LAST SECTION MODULE QS MODULE-37 Human cells come in different sizes and shapes.

Cells of the immune system protect you from the outside world. What are cells originating from white blood cells that kill infected host cells by piercing holes in the host-cell membranes called? Natural killer cells In our first line of defense, skin keeps microbes out on the surface by providing a nearly impenetrable physical barrier. In addition, it produces a powerful hydrolytic enzyme that keeps microbes away. What is the name of this enzyme? Lysozyme Viruses such as the flu virus can enter through the respiratory tract so cells of the lining of the respiratory tract secrete sticky mucus that trap microbes before they can reach the lungs. What do we call the organelles found along these lining and responsible for guarding and removing these microbes? Cilia The inflammatory response is carefully controlled and mediated by many biological factors because if it malfunctions, it can damage healthy tissue. Name the most common manifestation of infection and inflammation. A fever Which of the following does NOT contribute to the feelings of a sore throat? (According to Dr. Okumura's Science and You) Antibody-mediated clearance of the pathogen Define an antigen. A chemical substance capable of stimulating an immune response Many different cells constitute the immune system. However, they all arise from a common early precursor cell that also produces red blood cells. What do we call these cells? Hematopoietic stem cell Most microorganisms are not pathogenic and coexist with humans. However, a small percentage of these microbes can be lethal. What is a classic example of a disease caused by a protozoan? Malaria What is the largest organ in the human and body and what is its function? The skin and serves as a barrier

The immune system is run by a very effective network of cells derived from lymphoid organs. What are the primary lymphoid organs? Thymus and bone marrow

MODULE-38 Innate immunity and adaptive immunity have a close relationship in order to carefully defend you from pathogens. However, they play different roles in the process. What is a key feature of adaptive immunity? Its ability to recognize specific pathogens Three elements that allow the adaptive immune system to be a successful protector are: Specificity, adaptiveness and memory The spleen belongs to the secondary peripheral lymphoid organs and it is found in the upper left quadrant of the human abdomen. It also weights about 150 grams, a rather small organ. What is the function of the spleen? In addition to stimulating an immune response, it filters the blood to remove abnormal red cells and invading microorganisms The adaptive immune system uses various strategies to kill attacking microbes. Two of these mechanisms are cell-mediated immunity and humoral immunity. What is cell-mediated immunity? Refers to macrophages engulfing antigens, and displaying parts of them on their surface There are two types of white blood cells that comprise the adaptive immune system. These cells can remember the microbes they encounter by recognizing very specific cell surface markers on those microbes. What are these cells? T-cells and B-cells A Y-shaped molecule composed of two identical light chains (short in the outer structure) and two identical heavy chains (long). They are extremely specific when biding to antigens. What is this molecule? B-cell receptor Put the following events of antibody formation in order: (According to Dr. Okumura's Science and You) 1. Antigen binds to B cells. 2. T helper cells develop following stimulus from a macrophage displaying an antigen. 3. B cells secrete antibodies into the bloodstream. 4. T helper cells bind to B cells. 5. T helper cells secrete molecules that stimulate the B cells to divide and become plasma cells.

2, 1, 4, 5, 3 The immune system is made out of a team of cells distributed throughout the body, but these cells can be found in pockets of tissue where they mature and circulate in a vigilant mode. In addition, during infection this organ expands due to B-cell proliferation. Name this organ. Lymph node During the cell developing process T and B cell clones that would respond to self-antigens are eliminated or suppressed. What is this proper procedure known as? Natural immunological tolerance Name one direct weapon used by microbes against the adaptive immune system. Antigen shifting

MODULE-39 The main tool used to diagnose infectious diseases is microbiological culture. A sample is taken from potentially diseased tissue or fluid and tested for the presence of an infectious agent. Name the medium used to grow most pathogenic bacteria. A nutrient called agar Opportunistic diseases are typically caused by microbes that are in contact with the host. For instance, they are responsible for killing AIDS patients. These microbes belong to an opportunistic agent group. What is the other important group called? Primary pathogens Sexually transmitted diseases are very successful at spreading from one person to another. Name one important reason for this fact. Mucous membranes differ from skin in that they allow certain pathogens into the body Infectious diseases are spread throughout the world. Name the agents responsible for causing human illnesses. Pathogenic microbial agents The most deadly STD is HIV, but many other viruses can be deadly. Name the most common sexually transmitted infection. Human papilloma virus (HPV) In order to avoid the spread of infectious diseases several measurements can be taken? Washing your hands prior to eating is a good way of preventing the spread of flu viruses. Name an important method for avoiding H. Pylori. Making sure your food and water come from clean sources

Over the past 100 years our society has made great advances in the discovery and implementation of medications such as antibiotics. However, we have had a rise in bacterial resistance. Name one of the most important reasons for this problem. Overuse of antibiotics The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas forces animals to live in dense populations and creates opportunities for microbes to mutate generating what type of microbes? Superbugs following the antigenic shift theory Swine flu was declared a pandemic sometime in June of 2009. This virus had extended the globe rapidly. Many countries were taking serious precautions such as checking body temperatures at airports and quarantined all those individuals with temperatures higher than 100 degrees F. Identified were the only two known antivirals effective for treatment: Zanamivir and Tamiflu In 2009, The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention announced the threat of a new virus. The WHO declared it a pandemic in the early summer of 2009? What pathogen was described? H1N1 Two of the greatest discoveries of the 20th Century was the discovery of the enzyme lysozyme in 1923 which we use to protect our bodies from bacteria, and the discovery of an antibiotic substance known as penicillin from the fungus Penicillium notatum in 1928. Who was responsible for these achievements? Alexander Fleming What specific term refers to the genetic strain that enables a flu strain to jump from one animal species to another, including humans? Antigenic shift Sir Alexander Fleming was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. Fleming published many articles on bacteriology, immunology and chemotherapy. What is he known for? Discovery of penicillin A retrovirus known as Human Immunodeficiency Virus causes AIDS. What is HIV considered? A Pandemic disease

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Which of the following does the HIV virus have: Capsid What is the function of Reverse Transcriptase? To make a DNA copy of the viral RNA. ______________ recognize and bind foreign antigens. T-lymphocytes A patient comes into the doctors office for a routine check-up. A blood test reveals that the patient is HIV positive. However, the patient is experiencing no major signs of illness. The patient is in what stage of HIV infection. Clinically asymptomatic stage Shirley is taking on anti-retroviral drug. After a few months, the drug stops working. Why is this? HIV mutated and became resistant to the drug How does an Integrase inhibitor work against the HIV virus? It prevents viral DNA from being inserted into host DNA. How does a Protease inhibitor work to treat HIV infection? It prevents the release of new viral particles. An HIV infected person is in the asymptomatic stage. Because they are experiencing no symptoms and are on multiple antiretroviral treatments, they go on to have unprotected sex. Does this person still remain infectious? Yes _________ on the HIV virus attaches to ______on the host cell . gp120, CD4 HIV is transmitted through: sexual contact, blood, and pregnancy

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MODULE-42 Glucose is the primary source of energy for the cells. Your blood glucose level ________ after a meal. increases

Frank has not eaten all day. In order to maintain enough energy for his body, his _________ begins to break down __________ in order to make more ________, a process known as _______________. liver, glycogen, glucose, gluconeogenesis In the pancreas, __________ cells produce insulin and _________ produce glucagon. beta, alpha A patient comes into the clinic and tests reveal that they have autoantibodies that attack the beta cells of the pancreas and therefore, this patient lacks the production of ___________. This patient has ______ diabetes. insulin, Type I Over the past few years, Shirley had an increase in thirst, hunger, and fatigue. She is also starting to have blurred vision. When she goes to the doctor, the doctor tells her that she is insulin resistant. She has ____________ diabetes. Type II What are the main roles of adipose tissue? Store fat and insulate the body Name the most popular causes of obesity. excessive caloric intake, and lack of physical activity Obese patients suffer from many health complications such as diabetes and heart disease. However, one of their silent challenges is: feelings of depression and rejection The plate method is a diet that helps you lose weight and maintain a healthy weight. How is the food distributed? 50% fruits/vegetables, 25% protein, 25% carbohydrates Sally was pregnant and developed diabetes. She most likely has __________ diabetes. Gestational The _________ secretes _____________ when blood glucose levels are high in order to lower blood glucose levels. pancreas, insulin Once glucose is release into the blood stream, insulin is discharged from the pancreas and All of these Causes GLUT-4 to translocate to the plasma membrane Binds to its receptor on target cells

Causes glucose influx into the cell It is well known that Diabetes has a profound effect on the circulatory system. It can cause both macrovascular and microvascular disease. What are some of the complications associated with microvascular problems? diabetic neuropathy, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy What are the components of adipose tissue? fat cells The body mass index is defined as an individuals body weight divided the square of his or her height Medications for Type II Diabetes are designed to: Increase the sensitivity (response) of cells to insulin Michael has proteinuria, this is a hallmark symptom for: Diabetic nephropathy

MODULE-43 Select the three basic rules of ecology. Everything must go somewhere. There is no such thing as a free lunch. Everything is connected to everything else. "Cleaner fish" are small fish that live in close association with bigger fish. "Cleaner fish" remove harmful microbes from the larger fishes skin, and the big fish provides the "cleaner fish" with a safe place to live. Which type of relationship is this? Mutualism A flea attached to a dog's back and deriving its nutrients from the dog's blood engages in which kind of relationship with the dog? Parasitism In photosynthesis, there is sunlight, Co2, H20, minerals, and plant sugars.... what else is missing? Oxygen ________________ are able to carry out photosynthesis and make all earth's energy. Primary producers _______________ capture energy from the sun and convert this energy into organic matter. They provide all of earth's energy.

Primary producers Refer to figure 5, what does it say in the middle green box? Mutualism The organisms in figure 6 are engaged in mutualism, which is ________. (Select ALL that apply) a relationship in which both organisms benefit a type of symbiosis The organisms Figure 7 are engaged in commensalism, which is _______________. (Select ALL that apply) a type of symbiosis a relationship in which one organism helps another, but there is no benefit or harm in return Herbivores are also known as __________. primary consumers In which of the following cycles is carbon dioxide consumed by plants and released by animals? oxygen cycle Many mammals have optimized their reproductive strategy by producing a few, relatively large young instead of a large number of small offspring. This is an example of ___________. tradeoffs

MODULE-44 White fungus produces molecules that prevent the darker fungus from overtaking it. The molecules produced by the white fungus are known as ______________. chemical defenses Little Johnny was playing outside one day when he noticed a trail of ants. He decided to run his finger through the trail and the ants toward the end of the line started to senselessly run around in circles as if they were lost. What made some of these ants confused? Ants release alarm pheromones so when they saw Johnny they started to trigger a fight or flight response. _____________ is the study of how chemical signals influence interactions between organisms. Chemical Ecology Which of the following is NOT an example of a chemical attractant?

A compound produced by a bacterium that inhibits nearby fungi. When we use herbs such as basil, thyme, sage, and cilantro in our cooking we notice their distinct flavors. The real purpose of these flavors is to discourage predators from eating them. What kind of chemical communication is this? Chemorepellent Which ecological event is shown in figure 13? natural selection and evolution of defenses Chemical defenses are especially high at locations with _________________. high biodiversity Nucleic acids, amino acids, and carbohydrates are _________. primary metabolites Pederin is found in beetles and thought to protect beetles against their enemies. Pederin is a __________. secondary metabolite Scientists believe that chemical signaling has evolved over time through natural selection. They noticed that there was an abundance of species that have chemical signaling in places of high biodiversity. Why might you think that in rain forests and coral reefs there are many species with chemical signaling? There are high levels of herbivory, predation and competition within these areas. The skunk is best known for its production of ________. chemical defenses Which of the following is NOT an example of chemical defense? An egg that releases compounds detected by sperm It is the mating season for the Monarch butterfly. A female has sent out her pheromones to attract males since she is ready to mate. Will her pheromones cause other males of similar butterfly species to be attracted to her? No. Sex pheromones are very specific to insure reproductively compatible species will mate. Which ecological event is shown in figure 14? Evolutionary arms race Moths and other insects choose mates based on the ____________ of pheromones (Select ALL that apply) chemical structure ratio

MODULE-45 Androstadienone _______________. has not yet been proven to play a role in human mating. In the accessory olfactory system there is the accessory olfactory bulb, neurons, and the hypothalamus. What is missing? Vomeronasal organ How do insect traps successfully control insects that are harmful to crops? It contains sex pheromones that attract and capture insects. Select the proper order of detection and response to a pheromone in most mammals. 1. vomeronasal organ, 2. neurons, 3. accessory olfactory bulb, 4. hypothalamus Humans do not possess a functional ___________. vomeronasal organ A body of knowledge that is claimed to be scientific but lacks supporting evidence and reproducibility is known as _________________. Pseudoscience Dr. Martha McClintock did a study dealing with menstrual synchrony in women. She concluded that women give off pheromones during menstruation so when women spend a lot of time together they will begin to have the same menstrual cycle. What pheromones are said to be responsible for this? Primers Which of the following are known to result from fish exposure to man-made estrogen molecules? all of the above reduced fertility rates among fish lower the number of males relative to females in fish populations increases in "intersex" fish with both female and male characteristics In animals, the main olfactory system is responsible for detection of only a handful of pheromone signals. What handles the vast majority of the pheromone signals? Accessory olfactory system Solid scientific evidence exists for a role of pheromones in which of the following human behaviors? menstrual cycle synchronization in women living in close proximity

In the accessory olfactory system there is the accessory olfactory bulb, neurons, and the vomeronasal organ. What is missing? Hypothalamus Every time Kristen feels like she is getting a cold she goes to the doctor and asks for antibiotics to help her feel better. Unfortunately, she uses them quite often and notices she has been getting sick more often. What could have made her more prone to getting sick even though she was taking antibiotics? Since she uses the antibiotics a lot and super bugs have evolved, the bacteria have become antibiotic resistant. You have already taken Bio 100 and are an expert in Chemical Ecology now. Dr. Pozos wants to do an experiment where he compared the brains of humans and animals. He notices that the vemeronasal organ that detects pheromones in animals is not used in the human brain but feels humans can detect pheromones. What will you tell Dr. Pozos? You tell him that it is believed that humans detect pheromones through the main olfactory system used for smell.