acid. The nitrates are precipitated as sulphides by passing H2S through their solution in dil. HCl. The CuS is insoluble in yellow ammonium sulphide, while SnS is soluble. The ppt. is separated by filtration. The ppt. is dissolved in cone HNO3 and then Ammonium hydroxide solution is passed through it.Blue colouration confirms the presense of Cu. The filtrate is treated with conc. HCl followed by Zinc dust to obtain SnCl2 . Then HgCl2 solution is added. Formation of slate-coloured ppt. indicates the presence of Sn. SnS2 +HCl(conc)= SnCh + H2S SnCl4 +Fe= SnCh+FeCh SnCl2 + HgCl2 = Hg2Cl2 + SnCh Detail of Procedure/Observations Brass,: 1. 1. A small piece of brass was placed in a china dish and dissolved in minimum quantity of 50%conc.1UOs. 2. 2. The soln. was heated to obtain a dry residue. The residue was dissolved in Dilute H(?l.
gas was passed and a black.ppt. was (observed. The soln. was filtered and the ppt. was dissolved in NH4OH soln. A blue coloration observed indicates the presence of Cu. 4. The filtrate was tested for presence of Zn. Ammonium hydroxide and chloride solutions were added and then H2S gas was passed. A dull grey ppt. was separated and dissolved in dil. H(l followed by addition of Potassium ferrocyanide. A bluish white ppt. confirms the presense of Zn. Bronfe: 1. 1. The sample was dissolved in 50% HNO3 and then heated to obtain nitrates. 2. 2. The nitrates were dissolved in dil. H(l and then precipitated as sulphides by passing H2S gas. 1. 3. The precipitates were treated with yellow amm.sulphide when a part of it dissolves. The soln. was filtered. 2. 4. The ppt. was tested for Cu as in the case of brass. 5. The filtrate was treated with conc. HCl followed by Fe dust. 6. Then HgCl2 soln. was added. Formation of a slate-coloured ppt. confirmed the presence of Sn. Conclusion Brass contains Copper and Bronze contains Copper and Tin. Bibliography 1. 1. Comprehensive practical Chemistry- Class 12. 2. Inorganic Chemistry by
3. www.niton.com 1. 4. VMw.alloyanalyzer.niit.edu Signatures: fitudeni Internal External Examiner Examiner
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Prepare Rayon Threads From Filter Paper
Chemistry Project to Prepare Rayon Threads From Filter Paper
Prepare cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper

2009-2010 Chemistry Investigatory Project Ravindra Singh XllScB Army public School, Jaipur This is to certify that Ravindra Singh, student of class xu B, Army Public School has completed the project titled To prepare a sample of cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper during the academic year 2009-2010 towards partial fulfillment of credit for the chemistry practical evaluation of Aissc$ 2010, and submitted satisfactory report, as compiled in the following pages, under my supervision. This project is absolutely genuine and does not indulge in plagiarism of any kind. The references taken in making this project have been declared at the end of this report. Mr. Brajesh Pandit (ead of Department chemistry Army Public School,jaipur There are tinges when silence speaks so much more loudly than words of praise to onlyy as good as belittle a person, whose words do not express, but onlyy put a veneer over true feelings, which are of gratitude at this point of time. \ would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry men-tor Mr. Brajesh Pandit, for his vital support, guidance and encouragement -without which this project would not have come forth. ( would also like to express my gratitude to the staff of the Department of chemistry at Army Public School for their support during the making of this project. Aim To prepare a sample of cuprammonium rayon threads from filter paper Apparatus Required
a) Conical flask (preferably 250 ml) b) Funnel c) Glass rod d) Beaker (preferably 250 ml) e) Water bath f) Filter paper (Whatman paper or ordinary filter paper sheets. Preferably, Whatman) Chemicals Required a) CuSO4 b) NaOH solution c) Liquor ammonia solution d) Dilute H2SO4 e) Whatman Paper f) Distilled H2O Background Rayon is a synthetic fiber produced from cellulose. Developed in an attempt to produce silk chemically, it was originally called artificial silk or wood silk. Rayon is a regenerated fiber, because cellulose is converted to a liquid compound and then back to cellulose in the form of fiber. For example, cuprammonium rayon is made by dissolving cellulose in an ammoniacal copper sulphate solution. The characteristics of rayon fibers are: s They are highly absorbent, s Soft and comfortable, s Easy to dye & s Drape well.
Introduction Cellulose is natures own giant molecule. It is the fibrous material that every plant from seaweed to the sequoia makes by baking glucose molecules in long chains; the chains are bound together in the fibers that give plants their shape and strength. Wood has now become the main source of cellulose. Since it contains only 40% to 50% cellulose, the substance must be extracted by pulping. The logs are flaked, and then simmered in chemicals that dissolve the tarry lignin, resins and minerals. The remaining pulp, about 93% cellulose, is dried and rolled into sheets-raw material for paper, rayon and other products. It can be obtained in 2 ways: 1. Viscose Process: Cellulose is soaked in 30% caustic soda solution for about 3 hrs. The alkali solution is removed and the product is treated with CSi. This gives cellulose xanthate, which is dissolved in NaOH solution to give viscous solution. This is filtered and forced through a spinneret into a dilute H2SO4 solution, both of which harden the gumlike thread into rayon fibers. The process of making viscose was discovered by C.F.Cross and EJ.Bevan in 1891. 2. Cuprammonium Rayon: Cuprammonium rayon is obtained by dissolving pieces of filter paper in a deep blue solution containing tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide. The latter is obtained from a solution of copper sulphate. To it, NH)OH solution is added to precipitate cupric hydroxide, which is then dissolved in excess of NH/. Reactions: CUSO4+ 2NH4OH Cu(OH)2+ (NH4)2S04 Pale blue ppt Cu(OH) 2 + 4NH4OH [Cu(NH3) 4](0H) 2 + 4H2O [Cu(NH3) 4](0H) Procedure A. Preparation of Schweitzers Solution: a) Way20gofCuSO).5H20. b) Transfer this to a beaker having 100ml distilled water and add 15ml of dilute H2SO4 to prevent hydrolysis of CuSO). + pieces of filter paper left for 10-15 days give a viscous solution called VISCOSE.
c) Stir it with a glass rod till a clear solution is obtained. Add 11ml of liquor ammonia drop by drop with slow stirring. The precipitate of cupric hydroxide is separated out. d) Filter the solution containing cupric hydroxide through a funnel with filter paper. e) Wash the precipitate of cupric hydroxide with water until the filtrate fails to give a positive test for sulphate ions with barium chloride solution. f) Transfer the precipitate to a beaker that contains 50ml of liquor ammonia or wash it down the funnel. The precipitate when dissolved in liquor ammonia gives a deep blue solution of tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide. This is known as SCHWEITZERS SOLUTION. B. Preparation of Cellulose material a) After weighing 2g of filter paper divide it into very fine pieces and then transfer these pieces to the tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide solution in the beaker. b) Seal the flask and keep for 10 to 15 days, during this period the filter paper is dissolved completely. C. Formation of Ravon Thread a) Take 50ml of distilled water in a glass container. To this add 20ml of conc H2SO4 drop by drop. Cool the solution under tap water. In a big glass container pour some of the solution. b) Fill the syringe with cellulose solution prepared before. c) Place the big glass container containing H2SO4 solution produced before in ice (the reaction being spontaneous results in excess release of energy in the form of heat which makes the fibers weak and breaks them). d) Immerse the tip of the syringe in the solution and press gently. Notice the fibers getting formed in the acid bath. Continue to move your hand and keep pressing the syringe to extrude more fibers into the bath. e) Leave the fibers in solution till they decolorize and become strong enough. f) Filter and wash with distilled water. Precautions a) Addition of excess NH/ should be avoided.
b) Before taking the viscose in the syringe make sure that it does not contain any particles of paper, otherwise, it would clog the needle of the syringe. c) Addition of NH/ should be done in a fume cupboard and with extreme care. The fumes if inhaled may cause giddiness. d) Use a thick needle otherwise the fibers wont come out. Bibliography Chemistry (Part I) - Textbook for Class XII; National Council of Educational Research and Training Together With Lab Manual Chemistry XII; Bharti Bhawan (Publishers & Distributors) Comprehensive Chemistry Lab Manual XII Chemistry Projects Wikipedia The free encyclopedia Rayon Fiber
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1. bond September 17th, 2010 at 12:37 | #1 Reply | Quote viscose was added to hot sulphuric acid now it breaks,how to make it strong???
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Preparation of Soyabean Milk
Project on preparation soyabean milk and its comparison with the natural milk
This is to certify that Master Hiren P Patel ,A student of class XII of the Atomic Energy Central School, Roll No.: 07 session 2009-2010, has satisfactorily completed the required chemistry project work as per the syllabus of Standard XII in the laboratory of the school. Date: Chemistry Teacher (Mr.R K Sawhney) Principals Signature External examiners Signature I selected this project as a part of my studies, titled PREAPARATION OF SOYABEAN MILK AND ITS COMPARISION WITH NATURAL MILK. As a gratitude, I convey my sincere thanks to Mr.R K Sawhney and Lab. Assistant Smt. Raksha Pandya who was the constant guide during the period of study and without whose help it would not have been possible for us to complete this project. HIREN P PATEL XII-B (SCIENCE) 2009-2010 Project 55: Aim: Preparation of soya bean milk and its comparison with the natural milk with respect to curd formation, effect of temperature and taste. Theory:
Natural milk is an opaque white fluid secreted by the mammary glands of female mammal. The main constituents of natural milk are proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, fats and water and are a complete balanced diet. Fresh milk is sweetish in taste.
However, when it is kept for a long time at a temperature of 35 5 0C it becomes sour because of bacteria present in air.
These bacteria convert lactose of milk starts separating out as a precipitate.
When the acidity in milk is sufficient and temperature is around 36 0C, it forms semi-solid mass, called curd. Soya bean milk is made from soya beans. It resembles natural milk.
The main constituents of soya bean milk are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins. It is prepared by keeping soya beans dipped in water for sometime.

Materials required:
The swollen soya beans are then crushed to a paste which is then mixed with water. The solution is filtered and filtrate is soya bean milk.
Beakers, pestle and mortar, measuring cylinder, glass-rod, tripod-stand, thermometer, muslin cloth, burner. Soya beans, buffalo milk, fresh curd, distilled water. Procedure:
Soak about 100 g of soya beans in sufficient amount of water for 24 hours.
o o o o
Take out swollen soya beans and grind them to a very fine paste with a pestle-mortar. Add about 250 ml of water to this paste and filter it through a muslin cloth. Clear white filtrate is soya bean milk. Compare its taste with buffalo milk.
Take 50 ml of buffalo milk in three beakers and heat the beakers to 30 0, 400 and 500 C respectively. Add spoonful curd to each of the beakers and leave the beakers undisturbed for 8 hours and curd is ready. Similarly, take 50 ml of soya bean milk in three other beakers and heat the beakers to 300,400 and 500 C respectively. Add
1
spoonful curd to each of these beakers. Leave the beakers
4 undisturbed for 8 hours and curd is formed. Type of milk Buffalo milk Beaker no 1 2 Temperature 300C 400C Quality of curd Taste of curd
3 4 Soya bean milk 5 6
500C 300C
400C 500C
Result: For buffalo milk, the best temperature for the formation of good quality and tasty curd is oC and for soya bean milk, it is . oC.
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project on Study of Rate of Fermentation of Juices
Chemistry Project on Study of Rate of Fermentation of Juices
Study the rates of fermentation of fruit or vegetable juices

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry mentor Mrs. Harsh Kumar Mishra, for his vital support, guidance and encouragement -without which this project would not have come forth. BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE Certified to be the bonafide work done by Mr. / Miss ______________________ of class________ in the _______________ during the year _____________ Date __________. Prabhat Public School K-Block Sarvodaya nagar Kanpur Submitted for ALL INDIA SENIOR SECONDARY EXAMINATION held in ___________________at Prabhat Public Senior Secondary School, Kanpur. Examiner DATE-________________ INDEX S.No. 1. 2. CONTENTS Objective Introduction Page No. 4 5
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Theory Experiment 1 Experiment 2 Observation Result Bibliography
6 8 9 11 12 13
OBJECTIVE The Objective of this project is to study the rates of fermentation of the following fruit or vegetable juices. 1. i. Apple juice 2. ii. Carrot juice
(1) INTRODUCTION Fermentation is the slow decomposition of complex organic compound into simpler compounds by the action of enzymes. Enzymes are complex organic compounds, generally proteins. Examples of fermentation are: souring of milk or curd, bread making, wine making and brewing. The word Fermentation has been derived from Latin (Ferver which means to boil).As during fermentation there is lot of frothing of the liquid due to the evolution of carbon dioxide, it gives the appearance as if it is boiling. Sugars like glucose and sucrose when fermented in the presence of yeast cells are converted to ethyl alcohol. During fermentation of starch, starch is first hydrolysed to maltose by the action of enzyme diastase. The enzyme diastase is obtained from germinated barley seeds. Fermentation is carried out at a temperature of 416 C (4060 F). This is low for most kinds of fermentation, but is beneficial for cider as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate aromas. Apple based juices with cranberry also make fine ciders; and many other fruit pures or
flavorings can be used, such as grape, cherry, and raspberry. The cider is ready to drink after a three month fermentation period, though more often it is matured in the vats for up to two or three years. THEORY Louis Pasteur in 1860 demonstrated that fermentation is a purely physiological process carried out by living micro-organism like yeast. This view was abandoned in 1897 when Buchner demonstrated that yeast extract could bring about alcoholic fermentation in the absence of any yeast cells. He proposed that fermenting activity of yeast is due to active catalysts of biochemical origin. These biochemical catalyst are called enzymes. Enzymes are highly specific. A given enzyme acts on a specific compound or a closely related group of compounds. Fermentation has been utilized for many years in the preparation of beverages. Materials from Egyptian tombs demonstrate the procedures used in making beer and leavened bread. The history of fermentation, whereby sugar is converted to ethanol by action of yeast, is also a history of chemistry. Van Helmont coined the word iogaslt in 1610 to describe the bubbles produced in fermentation. Leeuwenhoek observed and described the cells of yeast with his newly invented microscope in 1680. The fruit and vegetable juices contain sugar such as sucrose, glucose and fructose. These sugars on fermentation in the presence of the enzymes invertase and zymase give with the evolution of carbon dioxide. Maltose is converted to glucose by enzyme maltose. Glucose is converted to ethanol by another enzyme zymase Invertase C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 Sucrose Glucose Fructose Zymase C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Glucose Fructose Ethanol Diastase 2(C6H1005)n + nH20 nC12H22O11 Starch Maltose Maltose
C12H22O11 + H2O 2C6H12O6 Maltose Glucose Zymase C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 Glucose Ethyl alcohol Glucose is a reducing sugar and gives red coloured precipitates with Fehlings solution, when warmed. When the fermentation is complete, the reaction mixture stops giving any red colour or precipitate with Fehling solution. EXPERIMENT-1 REQUIREMENTS Conical flasks (250 ml), test tubes and water bath, Apple juice and Fehlings solution. PROCEDURE 1. Take 5.0 ml of apple juice in a clean 250 ml conical flask and dilute it with 50 ml of distilled water. 2. Add 2.0 gram of Bakers yeast and 5.0 ml of solution of Pasteurs salts to the above conical flask. 3. Shake well the contents of the flask and maintain the temperature of the reaction mixture between 35-40C. 4. After 10minutes take 5 drops of the reaction mixture from the flask and add to a test tube containing 2 ml of Fehling reagent. Place the test tube in the boiling water bath for about 2 minutes and note the colour of the solution or precipitate. 5. Repeat the step 4 after every 10 minutes when the reaction mixture stops giving any red colour or precipitate. 6. Note the time taken for completion of fermentation EXPERIMENT-2 REQUIREMENTS Conical flasks (250 ml), test tubes and water bath, Carrot juice and Fehlings solution.
PROCEDURE 1. Take 5.0 ml of carrot juice in a clean 250 ml conical flask and dilute it with 50 ml of distilled water. 2. Add 2.0 gram of Bakers yeast and 5.0 ml of solution of Pasteurs salts to the above conical flask. 3. Shake well the contents of the flask and maintain the temperature of the reaction mixture between 35-40C. 4. After 10minutes take 5 drops of the reaction mixture from the flask and add to a test tube containing 2 ml of Fehling reagent. Place the test tube in the boiling water bath for about 2 minutes and note the colour of the solution or precipitate. 5. Repeat the step 4 after every 10 minutes when the reaction mixture stops giving any red colour or precipitate. 6. Note the time taken for completion of fermentation. Pasteurs Salt Solution Pasteur salt solution is prepared by dissolving ammonium tartrate 10.0g; potassium phosphate 2.0 g; calcium phosphate 0.2g, and magnesium sulphate 0.2 g dissolved in 860ml of water OBSERVATION Volume of fruit juice taken = 5.0 ml Volume of distilled water added = 50.0 ml Weight of Bakers yeast added = 2.0 g Volume of solution of Pasteurs salts = 5.0 ml Time (in minutes) 10 20 30 40 60 RESULTS Colour of reaction mixture on reaction with Fehling Solution in case of
The rate of fermentation of apple juice is than the rate of fermentation of carrot juice.
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Home > Chemistry > Chemistry Project to Compare Rate of Fermentation
Chemistry Project to Compare Rate of Fermentation
TO COMPARE RATE OF FERMENTATION OF GIVEN SAMPLE OF WHEAT FLOUR,GRAM FLOUR,RICE FLOUR AND POTATO
CHEMISTRY PROJECT :AIM: TO COMPARE RATE OF FERMENTATION OF GIVEN SAMPLE OF WHEAT FLOUR,GRAM FLOUR,RICE FLOUR AND POTATO. SUBMITTED BY :NAME: Tanuja naik CLASS:XII A ROLL NO: 10 INDEX # AIM # CERTIFICATE # ACKNOWLEDGEMENT # DECLARATION # OBJECTIVE # INTRODUCTION # MATERIALS REQUIRED
# PROCEDURE # OBSERVATIONS # BIBLIOGRAPHY :AIM: To compare the rate of fermentation of given sample of wheat flour,gram flour,rice flour and potato using yeast. CERTIFICATE This is to certify that this project is submitted by TANUJA NAIK to the chemistry department,DEEPIKA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL,ROURKElA was carried out by her under the guidance and supervision of MS. SMRUTI BEHERA during academic session 2009-2010. Date: MS. SMRUTI BEHERA (Chemistry teacher) External Examiner:Internal Examiner:ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to MS. MANJULA ROY,DEEPIKA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL,ROURKELA for her encouragement and for all the facilities that she provided for this project work.I sincerely appreciate this magnanemityby taking me into her fold for which i shall remain indebted to her. I extend my hearty thanks to MS. SMRUTI BEHERA,Chemistry Teacher who guided me to do this project successful completion of thus project.I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude for her invalueable guidance,constant encouragement,constructive comments,sympathetic attitude and immense motivationb which has sustainedmy effort at all stages of this project work. TANUJA NAIK
DECLARATION I do hereby declare that this project work has been originally carried under the guidance and supervision of MS. SMRUTI BEHERA,DEEPIKA ENGLISH MEDIUM SCHOOL,ROURKELA. TANUJA NAIK OBJECTIVE The purpose of the experiment is to compare the rate of fermentation ofthe given samples of wheat flour,gram flour, rice flour and potatoes. I became interested in this idea when i saw some experiments on fermentation and wanted to find out some scientific facts about fermentation.The primary benefit of fermentation is the conversion of sugars and other carbohydrates,e.g., converting juice into wine, grains into beer, carbohydrates into carbon dioxide to leaven bread, and sugars in vegetables into preservative organic acids. INTRODUCTION Fermentation typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria, or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. A more restricted definition of fermentation is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol. The science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desirable, and the process is used to produce alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and cider. Fermentation is also employed in preservation techniques to create lactic acid in sour foods such as sauerkraut, dry sausages, kimchi and yoghurt, or vinegar for use in pickling foods. Fermentation in food processing typically is the conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts, bacteria or a combination thereof, under anaerobic conditions. A more restricted definition of fermentation is the chemical conversion of sugars into ethanol. The science of fermentation is known as zymology. Fermentation usually implies that the action of microorganisms is desirable, and the process is used to produce alcoholic beverages such as wine , beer, and cider. Fermentation is also employed in preservation techniques to create lactic acid in sour foods such as sauerkraut , dry sausages, kimchi and yogurt, or vinegar (acetic acid) for use in pickling foods.
History
Since fruits ferment naturally, fermentation precedes human history. Since ancient times, however, humans have been controlling the fermentation process. The earliest evidence of winemaking dates from eight thousand Years ago in Georgia, in the Caucasus area. Seven thousand years ago jars containing the remains of wine have been excavated in the Zagros Mountains in Iran, which are now on display at the University of Pennsylvania.There is strong evidence that people were fermenting beverages in Babylon circa 5000 BC, ancient Egypt circa 3150 BC, pre-Hispanic Mexico circa 2000 BC,and Sudan circa 1500 BC.There is also evidence of leavened bread in ancient Egypt circa1500 BC and of milk fermentation in Babylon circa 3000 BC.French chemist Louis Pasteur was the first known zymologist, when in 1854 he connected yeast to fermentation. Pasteur originally defined fermentation as respiration without air. Contributions to biochemistry
When studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeastLouis Pasteur concluded that the fermentation was catalyzed by a vital force, called ferments, within the yeast cells.The ferments were thought to function only within living organisms. Alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells,he wrote.Nevertheless, it was known that yeast extracts ferment sugar even in the absence of living yeast cells. While studying thisprocess in 1897, Eduard Buchner of Humboldt University of Berlin, Germany, found that sugar was fermented even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture , by a yeast secretion that he termed zymase. In 1907 hereceived the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his research and discovery of cell-free fermentation.One year prior, in 1906, ethanol fermentation studies led to the early discovery of NAD+.
Uses
Food fermentation has been said to serve five main purposes: # Enrichment of the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food substrates # Preservation of substantial amounts of food through lactic acid, alcohol, acetic acid and alkaline fermentations # Biological enrichment of food substrates with protein, essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, and vitamins # Elimination of ant nutrients. # A decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements
Risks of consuming fermented foods

Food that is improperly fermented has a notable risk of exposing the eater to botulism. Alaska has witnessed a steady increase of cases of botulism since 1985. Despite its small population, it has more cases of botulism than any other state in the United States of America.This is caused by the traditional Eskimo practice of allowing animal products such as whole fish, fish heads, walrus, sea lion and whale flippers, beaver tails, seal oil, birds, etc., to ferment for an extended period of time before being consumed. The risk is exacerbated when a plastic container is used for this purpose instead of the old-fashioned method,
grass-lined hole, as the botulinum bacteria thrive in the anaerobic conditions created by the air-tight enclosure in plastic. Safety of Fermented Foods Fermented foods generally have a very good safety record even in the developing world where the foods are manufactured by people without training in microbiology or chemistry in unhygienic,contaminated environments. They are consumed by hundreds of millions of people every day in both the developed and the developing world. And they have an excellent safety record.What is there about fermented foods that contributes to safety?While fermented foods are themselves generally safe, it should be noted that fermented foods by themselves do not solve the problems of contaminated drinking water, environments heavily contaminated with human waste, improper personal hygiene in food handlers, flies carrying disease organisms, unfermented foods carrying food poisoning or human pathogens and unfermented foods, even when cooked if handled or stored improperly.Also improperly fermented foods can be unsafe. However, application of the principles that lead to the safety of fermented foods could lead to an improvement in the overall quality and the nutritional value of the food supply, reduction of nutritional diseases and greater resistance to intestinal and other diseases in infants. Theory Wheat flour,gram flour,rice flour and potatoes contains starch as the major constituent.Starch present in these food materials is first brought into solution.in the presence of enzyme diastase,starch undergo fermentation to give maltose. Starch gives blue-violet colour with iodine whereas product of fermentation starch donot give any characteristic colour. When the fermentation is complete the reaction mixture stops giving blue-violet colour with iodine solution.
By comparing the time required for completion of fermentation of equal amounts of different substances containing starch the rates of fermentation can be compared.The enzyme diastase is obtained by germination of moist barley seeds in dark at 15 degree celsius.When the germination is complete the temperature is raised to 60 degree celsius to stop further growth.The seeds are crushed into water and filtered.The filtrate contains enzyme diastase and is called malt extract. MATERIALS REQUIRED # Conical flask # Test tube # Funnel # Filter paper # Water bath # 1 % Iodine solution # Yeast # Wheat flour # Gram flour # Rice flour # Potato # Aqueuos NaCl solution PROCEDURE # Take 5 gms of wheat flour in 100 ml conical flask and add 30 ml of distilled water. # Boil the contents of the flask for about 5 minutes # Filter the above contents after cooloing, the filtrate obtained is wheat flour extract.
# To the wheat flour extract. taken in a conical flask. Add 5 ml of 1% aq. NaCl solution. # Keep this flask in a water bath maintained at a temperature of 50-60 degree celsius.Add 2 ml of malt extract. # After 2 minutes take 2 drops of the reaction mixture and add to diluted iodine solution. # Repeat step 6 after every 2 minutes.When no bluish colour is produced the fermentation is complete. # Record the total time taken for completion of fermentation. # Repeat the experiment with gram flour extract,rice flour extract, potato extract and record the observations OBSERVATIONS Time required for the fermentation# Wheat flour 10 hours # Gram flour 12.5 hours # Rice flour 15 hours # Potato 13 hours CONCLUSION Rice flour takes maximum time for fermentation and wheat flour takes the minimum time for fermentation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ] # Wikipedia-the free enclyclopedia # Chemistry manual # Website:- www.icbse.com
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3. Garima Bhardwaj 4. Saurabh 5. Swathi

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