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Volume 55, Number 10

October 2008

ISSN: 0040-6015

THERMAL ENGINEERING
English Transl.--:ionof Teploenergetika

Editor-in-Chief Viktor I. Dobrokhotov

A Popular Scientific Journal of Original Papers on the Problems of Thermal Energy and Engineering

*P: *

PLEIADES PUBLISHING
Distributed by

- Springer

ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 811818. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text V.V. Lysko, A.G. Sviderskii, V.A. Bilenko, A.A. Ananev, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

Main Results of the Work Accomplished at ZAO Interavtomatika for 15 Years


V. V. Lysko, A. G. Sviderskii, V. A. Bilenko, and A. A. Ananev
ZAO Interavtomatika, ul. Avtozavodskaya 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia AbstractMain results of the activities carried out by ZAO Interavtomatika in the Russian market of power engineering are presented. Main lines of activities are described, the results of putting in use control systems are analyzed, and prospects for their further development are presented. DOI: 10.1134/S0040601508100017

ZAO Interavtomatika (Interautomatika AG) was established in 1993 as a result of efforts undertaken by specialists of the All-Russia Thermal Engineering Institute (VTI), which were supported by RAO Unied Energy Systems of Russia, Siemens, and OAO TPE. In fact, the past 15 years signaled the main stage of equipping Russian power stations with modern automatic control systems. The time at which Interavtomatika was developed and its rst projects relate to the period in which the rst distributed microprocessor-based instrumentation and control systems (I&CSs) emerged in the Russian market. The microprocessor process control systems (PCSs) that were developed at the rst stage mostly replicated the previous old functions of equipment control. The 1990s saw experience being gained from the development and operation of the rst microprocessor systems, the requirements and approaches for constructing PCSs being formulated on the basis of this experience, the PC market emerging, and companies appearing that were able to develop and produce such systems and put them into operation in one volume or another. The main requirement with which the modern stage of furnishing power stations with automatic control systems must comply is achieving better quality of the operation of automated equipment and the work of the personnel in charge of its operation. This technical and economic challenge is considered a key issue in the activities of Interavtomatika. The PCSs being designed must allow the operation of equipment to be brought to a higher level; namely, the operating conditions should become more economically efcient, and reliable and be conducted with better quality; the volumes of harmful emissions should be reduced; and the number of errors committed by the operators should be minimized. Service maintenance of the system should be minimal in volume and guaranteed in nature. These are the main lines, because it is only on their basis that the modern PCSs of Interavtomatika can compete with numerous Russian and foreign systems. To meet this challenge, Interavtomatika specialists use intercon-

nected principles and approaches, the main ones of which are selecting an I&CS adequate to the automation tasks, furnishing a plant with the optimal volume of automation, conducting active marketing policy, and offering a comprehensive scope of services. Since the time Interavtomatika was established, its main area of concern has been comprehensive solution of the problems pertinent to automation of power industry facilities. The range of services Interavtomatika offers to its customers includes the following: (i) giving advice on automation matters; (ii) preparing technological assignment and input data for developing PCSs; (iii) designing PCSs; (iv) carrying out integrated tests of an assembled system at the manufacturers; (v) supplying self-contained equipment; (vi) supervising construction and carrying out adjustment work; (vii) carrying out tests and commissioning work; (viii) training the customers personnel with the use of full-scale computer-based training simulators; and (ix) offering maintenance services. At present, the number of PCSs Interavtomatika specialists have commissioned (their list is given in the table) approaches 70 and should reach 80 by the end of this year. Power-generating units account for the main volume of the plants that have been furnished with automatic control systems (42). It should be pointed out that, along with traditional units (31), this group includes almost all Russian combined-cycle plants (9), as well as the power units of the rst Russian geothermal power station and the 1000-MW unit No. 3 at the Kalinin nuclear power station, the rst Russian unit fully automated with the use of microprocessor control systems. Interavtomatika specialists were fully in charge of the entire scope of automatic control systems for the secondary coolant circuit in this project. It can be seen from the table that, along with furnishing power

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Commissioned Interavtomatika projects (as of April 2008) Automated equipment Power station Station numbers 1 2 1 2 2 1 10 9 7 8 4 3 10 8 1 3.5 4 5 4 2 7 16 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 Year of commissioning 1999 2000 2001 2003 2003 2006 1997 2006 2007 2003 2003 2006 2003 2004 2004 2005 2006 2005 2005 2007 2007 2003 2003 2004 2006 2007 2007 2007 2008 2008 2000 2005 2005 2007 2007 2006 2008 PT-65 turbine sets Automated equipmen PGU-39 25-MW geothermal power units Nuclear power stations 110-MW gas turbine unit Power station Sochi TPS Mutnovsk geothermal power station Kalinin nuclear power station Ivanovo DPS Sredneuralsk DPS 50-MW gas turbine TPS of Uralkalii unit Common-station Severozapadnaya level of unit-type cogeneration station TPSs Mutnovsk geothermal power station Sochi TPS Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station Ivanovo DPS 420 t/h steam boiler Novgorod cogeneration station 500 t/h steam boil- Krasnoyarsk TETs-2 ers cogeneration station Sakmar cogeneration station Orsk cogeneration station Volzhskii cogeneration station Sakmar cogeneration station Krasnoyarsk TETs-1 cogeneration station Nizhnekamsk cogeneration station Konakovo DPS Year of Station commisnumbers sioning 1, 2 2004 1, 2 3 1 2 6 4 0 1 2 10 2002 2004 2001 2001 2008 2000 2002 2004 2005 2007 1995 1997 2002 2005 2002 2003 2004 2003 1999 2004

800-MW power Suizhong TPS units (China) Berezovo DPS Perm DPS 500-MW power ReftaDPS unit 300-MW power Zmievka DPS units (Ukraine) Aksu TPS (Kazakhstan) Sredneuralsk DPS Konakovo DPS Iriklinsk DPS Stavropol DPS Kirishi DPS 250-MW power Mosenergos unit TETs-25 cogeneration station 200-MW power Surgut GRES-1 units DPS Shchekino DPS Kharanorsk DPS 100-MW power Kostolats TPS units (Serbia) 55-MW power Obra TPS (India) units Gorazal TPS (Bangladesh) PGU-450 Severozapadnaya cogeneration station of St. Petersburg Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station PGU-325 Ivanovo DPS PGU-195 PGU-60S Dzerzhinsk cogeneration station Mosenergos TETs-28 cogeneration station

R-85 turbine set Chemical water treatment

Sredneuralsk DPS Condensate polish- Syrdarya TPS ing plant (Uzbekistan) Automatic control of water chemistry Pskov DPS Kirishi DPS FPCS for hydraulic Khaobin hydraulic power stations power station (Vietnam)
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units with automatic control systems, Interavtomatika was in charge of developing and putting into operation PCSs for the common-station level and for commonstation auxiliary plants. The majority of plants that have been automated are situated in Russia. At the same time, a number of PCSs developed at Interavtomatika have been put into operation abroad Russiain the CIS countries (Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan), China, Serbia, India, Bangladesh, and Vietnam. The above-mentioned technical and economic problem is solved in Interavtomatika projects at the background of rapidly rising volumes in which new generating capacities are constructed in accordance with Russias state and industrial programs. According to these programs, the volumes in which modern combinedcycle plants and coal-red steam turbine plants have to be commissioned are increased considerably (several-fold). This generates a need to increase the volume of work on automatic control systems, shorten the time taken to develop projects, and improve their quality. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS The PCSs developed at Interavtomatika are constructed on the basis of Siemens I&CSs. At the rst stage of work, this was the TELEPERM XP-R system, which was manufactured at the Dukhov All-Russia Research Institute of Automation under a Siemens license and found wide use in Interavtomatikas projects. Since 2004, Interavtomatika specialists began to use, along with TELEPERM XP-R, the SIMATIC PCS7 I&C system equipped with Power Solutions, a dedicated library of algorithms for power engineering applications. The SIMATIC PCS7 system was primarily used in projects for partially upgrading existing PCSs, in systems for automatically controlling the frequency and power (FPCS) of power units, and in some projects for common-station plants. This I&Cs was then successfully used in full-scale PCSs of large power-generating facilities, such as the combined-cycle plant at the Sochi thermal power station (TPS) and the 200-MW power units at the Kharanor district power station (DPS). The positive experience that has been gained for many years is used in new projects developed on the basis of the TELEPERM XP-R and SIMATIC PCS7 systems. And, nally, starting from 2007, Interavtomatika specialists began to develop and put in operation PCSs constructed on the basis of SPPA-T3000, the newest fourth-generation Siemens I&CSs [1]. The rst successful projects of full-scale PCSs built around the SPPTA-T3000 system were implemented in the PGU-450 power unit and the T-250 unit at Mosenergos TETs-27 and TETs-25 cogeneration stations. All these I&CSs are successive, especially in software, a property that allows the experience gained from implementing technological algorithms to be efciently used, irrespective of the type of the I&CS used. They feature highly reliable hardware, wellTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

developed basic and proprietary software, computeraided design tools, and functions for diagnosing eld equipment. It due to insufcient reliability of domestically made eld equipment, such as failures of sensors and valves, false information on the state of end switches, and other factors that did not allow stepped programs and other complex algorithms to be made sufciently operable, since the operative personnel had to constantly keep an eye on their operation. The use of basic software furnished with algorithms for automatically diagnosing the state of peripheral devices, which were improved at Interavtomatika taking into account the specic features of Russian peripheral equipment and conditions of its operation (in particular, the way in which power supply is organized), allowed stepped programs of all levels, disconnected interlocks, and other control algorithms to be used on a wide scale. MARKETING Automation of power stations is a market with extremely intense competition. Most competitions (tenders) are held with the participation of many companies, including the best Russian and world-renowned foreign companies. In order to retain and strengthen the positions of a leader in development of automatic control systems for thermal power stations and to receive a potential customers approval for high-tech and universal Interavtomatika PCSs built around the most advanced I&CSs, the company pays serious attention to promoting its developments and offers to the market. Efforts taken in this eld include advertising and presentation of Interavtomatika products at Russian and international exhibitions, conferences, and meetings (Electric Power Engineering of Russia, Power-Gen, and others), in industry-branch and professional journals, and conducting informational work with power companies and power stations. Carrying out pretendering work, during which the state of a plant is analyzed and the concept of its automation is developed and discussed with the customer, is a very important line of activity. Central to the marketing policy and work with potential customers are the following weighty and serious arguments: (i) the projects are developed on the basis of Siemens rmware, the most advanced I&CSs superior to the solutions offered by other competitors; (ii) all stages of the projects are implemented with the involvement of highly skilled specialists; (iii) the company offers interesting proposals adequately meeting the requirements of customer both in technical and economic respects and with deeply developed technological and hardware contents of the PCSs; (iv) Interavtomatika enjoys a reputation of a reliable partner for its customers; (v) Interavtomatika specialists have experience in successful cooperation with power-generating companies, power stations, and strong EPC companies;

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(vi) Interavtomatika has a convincing reference list of accomplished PCSs, especially in the elds of combined-cycle technologies, full-scale and partial upgrading of gas-and-oil-red and coal-red power units, systems for automatically controlling frequency and power of traditional and combined-cycle power units, and microprocessor control and protection systems for steam turbines, gas turbines, and other plants; (vii) quality management and environment protection system according to ISO 9001 and ISO14001 have successfully been in operation at Interavtomatika since 2000; (viii) Interavtomatika specialists work in close contact with specialists of power stations during all stages of a project in such a way that the customers requests be maximally satised; (ix) Interavtomatika involves its permanent (strategic) partners in carrying out individual stages of work, such as manufacture of equipment, development of a project, procurement of auxiliary equipment and electrical connections, assembling, and adjustment; and (xii) the company organizes comprehensive training of the customers' specialists both at its ofce and at the power station site in the course of PCS adjustment and tests; training simulators are used for carrying out training courses in some projects. AUTOMATION OF COMBINED-CYCLE PLANTS It is not a coincidence that Interavtomatika was established at the same time as the development of work on designing the Severozapadnaya cogeneration station in St. Petersburg, Russian power engineerings rst station equipped with a heat-recovery type PGU-450 combined-cycle power plant (CCPP) built around V.94.2 Siemens gas turbines (GTs), since such equipment needs to be furnished with an PCS built around a highly reliable and functionally developed I&CS for being properly controlled. It should be noted that quite a long period of time passed since the time this I&CS was developed, manufactured and tested for the Severozapadnaya cogeneration station (from 1994 to 1997) to the time the rst power unit was commissioned in 2000. Nonetheless, the work accomplished at that time made it possible to elaborate fundamental solutions for automating this sort of equipment that were employed to some extent or another in the PCSs that were quite successfully put in operation in the period 20052007 for a series of similar power units, among which were the PGU-450 units at the Severozapadnaya cogeneration station (Unit 2), Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station, and Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station; the PGU-325 unit at the Ivanovo district power station (DPS) (this one on the basis of the Russian GTE-110 gas turbine of NPO Saturn), as well as the PCS for a smaller combined-cycle plant (PGU-39) at the Sochi thermal power station (TPS) that was commissioned in 20042005. Interavtomatika specialists

developed and commissioned the PCSs for all these CCPPs and for all power stations at which they were installed. The list of distinctive features of heat-recovery type CCPPs equipped with two gas turbines and one steam turbine as controlled objects and the PCSs used to control them includes the following: (i) the process of starting and initially loading a gas turbine, as well as all operations on other technological equipment of the CCPP related to this process have to be fully automated; (ii) the static operating modes of the power unit are fairly diverse (with one or two GTs and, in case of using a certain conguration of a cogeneration plant, also without the steam turbine), and, accordingly, so are the dynamic conditions when a transition is made from one mode to another, and such transient conditions need to be highly automated; (iii) the system must be designed so that healthy CCPP turbines could be left in operation when one of them is shut down in an emergency manner; (iv) the control of level in the drums of heat recovery boilers involves certain difculties when the GTs are started and when the GTs and ST are shut down in an emergency manner; (v) the number of electrical equipment that has to be automated is much greater than that in case of traditional power units (three generators instead of one); common solutions have to be used for controlling heatgenerating, mechanical, and electrical equipment; and efcient exchange of information in digital form has to be organized with the workstations of the power station shift supervisor and the shift supervisor for electrical equipment at the central control board; and (vi) the process control system must be designed so that one process operator could control the entire CCPP; hence, identical operator interfaces must be furnished for all CCPP equipment taking into account that the gas turbines and the steam turbine may come with their local PCSs (partially or fully functional) built around the devices adopted at their manufacturing plants. All these factors had a considerable effect on the way in which technical solutions for developing the PCSs for CCPPs and for the common-station level were developed. One of these solutions is the integration of local turbine control systems into a unit-level PCS. For example, whereas the PGU-450 unit at the Severozapadnaya cogeneration station was furnished, in accordance with the solutions that existed in the early 1990s, with dedicated controllers for the electrical part of the control and protection system of gas turbines (EPCP) and the electrical part of control system (EPCS) of steam turbine that differed considerably from the I&CS of the power unit PCS, the controllers for the GT protections and for the EPCS of the steam turbine in the PGU-450 power unit at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station were constructed using the same
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Web/OPC-clients Workstations existing at the cogeneration station Information to the enterprise computer-aided management system

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MCR of Unit 3 Workstation (WS) of power unit operator

FIREWALL WS of boiler-turbine WS of electric department department MCR WS of PCS WS of PCS of Unit shift supervisor shift supervisor engineer engineer

WS of PCS engineer

Internet(ICP/IP) 100Mb/s Application server of T3000 Internet(ICP/IP) 100Mb/s Automati on server Automati on server Automati on server Automati on server Automati on server Automati on server Automati on server

GPS Clock

GT1 PMCS of GT generator

GT2 PMCS of GT generator Automati on server

HRB1

HRB2

Steamwater

ST

ECU PMCS of ST generator

Automati on server ST control Common-station heat-transfer and mechanical equipment

Control and protections AddFEM GT1 GT2

AddFEM

Function diagram of the PCS for Unit 3 at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station.

TELEPERM XP-R (TPTS-51) I&CS as that for the main PCS. All local systems for controlling the GTs and STs in the PGU-325 and PGU-450 power units at the Ivanovo DPS and Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station have been constructed using the same I&CS as that for the unit-level PCS: TEPEPERM XP-R for the Ivanovo DPS and SPPA-T3000 for TETs-27. Microprocessor systems have also been used for these two CCPPs instead of the hydraulic turbine speed governors that were employed in earlier projects. As an example, the gure shows the function diagram of the PCS for the PGU-450 unit No. 3 at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station constructed on the basis of the SPPA-T3000 I&CS [1]. The controller level of this PCS has been constructed in accordance with the principle of functional groups and comprises the following automation servers: (i) unit-level servers supplied as part of the power units PCSs (for the gas turbines GT1 and GT2, heatrecovery boilers HRB1 and HRB2, steam turbine ST, common-unit steamwater path equipment, and unitlevel electrical equipment); (ii) servers for the EPCPs of GTs and the EPCS of ST, which are supplied complete with the gas turbines and steam turbine; and (iii) servers for the common-station heat-generating and mechanical equipment related to this power unit (the circulation pumpstation, liquid-fuel facility, etc.).
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All SIMATIC S7-417 automation servers are redundant. The controllers used in the EPCPs of GTs and the EPCS of ST are connected not only to the usual control and interfacing modules (CIMs), but also to the highspeed FM-458 modules, together with their dedicated AddFEM CIMs. The application server of T3000 is a web server and supports the workstations of operative and maintenance personnel (operators, shift supervisors, and PCS engineers). Communication to the power station PCS is organized through the Firewall internetwork screen. In addition, the power-unit PCS interacts with the PCSs for electrical equipment: relay protections, commonstation level, etc. AUTOMATION OF POWER UNITS EQUIPPED WITH COAL-FIRED BOILERS One of the most important problems that remained unresolved in Russian power engineering for a long time was automation of large 500- and 800-MW power units with once-through coal-red boilers furnished with direct-injection coal-dust systems. The main difculties were encountered in controlling the fuel supply and combustion process. The full-scale PCS for the 500-MW power unit (No. 10) at the Refta DPS commissioned in 1997 was the rst project of this sort for Interavtomatika. Special mention should be made regarding the level Interavtomatika specialists suc-

To the APCS of electrical equipment

Freeassignment of functions for displays

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ceeded to achieve in this project [2] in automating the operations that have to be carried out not only in the load working range, but also in starting modes. This level was well above those existed in Russian power units and corresponded to that found in similar foreign equipment. In particular, the extent to which the starting modes were automated made it possible to relieve the operating personnel from doing the most important and complex control tasks. The scope of automation included not only making more than 150 controllers of the power unit fully operable, but putting in operation more than 80 logic programs, including around 40 stepped ones. The key problem of automating the combustion process was solved [3] by constructing multiply connected control systems (CSs) for each dust system, a multiply connected CS for the total fuel owrate and for the feeding unit with multiloop cascade temperature control, systems for automatically taking into account automatic control disabling state for each dust system and for the entire supply of fuel, and stepped programs for starting and shutting down the dust systems. Most of the above solutions were novel and were used in practice for the rst time. In the subsequent, the proposed solutions were implemented, taking into account the specic features of the equipment being automated, within the scope of full-scale PCSs in the 800-MW power units at the Suizhong TPS in China (Units 1 and 2) and the Berezovo DPS (Units nos. 1 and 2), 300-MW units at the Aksu TPS in Kazakhstan (Units 3 and 4), and 200-MW units at the Kharanor DPS (Units 1 and 2). In recent years, such solutions have been implemented in the informational and control system in the remaining 500MW power units at the Refta DPS. The facilities mentioned above are equipped with different types of direct injection systems: the Refta DPS and the Aksu TPS are furnished with hammer mills; the Suizhong TPS, with medium-speed mills; and the Berezovo and Kharanor DPSs, with pulverizing fans. The results obtained from putting FPCSs in operation in the power units at the Berezovo, Refta, and Kharanor DPSs and from testing them for conformity with the requirements of common primary regulation of frequency have shown the following. If power units equipped with coal-red boilers are furnished with the proposed fuel-supply CS and with an FPCS constructed in accordance with appropriate solutions, the dynamic characteristics of such units differ only slightly from these of power units of the same capacity equipped with gas-and-oil-red boilers [4]. THE FREQUENCY AND POWER CONTROL SYSTEM. CONTROL OF TURBINES Projects for FPCSs have recently made up a considerable volume of work carried out at Interavtomatika. The need for carrying out activities in this eld has stemmed from the new requirements power stations

must comply with for participating in the market of system services for selling electric energy with required quality under normal and emergency conditions of power system operation. The appropriate norms were developed on the orders of RAO Unied Energy Systems of Russia and in the Standard of the System Operator Centralized Dispatching Administration (SOCDA), documents determining the quality of power unit characteristics and conditions under which they have to participate in selective primary and automatic secondary control of frequency (SPFC and ASFC). Interavtomatika specialists have carried out the corresponding projects in 11 gas-and-oil-red power units at the Perm, Iriklinsk, Konakovo, Kirishi, and Stavropol DPSs; certicates of conformance with the requirements of the SOCDA Standard have now been received for nine of them [4]. Systems for common primary control of frequency have been implemented in some projects for FPCSs, primarily those for coal-red power units and CCPPs. The development and implementation of these projects became an important stage of Interavtomatika activities. Not only did these projects allow Interavtomatika to become a leader in the number of FPCS projects and variety of power unit types, but they also generated the need to develop many new technical solutions. These projects incorporated solutions for optimizing the circuits of devices for controlling the power unit output under normal and emergency operating conditions. Among the devices that were included in these circuits were an automatic emergency power unit unloading system, an automatic emergency control system, systems for taking automatic control disabling state into account, the necessary scope of automatic controllers for the boiler, and systems for automatically controlling the burners. An important feature of unitlevel FPCSs is that they are incorporated in a commonstation power control system, one version of which has been implemented at the Iriklinsk DPS. Microprocessor electrohydraulic steam turbine control systems, which were developed for the main types of turbines in all I&CSs used at Interavtomatika is a necessary component for solving the tasks of SPFC [5]. It is only these turbine control systems that make it possible to obtain the characteristics required in accordance with the SOCDA Standard, including the dead band (10 mHz), high power output variation rate, and maintaining the turbine power output with an accuracy of 1% of the rated power in response to frequency deviations. The development of an PCS for the GTE-110 gas turbine unit of NPO Saturn [6] intended for being used as part of PGU-325, PGU-170, and power units of other capacities, as well as part of GTU-based cogeneration stations, also belongs to this eld. This project incorporated for the rst time new high-speed modules on the basis of domestically made XP-R facilities, devices developed in accordance with Interavtomatikas assignTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

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ment and with participation of Interavtomatika specialists for constructing rotation frequency controllers, gas turbine temperature and power output controllers, and automatic emergency control systems. The use of new algorithms for closed-loop control, logic control, and stepped programs made it possible to achieve reliable operation of the GTE-110 unit at all loads during its operation both independently at the GTE-110 test rig and as part of the PGU-325 unit at the Ivanovo DPS. The characteristics of this FPCS are in line with all modern requirements. An electronic turbine overspeed protection system, which has been implemented in units nos. 13 at the Perm DPS and unit No. 5 at the Stavropol DPS, became another line of development of microprocessor-based turbine control systems. UPGRADING PCSS In parallel with construction of new power plants, activities for upgrading the equipment of existing power stations are being conducted on a growing scale. Upgrading PCSs is an important part of Interavtomatikas activities that generates the need of using special approaches for formulating the problem. A fundamentally important principle of upgrading is that the previous PCS functions should not be retained but extended in such a way that the equipment being automated attains new qualities, such as: (i) the equipment becomes able to meet the new requirements of regulatory documents and standards; in particular, it becomes able to solve power system tasks; (ii) better environmental characteristics are obtained; (iii) possibilities for extending the service life and increasing intervals of time between overhauls are obtained; (vi) the failures and outages caused by malfunctions in the PCS operation and personnel errors become fewer in number; and (v) smaller costs have to be spent for PCS operation and repairs. When implemented in full scope, such an approach results actually in that the existing PCS is upgraded on a full scale with complete replacement of its equipment (without taking eld devices into account). If a customer has limited resources in terms of money and time, partial upgrading is possible as a forced solution due to insufcient money and time and the need to urgently install and put into operation a system for automatically controlling frequency and power, a burner control system, etc. To select the optimal solution, the technical state of monitoring and control facilities, including peripheral ones, has to be carefully analyzed, an approach that makes it possible to determine the justied volume in which the existing equipment has to be retained in the course of upgrading.
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Among the typical problems that have to be solved in the course of partial upgrading in power engineering applications is fullling the requirements of regulatory documents, standards, and orders of supervisory authorities. These include fullling the requirements for common or selective primary and automatic secondary control of the frequency in power units, retrotting a burner control system taking into account the explosion and re safety requirements, obeying the controls for reducing harmful emissions into the environment, and others. These activities can frequently be regarded as the rst stage of the subsequent full-scale upgrading of the PCS. If this is the case, the approach that has to be taken from the very beginning of the design process should result in a minimal expenditure of money and time for the subsequent extension of the PCS to full scope. For example, Interavtomatika applied a staged upgrading approach for the 200-MW power units at the Kharanor DPS. Interavtomatika specialists have gained rich experience with both full-scale and partial upgrading in coalred and gas-and-oil-red power units of different capacities. These activities constituted the main volume of work for a long period of time, because new power facilities were constructed in a very limited volume. Different versions of technical and organizational solutions that were taken in PCS upgrading projects are described in some papers of this issue. TRAINING SIMULATORS Such well-known circumstances as complexity of technological processes at a modern power station, especially in combined-cycle plants; shortage of skilled personnel; and the introduction of microprocessorbased PCSs incorporating a considerably larger scope of automation functions and implying an entirely new principle for the operation of personnel via displays and new functions for control of power installations have generated the need of using new-generation training simulators in the education process. Such training simulators must be full-scale in nature; that is, they must be able to simulate the technological process, control algorithms, and the dynamic performance of the I&CS and PCS peripheral equipment with maximum accuracy and fully replicate the manmachine interface, i.e., the workplaces of power unit operators. Interavtomatika specialists, working together with Eniko TSO Co., have developed training simulators of this sort for the combined-cycle power plants at the Sochi TPS and the PGU-450 unit at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station [7]. The experience gained from putting them into use and bringing them to a state of industry standard has shown that these simulators have an important additional function: they can be used for testing and correcting algorithms of closed-loop and logic control at the stages during which the PCS is designed and adjusted, a feature especially important when PCSs for plants with new technologies are developed. It is

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LYSKO et al. tion, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 29 (1999) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (1999)]. V. A. Bilenko, A. D. Melamed, E. E. Mikushevich, et al., Development and Application of Automatic Frequency and Power Control Systems for Large Power Units, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 1326 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)]. I. Z. Chernomzav and K. A. Nefedov, Improvement of Automatic Control Systems for Large-Capacity Steam Turbines, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 2733 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)]. I. Z. Chernomzav, D. A. Zhezherya, R. V. Mukharryamov, and A. A. Perezhogina, The System for Automatically Controlling the Processes in a GTE-110, Russias First High-Temperature Large-Capacity Gas Turbine, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 6168 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)]. K. A. Molchanov, V. P. Strashnykh, D. A. Zhezherya, and O. A. Manevskaya, A Full-Scale Training Simulator for Educating the Operative Personnel of the PGU-450 Unit at OAO Mosenergos Cogeneration Station TETs-27, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 6976 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)].

exactly the use of the training simulator at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station that made it possible to check and optimize some algorithms and correct tuning parameters, after which less effort had to be taken to adjust the corresponding controllers and logic programs on the eld equipment. REFERENCES
1. A. G. Sviderskii and Kh. Kharpel, New Technical Facilities for Equipping Power Industry Plants Facilities with Automatic Control Systems, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 913 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)]. 2. L. L. Grekhov, V. A. Bilenko, N. N. Derkach, et al., The Automatic Process Control System for the 500-MW Power Unit at the Reftinsk District Power Station, Elektr. Stn., No. 5, 6168 (2002). 3. V. A. Bilenko, N. N. Derkach, E. E. Mikushevich, and D. Yu. Nikolskii, Development and Commissioning of Systems for Regulating the Main Parameters of a Boiler within the Scope of the Process Control System of the 500-MW Power Unit at the Reftinsk District Power Sta-

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ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 819823. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text A.G. Sviderskii, H. Herpel, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

New Technical Facilities for Equipping Power Industry Plants with Automatic Control Systems
A. G. Sviderskiia and H. Herpelb
a

ZAO Interavtomatika, ul. Avtozavodskaya, 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia b Siemens PGL, Frauenauracher str. 85, Erlangen, 910053 Germany

AbstractThe specic features of SPPA-T3000, a new instrumentation and control system intended for automation of processes in power engineering, are briey described. Distinctive features of the system architecture, central to which is using the model of web systems, are singled out. DOI: 10.1134/S0040601508100029

The applications of control systems that exist in power engineering place a wide range of requirements on the speed of response, reliability, availability, the way in which the operator interface should be organized, and the operating conditions and user functions, such as efciency of application, scope of functions, simplicity of maintenance, and availability of service. All these factors determine, in turn, the requirements for instrumentation and control systems (I&CSs) and are reected in guiding departmental documents. In particular, it should be pointed out that, in view of the level that has been achieved in the development of automation facilities and experience gained with using them, the industry-branch requirements for I&CSs, specically, the regulations published in 2002, need to be revised and rened. The experience Siemens Corp. has gained on the worlds market, as well as the experience Interavtomatika has gained in development and commissioning of process control systems (PCSs) in Russia, shows that the use of I&CSs thoughtfully constructed in terms of their hardware and software content allow a truly tangible effect to be obtained from automation. Modern I&CSs have capacities using which a reliably and efciently operating system can be constructed within a very short period of time, a factor extremely important for solving retrotting matters. The shorter period of time required for constructing a system is obtained due to the fact that well-elaborated solutions are used on the basis of I&CSs, which are initially developed as a system; that powerful multiuser tools for development and commissioning are available; and that the equipment passes comprehensive presupply checking. The systems built around Siemens I&CS and used at Interavtomatika meet all these requirements. The Siemens microprocessor control facilities have passed in their development a path from very simple ones to integrated distributed systems with wide possibilities of implementation, the so-called IT solutions.

At present, Interavtomatikas eet comprises three systems: TELEPERM XP-R, PCS7, and SPPA T3000.* We will not consider the TELEPERM and PCS7 here, since many papers have been published on them, e.g., [1]. It should only be pointed out that these are living systems, using which various automation projects are being developed and will be developed in the future. These systems feature functional completeness, reliability, and other important features; therefore, they have their supporters and, undoubtedly, deserve attention. The SPPA-T3000, a new I&CS that emerged on the world market and, which is a remarkable fact, on the Russian market in 20052006, is the latest development of Siemens in the eld of facilities for automation of power stations. In terms of its architecture, the SPPAT3000 system is part of the last, fourth generation of I&CSs [2]. First-generation systems emerged at power stations in the 1960s. These were the so-called control computers, which were used primarily at nuclear power stations. With the advent of microprocessors, these systems were augmented with programmed logic controllers (PLC). Second-generation I&CSs, which came in the 1980s, were related to the development of local area networks, using which it became possible to combine standalone controllers into a unied system and create powerful operator interface facilities, unied design tools, and the like. The era of such systems has not passed, and the absolute majority of I&CSs available in the market are representatives of exactly this generation. Systems with clientserver architecture can be considered the upper point in the development of second-generation systems.
* TELEPERM, PCS7, and SPPA-T3000 are trademarks of Siemens.

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The next, third-generation systems are so-called Web-enabled systems, i.e., those extended with Web capabilities. These are usually systems with client server architecture, in which a Web server plays the role of one of their clients; a component that allows the PCS to be extended through the use of Web clients primarily for creating additional workplaces for operating or maintenance personnel. TELEPERM XP-R and PCS7 are examples of Web-enabled I&CSs. Fourth-generation systems encompass Web-based systems, the essence of which consists in that Internet or web technology with its three-level model (data presentation, data processing, and data acquisition levels) are the basis or kernel of the system rather than its topping. There are also other approaches for categorizing systems into development stages; however, it is exactly this division that allows one to get an idea of what the novelty and advantages of a new system are. Is should be pointed out that the new system has emerged as a result of the development of automation systems, of their being aimed at a concrete eld of application (in our case, power stations), and very rapid development of network data transmission technologies, IT solutions, the Internet, media applications, and the like. The SPPA-T3000 system can be considered the quintessence of the state of the art in informational technologies in their application for automation of technological processes. In accordance with a three-level (three-tier) model, the SPPA-T3000 system has a data presentation level (the client tier), a data processing level (the tier of application algorithms and data processing), and a data level (the tier of data sources). The data presentation level (the client tier) is constructed using so-called thin clients. The scope of requirements imposed on these devices includes, along with the possibilities of network data exchange via the TCP/IP protocol, the availability of an Internet browser that supports execution of Java applets (applications of a virtual Java machine). Such a Web terminal can be constructed on a variety of platforms; in particular, a PDA device can serve as such terminal. No other software is installed in clients and is not required. Everything that is required for the user in accordance with its status and tasks (e.g., for the operator, engineer, job setter, etc.) is loaded from the server of applications. Such an approach for constructing the level of workstations for operators, engineers, and technicians allows less stringent demand to be placed on the technical facilities used in the system and allows it to be easily integrated in the existing infrastructure of the customer. The processing level (the tier of application algorithms and data processing) incorporates two types of devices: an application server and an automation server. An application server may come in different versions: rst of all, it comes in a fail-safe makeup, according to which a unied series-produced device comprises components (processors, memory, I/O devices,

etc.) with redundancy at the hardware level. Such devices have an availability factor of not less than 99.999%. A nonredundant server can also be used, as well as a server with so-called distributed redundancy. The basic idea behind such a server consists in using two servers with full mutual redundancy. Application servers can be multiplied; i.e., one system can be furnished with several devices performing different application functions. However, even in this case, the end user will see the entire pool of application servers as a single virtual space. SIMATIC S7-400 controllers are used as automation servers. The automation servers perform real-time tasks, which can comprise both those for very fast processes, e.g., turbine control processes with digital positioning of valves, and for relatively slow processes, e.g., control of temperature, operations for automatically starting and heating elements, etc. Fail-safe industrial ethernet networks connect the tiers and elements with one another. At present, such networks are in fact used as a standard solution for the majority if systems, and industrial hardware for them is commercially available from different manufacturers. The SPPA-T3000 system uses networks with a data transmission rate of up to 1 Gb/s and different types of carriers (ber-optic lines, copper wire lines, and radio channels). Internetwork shields are applied in networks, devices using which different safety policies can be organized when the SPPA-T3000 is integrated into the data networks of a power station, connections to the systems of other suppliers can be established, etc. The level (tier) of data comprises all data inputoutput devices, also called interfacing devices (IDs). These include both the IDs from the standard set of SIMATIC modules and smart IDs with built-in capacities of independent data processing, e.g., for emergency drive control applications and other similar tasks, and facilities for fast (in less than 5 ms) data processing, which are required, in particular, for implementing turbine control algorithms. Smart eld devices, such as SIPOS 5, AUMATIC, DREHMO, and I-MATIC drives; SITRANS PDS III transducers; etc., can be used as data sources or data users. Communication with IDs and other devices is arranged using the PROFIBUS DP and PA buses. The system is open for interaction with external systems: data exchange can be performed in accordance with such protocols as OPC (a client and a server), Modbus, IEC 61850, IEC 60370-5-101(4), and DNP3.0. The latter ones allow both an PCS for heatgenerating and mechanical equipment and an PCS for electrical equipment to be integrated into a united system. The IEC 61850 protocol, the latest development in the eld of automation systems for substations constructed on the basis of ethernet technology, makes it possible to use the terminals of microprocessor protections, cell control devices, and SIPROTEC 4 line string
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synchronizers of Siemens or other manufacturers supporting the IEC 61850 protocol at the level of smart data sources within the framework of the T3000 system. A CM104 automation server is used for settling matters of data exchange and communication with external systems at the data processing level. The SPPA-T3000 incorporates facilities using which devices at all hierarchical levels can be made redundant, including automation servers, networks, IDs, etc. Another important aspect of SPPA-T3000 is that it has built-in facilities for constructing fail-safe (F) systems and fail-safe systems with high availability (FH), which are a version of F systems with simplied redundancy. These systems conform to the requirements of the IEC 61508 standard, classes from SIL1 to SIL3; DIN V19250/DIN VDE 0801, classes from AK1 to AK6, and others. An appropriate certicate from Russian supervisory authorities is available. Thus, even such a brief review of technical facilities available in SPPA-T3000 or those that can be integrated into it in a standard manner allows us to conclude that the SPPA-T3000 system has sufcient capacities for settling all maters related to automation of a power station, including both heat-generating-and-mechanical equipment and electrical equipment. It can be said with condence that the fundamental difference between SPPA-T3000 and other systems is in the eld of software. The architecture and the way in which data are presented are such that the user (developer, operator, job setter, and maintenance personnel) can interact with the system in an understandable language that can be easily adjusted by individual users. This interaction is arranged though a web browser. It should be noted that different users in charge of solving very different tasks may work simultaneously and in parallel. All these users interact with the same subject, i.e., the PCS, and work with the same information, but they have different views on this subject and interpret this information in different ways. The SPPA-T3000 system has been designed just in such a way that any user obtains the picture of the system he or she wants to have. For example, the job setter who adjusts a controller needs a function diagram, the values of parameters, a graph, etc., as well as the possibility of changing the function diagram online, switching it into operation, analyzing the result, returning to previous versions, and so on. All these possibilities are available for SPPA-T3000 users in accordance with the system of passwords and rights. Moreover, users can create their own views (either temporary or permanent) most consistent with the nature of their activities. Since the system is united and indivisible and all data, such as current values of variables, properties assigned for them, projects, archiving results, etc., exist in the system only once, discrepancy between or loss of data cannot occur in principle. The system has been developed using the Java programming language. The system uses HTML as a stanTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

dard format of all documents, XML as a data exchange format, and HTTP as a means for data transmission. These features make the system independent on the platform. Thin clients form the basis on which the Internet browser and the virtual Java machine operate. When a client is connected to the application server (its Web part), the required Java applications (computer programs) are downloaded into the client, and the virtual Java machine, which, in turn, interacts with the thin clients original operating system, runs them. When one user or another generates his or her view on the system, the required HTML page is called in the thin client; the required Java applets are started for execution; the plug-ins are activated; and the appropriate servlet is raised on the application server. In other words, the typical Web client to Web server interaction procedure is fully implemented. First, such an approach results in a lower cost of operator interface facilities and other workstations. Second, maintenance, replacements, and modications of this system level become much simpler. And, third, the boundaries of the system become wider: if a system is furnished with internetwork shields and protected (virtual private network) channels, it is in principle possible to access it from any point from around the world; hence, it becomes possible to maintain and support the system remotely and transmit any required information to upper management levels, such as the automated enterprise management system of a power station, power company, etc. The distinctive feature of SPPA-T3000 and, primarily, the software used at the data processing level (application and automation servers) is that all the necessary subsystems are united into a single software system. For example, all currently existing I&CSs, including preceding-generation systems of Siemens, have different functional parts developed using different technologies (Fig. 1). The system incorporates an individual engineering workstation, archive station, controllers, operators' workstations, etc. All these components usually have their own software, which is sometimes constructed on different platforms. These subsystems are connected to one another to arrange their joint operation: data, compilation results, etc. are exchanged between the software components. If we take any system constructed using relatively independent components, even the most advanced one, discrepancy and inconsistency may occur between the data in different software subsystems, and problems with maintenance and follow-up of such systems arise. As to SPPA-T3000, all software and hardware components have already built into the system (Fig. 2). There are no components outside the system, outside the unied informational eld, or outside the unied principles for interaction among the components inside the system. This idea, known as embedded component ser-

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Operator Archives Diagnostics Engineering workstation and calcustation lations Data Data Data Data System System System System software software software software All components are integrated into a single system

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Data

Interfacing modules

Fig. 1. Structures from the set of components and with built-in components.
Hardware Web Brauser Software Video frame, Project editor, Message sheet, Diagnostics

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Signaling Server Automation

Servlet of design

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Servlet of video frames

Session control

SPPA-T3000 application server

SPPA-T3000 automation server Application server

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BT container (Real-time)

Data level Data from IDs

Fig. 2. System architecture.

vices (ECS), is the foundation stone of the entire architecture of SPPA-T3000 and its data processing level. The software of this level (see Fig. 2) has been constructed using Java, XML, and HTTP and consists, leaving aside minor details, of servlet services serving the data presentation level, e.g., the servlets of operator interface, engineering, logs, and the like. These services interact with the system of containers that have a

unied structure and charged with ensuring different properties of SPPA-T3000. All these containers are interconnected, like cells, with one another and with services, in a standard way via the unied space of objects. The design container is the basis on which the system is described. It serves to store and organize the structure of the project, the topology of technical facilities, video frames, functional diagrams, and all docuTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

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ments. This container is in charge for constantly saving, tracing changes (revisions), and summing up the current state of the results from engineering activities. It should be pointed out that the notions compilation and downloading do not exist in SPPA-T3000 in the sense usually understood for third-generation I&CSs. In fact, neither is in SPPA-T3000. The software is constructed in such a way that any changes that are carried out in the system and that can in principle be done to it exclusively through engineering view of data at the workplaces of the appropriate personnel may be as if conrmed, i.e. saved simultaneously in the design container and in the real-time container. It should be noted that such changes have not come in force yet but are ready for this. It is possible to return to the preceding state. It is only when the Activation command is issued that the changes in the real-time container come into force and are executed in the next cycle of processing. However, even these changes that have come into force are not yet nal. Even in this state the user can take a step back; only after the Acknowledge (Accept) Changes is issued do these changes become nal. All of this procedure takes a few seconds even in very large systems, a result that should be regarded an undoubted success of the developers and conrms that the ideas laid down into the system architecture are correct. For example, if we take a concrete system consisting of 1000 functions and around 8000 connections, the operations for downloading and activating data in the real-time containers take as little as 15 s. All elements (components) of SPPA-T3000 have a single structure of data, which reects the characteristics of any object that are of interest when the system is viewed from one position or another and correspond to certain properties. For example, these may be current data, archived data, parameters, other properties, diagnostic information, etc. The project container consists of functions. The library of these functions requires an individual description, which is not given here; otherwise it would occupy too much space. It should only be noted that this library, which is a further development of Siemens software, outperforms its predecessors in completeness of functions and in coverage of real practical applications encountered in developing power station automation systems. Apart from the functions, the system comprises the so-called substitutes or proxy modules, which serve as virtual representations of physical IO devices, data exchange devices (e.g., OPC-proxy), etc. As any other components, the proxy modules have similar structures of data and the set of properties and are used in the course of designing (conguring) a system on equal terms with other elements, like functions. Proxy modules accompany any physical element of the system. A special role is given to the control proxy module, the
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unit in charge of coordinating all software components and representing an operating system, servers, network exchange, etc. SPPA-T3000 incorporates the widest possibilities for visualizing, signaling, carrying out calculations with the use of a power-engineering library, and data logging and archiving. Particular mention should be made of the archiving system, which offers almost unlimited possibilities for storing archives and working with them, changing the set of data being archived in the online mode, and simultaneously storing data with resolutions from a few milliseconds to several hours, days, etc. The wide set of diagnostic facilities available in the system enables the operator to timely reveal any problem with both hardware and software and analyze it to the nest detail. Apart from the real-time and design containers, the system incorporates other ones, which are charged with tasks that are solved in the ofine mode and performed in the application server, with data exchange between the containers, etc. It can be seen even from this brief description of only a small part of SPPA-T3000 that this system is a new step forward in the development of automation facilities. By using SPPA-T3000 it is possible to automate all technological processes typical for power stations, including such specic ones as control of steam and gas turbines, and development of automatic control systems for electrical equipment. The new architectural solutions used both in hardware and software make the system simple in design and further use, and the small number of components makes its maintenance easier. The solutions adopted in the system enabled its developers not to stick to concrete platforms, thus rendering the product more stable to changes in the IT market environment. A number of projects have been developed in Russia on the basis of the SPPA-T3000 system. The largest of these, which was implemented by Siemens jointly with Interavtomatika is the PCS for heat-generating and mechanical equipment and electrical equipment of the PGU-450 unit, as well as for the common-station systems and equipment at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station. The results obtained from the use of SPPA-T3000 at the TETs-27 cogeneration station and other plants have conrmed that the system has unique properties in many respects. REFERENCES
1. A. G. Sviderskii, H. Herpel, and V. L. Kishkin, Technical Facilities for Equipping Power Industry Facilities with Automatic Control Systems, Elektr. Stn., No. 1, 712 (2004). 2. H. Rainer, The Fourth Generation, Power Engineering, No. 5 (2006)

ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 824837. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text V.A. Bilenko, A.D. Melamed, E.E. Mikushevich, D.Yu. Nikolskii, R.L. Rogachev, N.A. Romanov, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

Development and Application of Automatic Frequency and Power Control Systems for Large Power Units
V. A. Bilenko, A. D. Melamed, E. E. Mikushevich, D. Yu. Nikolskii, R. L. Rogachev, and N. A. Romanov
ZAO Interavtomatika (Interautomatika AG), ul. Avtozavodskaya 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia AbstractWe describe the results of work carried out at ZAO Interavtomatika on the development and putting into use of a system for automatically controlling the frequency and power output of large power units involving the retrotting of the turbines hydraulic automatic control system. Certicates afrming conformity to the Standard of the System Operator Centralized Dispatching Administration (SOCDA) have been received for eight power units as an outcome of these efforts. DOI: 10.1134/S0040601508100030

The range of automated process control systems (PCSs) that ZAO Interavtomatika control supplies for large power units usually includes, among other things, an automatic frequency and power control system (FPCS), previous versions of which were made in the main with the use of standard solutions [1].1 In recent years, since the time RAO Unied Energy Systems of Russia (RAO EES Rossii) Order No. 524, dated September 18, 2002, as well as others to follow, was issued, the task of actively involving power units in of the power system frequency control has become a top-priority one in selecting the general line and scope in which the control and monitoring systems of power units that are in operation have to be upgraded and has received a determining role in the decisions of power stations on partially retrotting their control and monitoring systems (CMSs). This is why the last ve years have seen Interavtomatika placing greater emphasis on partially upgrading the CMSs of equipment already in operation with putting into use an FPCS proper and improving other CMS parts directly or indirectly connected with it. It is exactly this problem that has come in the forefront in the sphere of interests of organizations involved in activities for controlling power systems in the last two or three years since the date the SOCDA Standard [2] came in force, a document specifying the extent to which power units have to participate in selective primary and automatic secondary frequency control (SPFC and ASFC, respectively), and in view of the fact that a market of systems services is expected to emerge in the nearest future, although work on involving power units in common primary controlling of frequency (CPFR) was also continued.
1 The

Among the rst six power units of UES for which certicates afrming their conformity to the Standard [2] were given in autumn of 2006, four were equipped with FPCSs supplied by Interavtomatika: unit No.5 at the Stavropol district power station (DPS), unit No.4 at the Kirishi DPS, and units nos.1 and 5 at the Iriklinsk DPS, each having a capacity of 300 MW. By the time this paper was written (February 2008), another four certicates had been received; these were for 300-MW unit No.8 at the Konakovo DPS, 300-MW units nos.3 and 4 at the Iriklinsk DPS, and 800-MW unit No.1 at the Perm DPS. In addition, a certicate for the 800-MW unit No.3 at the Perm DPS was received, a unit in which Interavtomatika specialists retrotted the turbines hydraulic automatic control system (ACS) and the turbine part of the FPCS (its boiler part is built around the Procontrol-P equipment of ABB, which was installed as far back as the time at which the power unit was constructed. Finally, it is planned to receive certicates for two more power units equipped with the FPCSs supplied from Interavtomatika: 300-MW unit No.2 at the Kirishi DPS and 800-MW unit No.2 at the Perm DPS, units the preliminary tests for which have already been accomplished. Historically, only gas-and-oil-red power units were involved in the tasks of SPFC and ASFC starting as far back as the time at which Order No. 524 was issued. This is why most attention was paid to this type of equipment, and the power units mentioned above are exactly of this type. At the same time, Interavtomatika specialists continued activities for applying FPCSs also in coal-red units, among which were 200-MW Units nos. 1 and 2 at the Kharanor DPS and 500-MW Units nos. 79 at the Refta DPS. Below, it will be shown that coal-red power units can also be involved for solving the tasks of SPFC and ASFC. Certain experience with applying FPCSs for combined-cycle plants of different capacities has also been gained [3].

term automatic power control system is widely used along with the term FPCS adopted in this paper.

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Fig. 1. Illustration of the approach Interavtomatika specialists follow in developing FPCSs. ACDsautomatic control disabled from the process, AECSautomatic emergency control system, TSGturbine speed governor, and AEUSautomatic emergency power unit unloading system.

This paper summarizes the results of activities on putting in use FPCSs complying with the requirements of SPFC and ASFC, formulates the necessary prerequisites under which an FPCS complying with the requirements of the SOCDA Standard can be developed, analyzes the effect different types of automated equipment and solutions used in constructing FPCSs have on the success in achieving certain indicators of SPFC and ASFC, and gives examples of the results obtained from tests of different types of process equipment. The activities on putting in use FPCSs conforming to the standard [2], including those on arranging and carrying out the tests the results of which are used in this paper, were conducted with active participation of power station representatives.2 FUNCTIONS AND COMPOSITION OF THE FPCS OF POWER UNITS INVOLVED IN SPFC AND ASFC The main problem faced by the personnel of power stations the power units of which are involved in SPFC and ASFC consists, along with solving the problem of
2 We

are grateful to V.N. Kindyakov, V.V. Butskikh, and V.S. Sadykov from the Iriklinsk DPS; V.Yu. Krylov, M.A. Osintsev, and N.T. Belyakov from the Stavropol DPS; A.I. Shalamov, V.I. Andreenko, A.I. Panasenko, O.A. Smirnov, and P.I. Pyankov from the Perm DPS; P.I. Korotenkov and Yu.A. Belousov from the Konakovo DPS; M.E. Petushkov from the Kirishi DPS; and the representatives of voluntary certication bodies at the AllRussia Thermal Engineering Institute N.I. Davydov and N.N. Zorchenko and at ORGRES V.K. Tereshchenko, I.I. Lebedev, and I.S. Labutin for their participation in an analysis of results from preliminary tests and in carrying out certication tests. THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

upgrading the turbine automatic control system [4], of determining the list of FPCS functions, the composition of automation functions required for implementing them, and the appropriate volume of hardware used to construct the FPCS. This problem is more acute for power stations with limited nancial resources, which have no choice but to upgrade their control and monitoring systems only in to a partial extent. Selecting the optimal scope of upgrading becomes in this case the most relevant problem. This is not so important if upgrading is carried out to a full extent; nonetheless, correct algorithmic solutions and a clear-cut choice of hardware for implementing them remain a must. The outline function diagram illustrating the approach Interavtomatika specialists follow in developing FPCSs is shown in Fig. 1. The list of main (mandatory) FPCS units required to fulll the requirements of SPFC and ASFC includes the following: (i) the unit part of the FPCS, comprising boiler and turbine power controllers (BPC and TPC), a frequency conditioning corrector (FC), setpoint adjusters for ASFC (earlier, the term external component of power setpoint was used) and for the planned (internal)component of power setpoint, a parameter characterizing tertiary control of frequency; (ii) an electronic turbine speed governor (TSG) [4]; (iii) the boilers main closed-loop control systems (CLCSs); and (iv) a system for taking automatic control disabling (ACD) statuses into account. The scope of the boilers main CLCSs (henceforth, we primarily consider once-through boilers as the apparatuses most widely used for large power units and

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most complicated in terms of their control) includes not only the CLCSs participating directly in changing the boilers control inputs affecting its load, such as fuel, feedwater, and air owrates and rarefaction. Another condition that must necessarily be fullled for the technical parameters of a power unit participating in controlling the frequency and power be maintained with high quality demands that essential improvements have to be made also in the CLCSs responsible for the boilers most important parameters, such as the CLCSs of injections into primary and secondary steam, and those of other systems for controlling the secondary steam temperature; cascade controllers of temperature along the boiler path to the rst controlled injection, devices for correcting the content of oxygen in ue gases, and so on. In view of the fact that the processes through which the frequency and power are controlled may entail a considerable increase in the steam pressure and taking into consideration the tasks related to emergency unloading of a power unit (the power unit automatic emergency unloading system (AEUS) serves to perform them) and automatic emergency control, a mandatory need also arises for furnishing the power unit with devices for controlling the pressure of steam upstream of the high-speed reduction-and-cooling installation and the steam temperature downstream of it. The CLCSs generating the main control inputs for the boiler (fuel and feedwater owrates) are in themselves highly branched multiloop systems. Even in the simplest case of a gas-and-oil-red boiler, its fuel CLCS must allow the boiler to run with separately combusting gas and fuel oil and with combusting them jointly with different ratios between their owrates. If a boiler is equipped with AMAKS burners with the use of individual shutters controlling the supply of gas to each burner, it becomes possible to redistribute the owrate of gas between the half-furnaces and between the tiers (to suppress the emission of nitrogen oxides) and widen the range in which the supply of gas can be adjusted with a given number of burners. Finally, the fuel CLCS for coal-red boilers with direct injection of dust includes, along with a total owrate controller, individual multiply connected CLCSs for each dust system [5, 6]. Such solutions are also applied for controlling individual dust feeders for boilers with an intermediate hopper. A detailed description of Interavtomatikas solutions for automatic control of boilers, including those of power units participating in SPFC and ASFC, is given in [7]. Whereas that the rst three main FPCS components are commonly recognized, some suppliers and customers of FPCSs cast doubts regarding the need to use a system for taking ACDs into account. It is supposed that a properly designed plant should not have any limitations, that no constraints should arise if the 5% normal margin or 12.5% emergency margin is provided for SPFC and 5% margin is available for ASFC, and so on. In addition, even the tests for ascertaining conformity

to the SO-CDA Standard can be carried out under the initial technological operating conditions selected and adjusted so that no ACDs will arise. At the same time, when power units equipped with FPCSs operate for a long time in modes with SPFC and ASFC, it is hardly possible to avoid cases in which ACDs would arise or cases in which they would have at least a short-term inuence on the pattern of transients in power and power units internal parameters. ACDs may arise due to a variety of factors. First, attempts to distribute the dispatch schedule of the total load transmitted via one power line (the number of such lines is equal two or three at the majority of power stations) among power units in such a way that the SPFC and ASFC margins would not be violated, at least temporarily, in each of the power units that are in operation, do not always met with success. Second, external conditionsprimarily, the ambient temperaturemay seriously affect the actual margin. Third, since existing power units have been in operation for a long time, it is quite probable that their characteristics will become degraded, at least temporarily, or that individual equipment items fail. Fourth, as will be shown below, certain dynamic overshoot of boiler control elements is required to obtain the necessary quality of transients in the power units output. The list of the most typical ACDs includes those on the displacement of the boiler actuators, turbine valves, or the cases when such process parameters as the pressure of gas or fuel oil, the pressure of steam upstream of the turbine, and the pressure of feedwater downstream of the turbine-driven feedwater pump reach their limiting values. ACDs that arise may be both continuous and persist for the entire transient and temporary, i.e., vanish after some time. Thus, the function of taking ACDs into account is mandatory and is implemented by reconguring the interconnected FPCS and boilers main CLCSs in such a way that the power unit retains its ability to operate and that the static or dynamic quality of transients in its power output and internal parameters deteriorates to the minimum possible extent. One more task, which is similar to that of taking the ACDs into account in the way it is implemented, and mandatory for CLCSs with such complex function structures as the FPCS and boilers main CLCSs, is that of taking functional failures into account, such as failures of sensors and the loss of the possibility of performing control by means of actuators. Here again, reconguration of function structures is used; however, unlike ACDs, the occurrence of which causes automatic control becoming disabled in one direction, the closedloop controller must be switched over to manual operation, if a noncompensated functional failure occurs, this causing automatic control to become disabled in both directions. Two groups of FPCS elements are shown in Fig. 1 as supplementary ones. These, rst of all, are elements performing the function of power unit emergency
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unloading when one of the boilers main mechanisms fails (a feedwater pump, a forced-draft fan, an exhaust fan, or the circulating pump due to the operation of the emergency power unit unloading system), when one of the shells of a two-shell boiler is shut down, or to prevent the occurrence of a power system failure (due to the operation of the unit-level automatic emergency control system). In all cases, the aim of power unit unloading is to avoid the need of shutting down the power unit. These tasks are not directly connected to the problem of SPFC and ASFC. However, since the automatic emergency control system generates control inputs to the turbine speed governor, the emergency power unit unloading system generates inputs to the boiler CLCSs, and both of them interact with the unit part of the FPCS, the projects Interavtomatika specialists develop for upgrading CMSs incorporate these elements as a standard solution. Another supplementary task consists of automating a small volume of discrete operations that have to be performed in the course of changing the power unit output in the working range of loads. Examples of such operations are starting-up and shutting-down burners and changing the speeds of forced-draft fans. Whether or not these operations have to be automated depends on the characteristics of burners and fans and on how the power unit operating conditions are organized. Some plants at which FPCSs were put in use did not put forward such a task, and at others, e.g., the Konakovo and Iriklinsk DPSs, it had to be solved. Therefore, retrotting of the burner control system was included in the scope of upgrading project together with means for solving the SPFC and ASFC problems. Being a complex multifunctional structure, the automatic frequency and power control system must be necessarily furnished with an up-to-date operator interface that would, rst of all, provide the operating personnel with means for clear and efcient monitoring of how the SPFC and ASFC functions are performed and how correctly all the FPCS elements operate, as well as for intervention into the control of the process in urgent occasions. Alarms, which include both process and I&C function signals, play a fundamentally important role here. Process alarms bear information on the following events: that the frequency corrector (of the SPFC system) has come into action when the frequency went beyond the specied setpoints (if the dead band is 10 mHz, there is no point in indicating each case of the frequency to go beyond these limits), that the ASFC has started and ceased to operate, that the process parameters have deviated beyond the setpoints characterizing the quality of power unit operation both in the SPFC and ASFC modes and as a whole, and that abnormalities have occurred, primarily, the ACDs due to which the power unit cannot participate in the SPFC
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

and ASFC or due to which such participation becomes difcult. I&C function alarms inform the operators about failures of sensors, about the loss of possibility of automatically controlling the actuators; about the automatically generated signals disabling the FPCS operation in one or in both directions, and on the causes due to which these signals were generated; about the fact that the BPC, TPC, or the boilers main closed-loop controllers were switched over to manual operation; and about the fact that the structure of the FPCS power unit part or that of the boilers main CLCSs was automatically recongured. The list of the necessary components of the FPCS operators interface also includes the following: (i) logging the events that characterize the participation of the power unit in the SPFC and ASFC and deviations from the normal conditions of FPCS operation; (ii) archiving and storing for a long time analog and discrete information of the FPCS operation; and (iii) clearly presenting on-line and off-line transient curves for the main controlled parameters and FPCS control element positions. Perfect function diagrams of all algorithms used in the FPCS structure have to be developed to comply with the requirements of the SOCDA Standard and ensure that the internal parameters of the power unit will be maintained with high quality in the entire range of working loads. Therefore, a well-developed engineering system has to be used during its adjustment and subsequent operation that would allow solutions themselves to be selected and subsequently optimized together with the tuning parameters of their elements in a convenient manner. The position Interavtomatika specialists have always held with respect to an APCS as a whole and to the FPCS in particular is that an engineering system must be open for the customer and it must allow the customers to introduceby themselves or with consulting assistance of the supplierthe necessary corrections in the software of I&C system during long-term operation of the system to bring the system in line with possible changes in the requirements for the FPCS and the technology in accordance with which power unit operation has to be conducted. An analysis of the elements constituting the FPCS function diagram (Fig. 1) has shown that all these elements can be constructed on the basis of I&C system dedicated for thermal power engineering. A specic feature of such a I&C system is that it should have enough capacities for implementing high-speed algorithms of an electronic turbine speed governor and an emergency control system [4]. The approach Interavtomatika specialists followed from the very rst projects has always placed an emphasis on constructing the entire FPCS, if possible, on the basis of a unied I&C system, and it is just this way in which Interavtomatika specialists have put into

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fref f

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The systems supplied for the Konakovo, Iriklinsk, and Kirishi DPSs were built around the SIMATIC PCS7-PS I&CS within the scope of partial retrotting of their control and monitoring systems. Each of the above I&CS performed the entire scope of FPCS functions. It should be mentioned that the SIMATIC PCS7-PS incorporated special FM-458 module, a dedicated device for running control tasks requiring high response speed, whereas the TPTS-51 I&CS was furnished with additional functional modules VNIIA specialists had developed in accordance with an assignment from Interavtomatika. Featuring high response speed, these modules covered the entire range of turbine control tasks [4]. FUNCTION DIAGRAM OF THE FPCS POWER UNIT PART The standard solutions used in FPCSs for power units equipped with once-through boilers [1] were oriented toward using the so-called automatic power control system SAUM-1 (according to which the control of power unit output N is placed on the BPC and the steam pressure p' t upstream of the turbine is controlled by means of the TPC), the improved version of which employed a conguration in which the BPC control deviation (Nref N) was applied to the TPC input. However, the rst tests for checking the conformance of 800-MW Unit 1 at the Berezovo DPS with the requirements of common primary frequency control (CPFC) have shown that the boiler has to be forced considerably initially in the transient [5]. The need of doing so (although with a lower forcing degree) was subsequently revealed also in 300-MW power units. To bring the system in conformity with the SOCDA Standard with such a structure, in which the requirements imposed on the SPFC are much more stringent than those on CPFC, a transition had to be made to a combined structure of the FPCS, in which the solutions taken in the so-called SAUM-2 were partially used (according to the SAUM-2 concept, the TPC controls the power unit output, and the BPC controls the pressure of steam upstream of the turbine). The function diagram in accordance with which the combined version of the FPCS unit part corresponding to such approach is constructed is shown in Fig. 2. The setpoint for the power unit output is generated on the basis of the following three components: (i) the internal (planned) setpoint value of power t corresponding to the task of tertiary control N set ; (ii) the ASFC setpoint signal arriving from the FPCSs common-station level, which is received from s the district (united or central) N set ; and (iii) the setpoint value for the primary frequency p control channel N set generated by the frequency corrector.
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

Nb

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Fig. 2. Function diagram of the FPCS unit part. FDSsimulator of frequency deviations.

use all their FPCS in the power units that were retrotted. This approach has the following important advantages over that applied to some other facilities with the use of turbine control systems built around another I&C system that usually has no bus connection to the I&C system of the main part (as a rule, these systems incorporate, along with the turbine speed governor and automatic emergency control system, a turbine power controller): (i) the overall FPCS is not articially broken into two dissimilar controllers with wiring connections between them, and less complicated software is required to run the interconnected algorithms of the two parts of the system; (ii) a single engineering system is used for debugging and operating the power units overall FPCS; this allows the power station personnel to avoid difculties that frequently occur in other systems when changes have to be made to its part relating to the turbine I&C system; and (iii) the system is furnished with a common operators interface in contrast to alternative approaches, according to which the turbine controller usually comes with its own operators workstation. The Interavtomatikas FPCSs considered in this paper were constructed on the basis of two types of I&CS: The systems supplied for the Stavropol and Perm DPSs were built around the TELEPERM XP-R I&CS (also known as the TPTS-51OM650 system) within the scope of the power units' full-scale PCSs.

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The referentces (setpoints) for the secondary and tertiary control channels are transformed in the corresponding setpoint rate-of-change limiters RRLs and RRLt. However, since very stringent requirements are placed on the accuracy with which the SPFC signals have to be responded to, not only does any RRL impose no limitation on the rate of change in the power setpoint s signal N set , but on the contrary, this signal is applied to the boiler and turbine control channels with enhanced forcing as compared with the total setpoint from the s, t secondary and tertiary control RRLs N set . To this end, the structure incorporates in the general case four dynamic functions (DFs): from the RRLs and freRRL quency corrector to the boiler and turbine ( DF b , DF b , DF t , and DF t ). Only some of these DFs can be used in individual cases, depending on the dynamic characteristics of a boiler and static turbine control characteristic. The setpoint values for the boiler and turbine loads Nb.set and Nt.set obtained by summing the output signals from the corresponding DFs and limited in accordance with ACDs are used to generate the control deviation signals for the BPC Nb and TPC Nt, which are then fed to the input of the control deviation signal converter (CDSC). As regards the setpoint signal for the boiler load, the conguration incorporates the possibility of applying a direct signal for setting up the specied owrate of fuel to the boiler Gf.ref, which does not depend on the BPC tuning parameters. An FPCS constructed on the basis of SAUM-1 used the position of turbine control valves Ht as the TPCs controlled parameter for operation with sliding pressure of steam. Such an approach was also supported by the decision taken earlier at many power stations, according to which a special gently sloping corridor was assigned in the vicinity of the sliding point, a change in the valve position in which did not result in a considerable change in the power unit output or steam pressure. However, the tests in which the plant was checked for conformity with the CPFCand even more so, with the SPFC requirements, have shown that such a solution adversely affects the dynamic characteristics of a power unit during its operation at sliding pressure. In addition, the use of electronic turbine speed governors made it possible to bring the turbine control characteristic to a form fairly close to linear [5], also due to discarding the use of the above-mentioned corridor, thus obtaining the same rate of change in the power unit loads in the initial (most important) part of SPFC transients over the entire range of loads. Owing to these circumstances, it became possible to do without the signal for Ht and under sliding pressure mode to use the steam pressure signal, which is more convenient when the SAUM-2 solutions are employed. The setpoint value of this pressure p' t.set is generated as a function of the total assigned power unit load, which is almost linTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008
FCC RRL FCC

ear in nature, and allows the required position of valves to be obtained. The control deviation signal of valve positions Ht is used in the TPC only when the BPC is disconnected. The pressure control deviation signal p' t.set obtained using p' t.set is applied to the input of the CDSC, which uses it together with the power control deviation signals Nb and Nt to generate control deviations for the BPC and TPC. The rule in accordance with which the control signals are generated depends on the following: (i) the absolute value of the signal at the FCC output p N set , which determines if the SPFC assignments have to be strongly responded to; (ii) the pressure of steam upstream of the turbine, a parameter characterizing the boilers dynamic capabilities; and (iii) whether or not any ACDs have arisen, and, if yes, then of what nature (for the boiler or turbine, in which direction, etc.). The p 't signal is applied directly to the CDSC, which uses it for taking into account the maximum and minimum pressure limits when generating the control deviation signals for the BPC and TPC. The use of the BPC control deviation signal proportional to the pressure time derivative is in line with the standard solutions for the SAUM-1 and helps improve the dynamic properties of the BPC in the SAUM-2. A frequency deviation simulator (FDS) has been incorporated into the function diagram of the FPCSs unit part, which allows tests for conformity with the SO-CDA Standard to be carried out: by changing FDS setpoint, one can carry out experiments on the SPFC. RESULTS OF TESTING THE FPCS FOR CONFORMITY WITH THE SOCDA STANDARD The typical test program specied in the SOCDA Standard can be conditionally subdivided into three parts. The rst part, which is described in Clauses 8.2.1 and 8.2.2 of the Standard, includes tests for checking the turbine speed governors dead band and how correctly the SPFC system operates at different droop values. The second, and the most complicated and bulky, part of the tests (specied in Clause 8.2.3 of the Standard) reects the dynamics with which the SPFC setpoints are followed within the normal (5% of rated load) and emergency (12.5% of rated load) margins. The third part (specied in Clauses 8.38.8 of the Standard) characterizes the performance of the power unit when the ASFC comes into action, when the primary, secondary, and tertiary control system operate jointly with one another, when the power unit indeed participates in the SPFC, etc. This paper gives examples taken from the second part of the tests. The results from the

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rst part of tests are described in [3]. The third part of tests presents no special problems provided that positive results have been obtained from the preceding series of tests. An example of the mode in which the load of a 300-MW power unit was changed at a rate of 10 MW/min (more than 3%/min) can be found in [7]. The main requirements the SPFC dynamic characteristics must comply with are as follows: (i) the time taken for the power to reach half the required change must be equal to 10 s within both the normal and emergency margins; and (ii) the time taken for the required load to t into the range 1% Nnom (where Nnom is the rated power unit output) must be equal to 30 s within the normal margin and 2 min within the emergency margin. The examples we used to illustrate how the SPFC setpoints are responded (Figs. 36) were selected so as to cover the variety of the composition of equipment and its operating conditions. Thus, the dynamics of boiler equipment is illustrated on three types of 300-MW power units: a double unit equipped with a TGMP-114 boiler and two single units differing from each other in number of ows in which medium is supplied to the built-in gate valve (two for the TGMP-114 boiler and one for the TGMP-324 boiler) and also an 800-MW power unit. The dynamic characteristics of turbines and the ways in which their steam admission systems are organized are demonstrated on two types of turbines: the K-300-23.8 turbine of Leningrad Metal Works (LMZ) [see Figs. 3 and 5] and OAO Turboatom (see Fig. 4) and the K-800-23.8 turbine of LMZ (see Fig. 6). Most of these examples show the results from tests carried out in the upper and lower parts of the working range of loads, and Figs. 2 and 3 illustrate the results of tests on two power facilities carried out in the middle part of their working ranges of loads. Special mention should be made of the effect the amplitude of frequency disturbance (5 and 12.5%) has on the quality of transients. The difference that exists in the requirements for the time for which the process must t into the range 1% Nnom (30 and 120 s, respectively) allows the transient to be articially slowed down for tests within the emergency margin, thus making the equipment operating conditions less heavy. This can be done by inserting an additional dynamic function unit into the channel through which the control deviation from the frequency deviation simulator is applied to the TPC and BPC; see Fig. 2. Once the stepped frequency deviation signal exceeds the absolute value corresponding to 5% load, this dynamic

function unit dampens it or transforms it into a linearly rising signal. Agreeing, in principle, with the possibility of following such an approach, Interavtomatika specialists have took a decision together with the customers, according to which tests in most of their projects are carried out without introducing an additional dynamic function for frequency deviation in belief that the actual pattern of transients, such as the effect of ACDs, nonmonotonic behavior, etc., will be revealed more clearly when natural deviations of the network frequency occur. Nonetheless, the aforesaid smoothing was used for Unit 4 at the Kirishi DPS (see Fig. 5) on agreement with the customer and certication authority. Since no variations were made in the ways the frequency deviation signal was applied in the remaining facilities, and considering that experiments with a disturbance equal to 12.5% are much more complicated from the viewpoint of fullling the requirements of the Standard, the majority of test results are presented exactly for the emergency disturbance, and it is only for Unit 4 at the Iriklinsk DPS that transient curves for both the disturbance values are presented as an illustration. An analysis of the test results allows the following statements to be made. (1) Good quality of SPFC transients during their initial stage is observed in all experiments; i.e., the time taken for the power to reach half of its change does not exceed 10 s in the entire range of loads irrespectively of the sign of frequency deviation. This result is obtained due to the steam turbines characteristic being acceptably linear. It should be pointed out that much less effort is required for linearizing it if the turbine CS is retrotted with the use of an electronic turbine speed governor and installation of electromechanical and electrohydraulic converters (EMCs or EHCs) [4]. At the same time, even if the above-mentioned retrotting has been carried out, the degree to which the turbine control characteristic is close to linear in the entire range of loads may be different depending on the steam admission system used in the turbine. For example, less effort has to be taken to linearize the turbine control characteristic for K-300-23.8 turbines of LMZ than those for the turbines of Turboatom. (2) The time taken for the process to t into the range 1% Nnom, which is the second main indicator characterizing the SPFC dynamics, also depends on how linear the turbine static characteristic is. It depends to a no smaller degree (and to a considerably larger degree for the emergency margin), however, on the

Fig. 3. Transients obtained in experiments for checking the dynamic response of SPFC to frequency deviations in the double 300-MW Unit 4 at the Iriklinsk DPS (the TGMP-114 boiler and the K-300-23.8-3 turbine) during the operation on gas. Frequency deviation: (a) 150 mHz in the middle of the control range, (b) 370 mHz in the upper part of the control range (emergency deviation of frequency), and (c) 150 mHz in the lower part of the control range. (1) Power, MW; (2) upper permissible boundary of the accuracy with which the power output must be maintained, MW; (3) lower permissible boundary of the accuracy with which the power output must be maintained, MW; (4) steam pressure upstream of the turbine, kg/cm2; (5) group signal indicating the position of turbine valves, %; (6) fuel owrate, thousands of m3/h; (7) frequency deviation, mHz; and (8) RRL output, MW. THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

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Fig. 4. Transients obtained in experiments for checking the dynamic response of SPFC to emergency frequency deviations with amplitude of 370 mHz in the single 300-MW Unit 5 at the Stavropol DPS (the TGMP-314A boiler and the K-300-23.8-3 turbine) during the operation on gas; (a) and (b) are for the operation, respectively, in the upper and lower parts of the control range. The meaning of (1)(6) is the same as in Fig. 3.

boilers dynamic capacities and on the structural solutions in accordance with which the FPCSs unit part is constructed (see Fig. 2) and on the tuning of its elements. The latter factor, i.e., the way in which the FPCS is constructed, determines also the quality of the remaining part of transients: whether the process settles within the given range and whether the power is controlled without oscillations. (3) It can be seen from the presented graphs that the time for which the process must t into the specied range (30 s) is fullled not only in the tests within the normal margin (see Fig. 3), as is determined in the

Standard, but also in the majority of tests within the emergency margin. The only exception to this are the rst experiments in all tests for 800-MW Unit 1 at the Perm DPS. This is attributed to the limited range in which the turbine valves can move. Somewhat slower dynamics with which the transients for the Kirishi DPSs 300-MW Unit 4 proceed (see Fig. 5) is due to the above-described way in which the frequency deviation signal is applied for disturbances of 12.5 MW. (4) As was already indicated, making a steam turbines control characteristic linear is of fundamental importance for obtaining the required indicators of
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Fig. 5. Transients obtained in experiments for checking the dynamic response of SPFC to emergency frequency deviations with amplitude of 370 mHz in the single 300-MW Unit 4 at the Kirishi DPS (the TGMP-324 boiler and the K-300-23.8-3 turbine); (a) is for the operation on gas in the middle part of the control range, and (b) is for the operation on fuel oil in the lower part of the control range. The meaning of (1)(5) is the same as in Fig. 3. (6) Frequency deviation, mHz. THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

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Fig. 6. Transients obtained in experiments for checking the dynamic response of SPFC to emergency frequency deviations with amplitude of 370 mHz in 800-MW Unit 5 at the Perm DPS (the TPP-804 boiler and the K-800-240-5 turbine) during operation on gas; (a) and (b) are for the operation, respectively, in the upper and lower parts of the control range. The meaning of (1)(6) is the same as in Fig. 3.

SPFC. This problem is solved most conveniently for the K-300-23.8 turbine of LMZ, each of the seven highpressure valves of which is furnished with its own EMC. The resulting control characteristic can be made sufciently linear by properly selecting the tuning parameters determining the characteristic of this valve. The least favorable conditions for solving this problem are in the case of the K-300-23.8 turbine of Turboatom, because each half of the turbines steam admission unit

is equipped with its own EMC, and each of them controls a group of hydraulically interconnected valves. This is why nonmonotonic behavior was observed at the beginning of transients in some tests carried out on the Stavropol DPS power unit equipped with a K-300-23.8 turbine of Turboatom in contrast to almost monotonic processes in the power units at the Iriklinsk and Kirishi DPSs equipped with K-300-28.3 turbines of LMZ despite the fact that the initial nonlinearity of the turTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

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bines static characteristic had been compensated for to a considerable extent by inserting a dynamic dynamic function unit at the TPC input, the characteristics of which were automatically adapted depending on the load (see Fig. 2). (5) The forcing of the boiler, i.e., the ratio of the initial change in the fuel owrate to its steady value at the end of the transient, depends on the dynamic characteristics of the boiler, which depend on the power unit capacity and its ows. It should be pointed out that, since the time for which each experiment could be carried out was limited to 5 min, the transient in the power unit usually does not have enough time to die out completely (this can be seen from the pressure curves), a circumstance that adds difculty to a visual assessment of the forcing factor. The smallest forcing (by a factor of 1.5) is observed for the 300-MW double unit equipped with the TGMP114 boiler and four ows of medium. The required ratio with which the boiler of a single unit equipped with a TGMP-314 boiler with two ows of medium has to be forced increases to 1.6, and that for the 300-MW single unit equipped with a TGMP-324 boiler the medium in which goes in one ow to the built-in gate valve, to 1.7. Finally, the required ratio with which the boiler of an 800-MW power unit equipped with a TPP-804 boiler has to be forced for obtaining acceptable transients in power is equal to 2. The required boiler forcing ratio depends on the power unit operating conditions and increases when a shift is made from rated pressure to sliding pressure. The actual forcing ratios we observed in the course of tests at each load varied from experiment to experiment depending on the conditions under which an individual experiment was started: the pressure of steam upstream of the turbine and the dynamics with which the controlled values varied over the boiler (pressures, temperatures, and owrates of medium). Clearly, the higher the required boiler forcing ratio, the more complicated the FPCS is. First, a need arises to introduce dynamic function units for the boiler control signals (see Fig. 2), to tune them in the entire range of operating conditions, and to automatically adapt the tuning parameters. Second, the probability that ACDs may arise during the transients increases, so that measures for automatically taking them into account need to be developed, including those for reconguring the FPCSs unit part and the CLCS of the boiler. Finally, more considerable changes may occur in the margin that has to be provided in the power unit control range for SPFC.
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

PROPOSALS FOR IMPROVING THE ARRANGEMENTS TAKEN TO INVOLVE POWER UNITS IN THE FREQUENCY CONTROL MODES The experience Interavtomatika specialists gained from equipping large power units with FPCSs, including the results obtained from putting FPCS in use in power units equipped with gas-and-oil-red boilers in conformity with the SOCDA Standard, which were described in this paper, as well as the furnishing of many power units equipped with coal- and gas-and-oilred boilers with FPCS complying with the requirements of CPFC, allow us to propose that a wider range of power units can be involved in SPFC and ASFC. At present, the power units have been categorized into two groups. The rst group comprises condensing gas-and-oil-red power units that are charged, along with participation in CPFC, with SPFC and ASFC tasks, and the second group encompasses the remaining power units intended only for the CPFC purposes. It is exactly the rst group of power units that is currently considered for participation in the market of systems services. At the same time, the following question arises: why, unlike the well-known approach used outside Russia, have coal-red units been classed in the second group? The following three drawbacks of coal-red power units can be indicated in substantiation of such decision: they have poorer dynamic characteristics, it is more difcult to control the supply of fuel and the combustion process as a whole, and they have a narrower range of working loads. The poorer dynamics may be due to the following two factors: (i) the fuel-load channel comprises the dynamics of mills, which can be described by a rst-order delay function with a time constant of not higher than 1 min (this feature is characteristic only for boilers with direct injection of fuel); (ii) the boiler has a somewhat higher inertia (experience shows that this difference between the dynamic characteristics is much smaller for coal- and gas-andoil-red boilers than it is for boilers intended to re the same kind of fuel but with different outputs). Difculties with controlling the combustion process in coal-red boilers existed in Russian power engineering approximately until the late 1990s, the time until which traditional control equipment had been used for solving such problems. The use of microprocessor devices allowed these problems to be successfully solved. Interavtomatika specialists alone have succeeded in commissioning systems for comprehensively automating the combustion process and boilers main CLCSs in more than ten large coal-red power units of different types [7]. As for the narrower range of loads, the situation is as follows. The working ranges lower boundary for

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gas-and-oil-red power units is equal to 40-50%, whereas that for coal-red units is 6070%. This drawback is indeed essential, since, if we take the 5% margins for SPFC and ASFC in both directions, the range in which the power unit load can be varied becomes as narrow as 1020%. It is exactly in this indicator that Russian equipment is inferior to its foreign analogs, for which the range of working loads has a lower boundary of 40% or less. At the same time, if we take a coal-red power station with a large number of power units and/or the one equipped with large 500- and 800-MW power units, even such a narrow range may turn to be quite signicant. One more way in which the range of loads can be widened is to conne the operating modes with one kind of control: either SPFC or ASFC. Thus, there is no tangible difference between gasand-oil- and coal-red power units so far as control of the frequency and power is concerned except with the control range. Moreover, if we take into account that coal-red power units prevail in many regions, the participation of such units in the market of system services may happen to be not only desirable, but even mandatory. If it is decided that coal-red power units have to be involved in SPFC and ASFC, it will be necessary to develop a controllery document that would take into account, in particular, that the working range in which the loads of coal-red units can be varied is narrower than that of gas-and-oil-red units. Below, the main requirements of SPFC and ASFC are considered from the standpoint of which power units should preferably be used to fulll them. The following ones can be separated as such requirements: (i) the possibility of controlling the frequency with a dead band of 10 mHz; (ii) the dynamic characteristics of SPFC considered in detail in the previous section; and (iii) the dynamic characteristics of ASFC carried out with load variation rates of up to 4%/min. Whether the control of frequency can be performed with a dead band of 10 mHz depends only on the capabilities of the turbine CLCS and is achieved through replacing the hydraulic CLCSs by microprocessorbased controllers and installing electrohydraulic or electromechanical converters and high-precision frequency rotation sensors. Small deviations of turbine load that occur during such control can be compensated for without any serious problems by means of boiler control. The only thing that has to be done here is to furnish the boiler with a load controller with a moderate response speed. Thus, for this requirement to be fullled, it is sufcient that the turbine were equipped with an electronic CLCS, a condition that will be satised for all new power units and for those operating units in which the turbine CLCS is retrotted, irrespective of whether the power unit is a coal- or gas-and-oil-red one. The same conditions determine whether it is possible to fulll the requirements for the SPFC dynamic

performance initially in the transient, according to which the load must reach half of its change within 10 s. As was shown before, making the turbine static characteristic close to a linear dependence also has a positive effect on the time taken for the process to t into the range 1% Nnom, but the boilers dynamic characteristics and perfect structural solutions for constructing the unit part of the FPCS are the most important factors here. The latter factor means that the power units control and monitoring system must be upgraded in the range we considered in detail in this paper (see Fig. 1). As regards the effect of boilers dynamic characteristics, drum boilers, which have larger accumulating capacity and, hence, better dynamics with which steam owrate varies in response to displacement of the turbine control valves, are preferable to once-through boilers. Among the different designs of once-through boilers, psetpoint should be given to those having smaller throughput capacity of the entire unit or its individual ows. The kind of fuel being red (gas and fuel oil or coal) does not have an essential effect on how well the requirements are fullled. An analysis of the results from tests Interavtomatika specialists carried out on the FPCSs used in the 200-MW coal-red power units at the Kharanor DPS for conformity with the CPFC requirements shows the following. The curves of transients in the power unit output obtained for a 10% change in the load are in full conformity with the SPFC requirements in case of a 5% change in the load even despite the fact that the turbines are equipped with hydraulic CLCSs. Finally, the experience gained at Interavtomatika shows that whether or not the ASFC requirements are fullled depends on the same factors that affect the second indicator characterizing the dynamics of SPFC: the time taken for the process to t into the range 1% Nnom; i.e., this depends to a lesser extent on how linear the turbines static characteristic is and to a greater extent on the boiler dynamic characteristics and how perfect the FPCS is. CONCLUSIONS (1) It has been demonstrated that the requirements the SOCDA Standard places on the conditions under which power units can participate in SPFC and ASFC may really be fullled in Russian power units with different types of equipment. The one-and-a-half years that have passed since the time the Standard was put in force saw Standard conformity certicates to have been issued for eight power units equipped with FPCSs of Interavtomatika. (2) The necessary conditions for developing FPCSs conforming to the SOCDA Standard consist of retrotting the turbine CS, in the course of which a microprocessor-based system has to be installed instead of a hydraulic one; upgrading considerably the boilers CLCS; and implementing the FPCS unit part and a sysTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

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tem for taking ACDs into account. The FPCS itself should be furnished with a well-developed operator interface and an engineering system. (3) The optimal solution consists of implementing all FPCS elements on the basis of a single I&C system. (4) The unit-level part of the FPCS is made as a hybrid structure in which the solutions used in two wellknown approaches, namely, SAUM-1 and SAUM-2, are combined, and the conguration of this structure and dynamic characteristics of its units are automatically changed depending on the operating conditions. (5) The quality of the dynamic characteristics with which the SPFC and ASFC setpoints are responded to depends on how linear the turbine control characteristic is and on the boilers dynamic characteristics. The higher the capacity of the boiler or its individual ows, the more difcult it is to fulll the SPFC requirements: a higher boiler forcing ratio is required, the FPCS tuning becomes more complicated, and the effect of ACDs becomes stronger in nature. (6) We consider it advisable that coal-red power units be involved in solving the tasks of SPFC and ASFC, primarily those with a relatively small capacity, since the problems that have to be solved for achieving the characteristics complying with the SPFC and ASFC requirements when a shift is made from gas-and-oil-red units to coal-red ones are much less complicated than those in case of shifting to units of a larger capacity. REFERENCES
1. N. I. Davydov, A. D. Melamed, M. D. Trakhtenberg, and L. P. Fotin, An Automatic Frequency and Power Control

System for Unit-Type Thermal Power Stations Equipped with Once-Through Boilers, Teploenergetika, No. 8, 26 (1979) [Therm. Eng., No. 8 (1979)]. 2. Norms for the Participation of Power-Generating Units at Thermal Power Stations in Selective Primary and Automatic Secondary Control of Frequency: A SO-CDA Standard (Moscow, 2005) [in Russian]. 3. V. A. Bilenko, A. D. Melamed, and O. A. Manevskaya, Results from Tests of the Systems for Automatically Controlling the Frequency and Power of the PGU-450 Power Unit at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 Cogeneration Station, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 5260 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)]. 4. I. Z. Chernomzav and K. A. Nefedov, Improvement of Systems for Automatically Controlling Large-Capacity Steam Turbines, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 2733 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)]. 5. V. A. Bilenko, N. N. Derkach, E. E. Mikushevich, and D. Yu. Nikolskii, Development and Commissioning of Systems for Controlling the Main Parameters of the Boiler in the Process Control System of a 500-MW Power Unit at the Reftinsk District Power Station, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 210 (1999) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (1999)]. 6. V. V. Belyi, Yu. A. Kiselev, V. A. Savostyanov, et al., Upgrading the Automatic Process Control Systems of the 800-MW Power Units at the Berezovo GRES-1 District Power Station, Elektr. Stn., No. 1, 4952 (2004). 7. V. A. Bilenko, E. E. Mikushevich, D. Yu. Nikolskii, et al., Improvement of Systems for Automatically Controlling the Process Parameters of Power Units, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 3444 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)].

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ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 838845. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text I.Z. Chernomzav, K.A. Nefedov, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

Improvement of Automatic Control Systems for Large-Capacity Steam Turbines


I. Z. Chernomzav and K. A. Nefedov
ZAO Interavtomatika, ul. Avtozavodskaya 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia

AbstractWe present the structures of microprocessor-based control systems we have developed for steam turbines. We also present the results from tests carried out on 300- and 800-MW power units with turbines equipped with upgraded control systems, and these results conrm that this equipment complies with the requirements the SOCDA Standard places on selective primary control of the grid frequency. DOI: 10.1134/S0040601508100042

Microprocessor-based systems for closed-loop control of steam turbines are developed with the purpose of settling matters related to involvement of power units in efcient control of frequency in a united power grid. The main task of such control systems consists of improving the static and dynamic characteristics of turbines as controlled plants to obtain a better response to frequency deviations and, consequently, to make them more maneuverable. This task also has to be solved in view of the need to minimize frequency deviations in a complex power grid featuring a variety of normal operating conditions. Using microprocessor-based turbine control systems on a wide scale is also advisable in view of the conditions of power grid operation under which deviations from their normal modes occur or when power system stability is lost. Deviations from the normal operating conditions of a complex power grid are usually connected with the occurrence of active power imbalances in its individual parts. Disconnection of some region and local failures are the most common factors due to which frequency deviations occur. The main task imposed on the power units operating in such a system or near load centers in which an imbalance has occurred is to take an active part in compensating for the occurred imbalance of active power and in efciently stabilizing the network frequency. How rapidly the network frequency is restored depends on the parameters of the power grid, as well as on the ability of power units to promptly and adequately respond to frequency deviations. How efciently this task is solved at the power unit level depends on the main equipments dynamic and static characteristics and on the selected setpoint parameters of the system for closed-loop control of the frequency and power of the entire power unit. Attempts to solve the problem of actively involving power units in selective primary control of network frequency were made after certain directive documents appeared, among which was the Standard of the Sys-

tem-Operator Centralized Dispatching Administrator (SOCDA) of the Unied Energy Systems (the SOCDA Standart) [1]. These documents specied certain requirements for the systems used to control large turbines and for the processes in accordance with which the power unit outputs must be changed in response to changes in the network frequency. If we succeed in bringing power stations into compliance with these requirements, this should allow us to reduce the probability that an emergency situation may occur in power grids and minimize possible damage inicted to consumers. The requirements specied in the SOCDA Standard demand that the turbine control systems must allow a dead band to be set up (10 mHz) and the droop to be adjusted in the online mode (in the range from 4 to 6%). The parameters characterizing the response of a power unit to a stepped change in the frequency must be as follows: 50% of the required change in the power output must be achieved within 10 s and 100% of this change, within 30 s with a 5% power margin, and within 2 min with a 12.5% margin. The most important prerequisite for fullling the requirements of the SOCDA Standard is that the turbine load characteristic should be linear, a condition that allows the same change in the power output to be obtained in response to the same deviation of frequency in any range of loads. It is difcult to fulll these requirements unless the turbine control system is constructed with the use of microprocessors and unless its hydraulic part is retrotted. ALTERNATIVE VERSIONS USING WHICH HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEMS CAN BE RETROFITTED Interavtomatika specialists have developed the following alternative versions for upgrading the hydraulic control system of 300- and 800-MW turbines of Leningrad Metal Works (LMZ):

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(i) an alternative in which the hydraulic elements are displaced to the maximum extent and with individual control of each servomotor; and (ii) an alternative in which hydraulic elements are partially displaced. These alternate versions of improving the steam turbine control systems are aimed at excluding certain hydraulic parts from operating at low pressure and containing mechanical links, the characteristics of which vary during operation. The scope of main changes made to the hydraulic part of the turbine control system upgraded according to version 1 includes the following: (i) the mechanicalhydraulic device for controlling the rotation frequency has been replaced by an electronic one; (ii) the existing unit of speed governor slide valves (SGSVs) has been upgraded with retention of the functions of generating the pressure for cocking the safety controllers slide valves, the control pressure for the stop valves, and the control pressure for the intermediate slide valve (the SGSV unit as a hydraulic amplier in the rotation frequency control loop has been excluded); (iii) a toothed wheel is installed on the turbine shaft for measuring the current rotation frequency and highprecision frequency rotation sensors are placed on a xed bracket; (iv) in addition to a mechanical overspeed governor, the turbine is furnished with electronic overspeed protection (an electronic overspeed governor); (v) the turbine control mechanisms electric motor is retained for remotely or automatically cocking the overspeed governor slide valves (OGSVs), opening the stop valves when the turbine is started, and creating the pressure acting on the isolating slide valves of the servomotors of the high- and intermediate pressure cylinders' (HPC and IPC) control valves only to perform the protection function; (vi) the intermediate slide valve is excluded from the rotation frequency control loop and retained as a member that helps obtain the required response speed of control valves for closing when the protection comes into action; (vii) the electrohydraulic converter (EHC) is excluded from the circuit for controlling the position of control valves; and (viii) the servomotors driving the HPC and IPC control valves are retrotted so that electromechanical converters (EMCs) can be installed. Mechanical feedback to the isolating slide valves is excluded. Each servomotor driving the control valves of the high- and intermediate-pressure parts is furnished with position sensors, which are required to perform positioning functions. Control pressure is fed to each servomotor of the discharge valve from the chamber under the piston of the servomotor driving the IPC control
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valve situated on the same side with respect to the turbine axis. Thus, elements operating under a reduced pressure of control uid, an area containing the majority of dead-band sources of the control system, have been excluded from the control systems hydraulic part and only the actuating part remains in operation: the unit of isolating slide valve and the control valves servomotor, an item which features the best combination of quality indicators: a high moving force and small traveling time. The control pressure generated by the intermediate slide valve causes the isolating valve to remain in the same position, which sits on the stop during normal operation modes. The EMCs are controlled using a special unit that receives the output signal from the microprocessor part of the control system. A change in the position of the isolating sleeves axle, which is made by means of the EMC, causes the servomotor to shift. Hence, the movable axle must take the same (shutoff) position under steady operating conditions irrespectively of the turbine load. The list of functions imposed on the microprocessor part of the control system includes the following: (i) measuring the turbine shaft rotation frequency; (ii) generating the control deviations of rotation frequency for the speedup governor and the rotation frequency governor; (iii) generating the generalized setpoint for the position of control valves (Ht); (iv) generating the control deviations for the turbine unit power output, the position of control valves, and the pressure of live steam (pl.s) upstream of the turbine to implement the functions of the turbine power controller (TPC); (v) generating signals for the emergency control system (ECS); (vi) generating the control system for positioning the servomotors; (vii) carrying out diagnostics of the entire control channel of each servomotor, including the control unit and the EMC itself; (viii) carrying out automatic parameterization of the extreme positions of servomotors; and (ix) reciprocating the servomotors in an automated manner. The function diagram of the turbine control system incorporating a microprocessor part and a retrotted hydraulic part with means for individually controlling the servomotors of control valves is shown in Fig. 1a. The resulting signal, which includes the frequency control deviation generated by the frequency controller taking into account the droop and the signals from the TPC and ECS, is a generalized signal assigning the position of control valves. The nonlinear characteristics

840

CHERNOMZAV, NEFEDOV Control deviations of the turbine generator power output, Speedup live steam pressure, governor and position of control valves Turbine power Automatic emergency control system controller Rotation frequency measurement Rotation frequency governor Generation of the generalized setpoint Devices for positioning the control valves Diagnostics and initialization of each EMC Parameterization of position sensors for each CV EMC for CV-1 of HPC CV-1 of HPC (a) Control deviations of the turbine generator power Speedup output, live steam pressure, governor and position of control valves Turbine power Automatic emergency control system controller Rotation frequency measurement Rotation frequency governor Generation of the generalized setpoint Device for positioning the intermediate slide valve EMC Intermediate slide valve CV-1 of HPC CV-2 of HPC CV-7 of HPC (b) CV-A of IPC CV-B of IPC EMC EMC EMC for CV-7 for CV-A for CV-B of HPC of IPC of IPC CV-7 of HPC CV-A of IPC CV-B of IPC

Diagnostics and initialization of each EMC

Fig. 1. Function diagrams of the control system. (a) Version 1 and (b) version 2; CVcontrol valve, HPChigh-pressure cylinder, IPCintermediate-pressure cylinder.

of valve position are specied as functions of the generalized control signal and can be tuned, if necessary, to obtain a linear turbine loading characteristic. Each servomotor is controlled by means of a positioning device, the output signal of which species a setpoint for the EMC control unit. Such a solution makes it possible to control the position of control valves with high speed and accuracy and minimize or exclude completely their pulsation.

The scope of retrotting the hydraulic part of the turbine control system in accordance with version 2 [this has been implemented in the 300-MW unit No. 8 at the Konakovo district power station (DPS)] includes the removal of the hydraulic links used to control the intermediate slide valve. The slide valve remains in the control system loop for generating the control pressure (pcntr) that determines the position in which the control valve servomotors must be placed. The intermediate
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841 800 700 Active power for K-800-240, MW

slide valve is controlled and placed in the required position by means of one EMC. The feedbacks of all servomotors remain unchanged. The function diagram of this control system is shown in Fig. 1b (version 2). As in version 1, this system uses the same algorithm for generating the generalized setpoint. This setpoint is fullled precisely by properly positioning the intermediate slide valve. The required operational reliability of the control system is achieved by furnishing the intermediate slide valve with two position sensors, the output signals of which are checked for validity, and the maximum one of the two is used in the positioning algorithm. Such a refurbishment makes it possible to exclude the major fraction of the control systems dead band, which is lumped in the complicated design of the intermediate slide valve. A shortcoming of this version is that the microprocessor part of the control system cannot be used to linearize the turbine loading characteristic. This can only be done by setpoint the mechanical part of the control system. The advantage of this version is that it is simple and cheap. Version 1 was also used for retrotting the 300-MW turbines of OAO Turboatom (see Fig. 1a). However, the design of Turboatoms steam admission system, in which one servomotor of the high-pressure part is used to drive three control valves, does not allow the advantages of this version to be used completely. A linear loading characteristic for the turbines of this series can therefore be obtained only by properly adjusting the position of control valves. Figure 2 shows the linearized loading characteristics of the 300-MW unit No. 5 at the Iriklinsk DPS, the 800-MW unit No. 2 at the Perm DPS, and the 300-MW unit No. 5 at the Stavropol DPS. A comparison of the curves presented in the gure shows the advantage of using of individual means for controlling the control valves of turbines at the Iriklinsk and Perm DPSs, in which the required linearity of the loading characteristics has been obtained. The linear characteristic of the turbine at the Stavropol DPS was obtained after resetpoint the mutual positions of the valve stems and the servomotor of the high-pressure part. For the turbine at the Konakovo DPS to be retrotted in accordance with version 2, the mechanical links between each valve and its servomotor have to be adjusted to make the loading characteristic linear. The reliability of the microprocessor system is a factor that guarantees that the turbine loading characteristic will be stably linear in version 1. As regards the retrotting version in which one servomotor is used to control three valves or when the intermediate slide valves EMC is used to control servomotors, the linearity of the loading characteristic depends on how stable the characteristics of the steam admission systems mechanical elements are.
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Active power for K-300-240, MW

290 250 1 210 2 3

600 500

170 130

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50 60 70 80 Generalized setpoint for the control valves, %

Fig. 2. Loading characteristics of turbines. (1) The K-300-240 LMZ turbine at the Iriklinsk DPS, (2) the K-800-240 LMZ turbine at the Perm DPS, and (3) the K-300-240 Turboatom turbine at the Stavropol DPS.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL FACILITIES FOR CONSTRUCTING THE MICROPROCESSOR PART OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM The approach Interavtomatika specialists follow in constructing the electronic speed governors for the frequency and power control system (FPCS) and the process control system of a power unit consists in using unied instrumentation and control facilities, such as (i) the TPTS controller produced at VNIIA under license by Siemens; or (ii) the Siemens SIMATIC PCS7 controller. The use of the TPTS controller for constructing control system became possible after ZAO Interavtomatika specialists, working jointly with VNIIA specialists, developed dedicated modules with an advanced speed of response for implementing the functions of calculating rotation frequency, frequency controller, control valve positioning, and automatic emergency control. These were used to construct and put into operation the microprocessor parts of the control systems for three 800-MW turbines at the Perm DPS and two 300-MW turbines of Turboatom at the Stavropol DPS and at the thermal power station (TPS) in the city of Aksu. EMCs are used in these projects for introducing electrical signals into the hydraulic part of the control system. The same facility was used, in combination with electrohydraulic converters, to construct the control system for the K-110 turbine of LMZ, which is used as part of the PGU-325 combined-cycle plant at the Ivanovo DPS. The SIMATIC controller was used to construct and put into use the FPCSs and microprocessor parts of the turbine control systems for 300-MW power units at the Iriklinsk DPS (four units), at the Kirishi DPS (two units), and at the Konakovo DPS (one unit). The functions of frequency calculation, controlling, positioning, and automatic emergency control, for which a high

842 1
77.9 77.8 77.7 77.6 77.5 77.4 77.3 77.2 77.1 77.0 76.9 76.8 76.7 76.6 76.5 76.4 76.3 76.2 76.1 76.0

CHERNOMZAV, NEFEDOV 2
303 301 299 297 295 293 291 289 287 285 283 281 279 277 275

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4
17.9

5 6

7 2 0.5 mHz 2 mHz 4 mHz 6 mHz 4 5 6 8 mHz 1 10 mHz 3 7

86 27 44 85 26 43 83 24 41

17.8 84 25 42 17.7 82 23 40 17.6 81 22 39 17.5 80 21 38 79 20 37 77 18 35 76 17 34 74 15 32 73 14 31

17.4 78 19 36 17.3

17.2 75 16 33 17.1

17.0 72 13 30 15:21:00 15:24:18 15:27:36 15:30:54 15:34:12 15:37:30 15:40:48 15:44:06 15:47:24 15:50:42 15:54:00 Time, h : min : s

Fig. 3. Estimation of the dead band on the running power unit No. 1 with a K-300-240 turbine at the Iriklinsk DPS. (1) Generalized setpoint for the control valve Ht, %; (2) active power of the generator, MW; (3) live steam pressure, MPa; (4) pressure in the control stage chamber, MPa; and (5)(7) positions of the high-pressure parts control valves Nos. 5, 6, and 7, %.

speed of response is required, have been implemented using a dedicated FM-458 module. ASSESSING THE DEAD BANDS OF THE TURBINE CONTROL SYSTEMS The dead bands of control systems were estimated after the turbine control systems used in power units equipped with FPCSs or full-scale process control systems had been retrotted. To do so, frequency deviations at which the turbine has to be unloaded were simulated in the 300-MW unit No. 1 at the Iriklinsk DPS during its operation at the 300-MW load. Stepped devidf, mHz 5 15 35 N df N, MW 505 465 425

ations in the frequency with amplitudes from 0.5 to 10 mHz were simulated together with the corresponding reduction in the generalized setpoint for the control valves, and the following parameters were recorded: the pressure in the control stage chamber pc.c, the livesteam pressure pl.s, the positions of the control valves CV-5 and CV-6, and the generator power output N. We see from the processes shown in Fig. 3 that the control valves respond to frequency deviations in the range from 2 to 4 mHz. A noticeable change in the live-steam pressure in the control stage chamber, as well as a change in the generator power output, occurs when the frequency deviates by 6 mHz. A similar change occurred in the position of the high-pressure parts servomotors during the experiments in the 300-MW turbine of Unit 5 at the Stavropol DPS in response to frequency deviations with an amplitude of 5 mHz. Tests for checking compliance with the SOCDA Standard must prove that the power output shows a noticeable change in response to simulated deviation of frequency by 10 mHz with a droop of 6%. Figure 4 shows an example of such process that was obtained in the 800-MW unit No. 1 at the Perm DPS. The requirements the SOCDA Standard places on the dead band are fullled for all the considered versions for retrotting the turbine control systems.
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02:46:53 02:48:40 02:50:26 02:52:13 02:53:59 Time, h : min : s

Fig. 4. Variation in the power output of the 800-MW power unit No. 1 at the Perm DPS in response to simulated deviation of frequency df = 10 mHz.

IMPROVEMENT OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS 1 2 3 4


78 76 74 72 70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 832 296 763 26.2 292 694 25.8 288 556 25.4 284 487 280 418 25.0 276 625 24.6 349 24.2 272 280 23.8 268 211 23,4 264 142 23.0 260 73 256 4 22.6 252 65 22.2 248 134 21.8 244 203 21.4 240 272 21.0 341 236 410 20.6 232 479 20.2 228 548 19.8 224 617 19.4 220 686 19.0 216 755 18.6 212 824 18.2 893 208 962 17.8 204 1031 17.4 200 1100 17.0

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4
74 72 70 4 3 68 66 64 62 60 +160 mHz 0 +110 +60 58 60 mHz 110 56 160 54 2 52 50 48 46 44 1 42 40 38 36 34 32 30 17:56:29 18:00:52 18:05:16 18:09:39 18:14:03 18:18:27 18:22:50 18:27:14 18:31:37 18:36:01 18:40:25 Time, h : min : s

694 25.4 288 625 284 556 25.0 280 487 24.6 276 418 24.2 349 23.8 272 280 23,4 268 211 264 142 23.0 260 73 22.6 256 4 22.2 252 65 21.8 248 134 21.4 244 203 240 272 21.0 236 341 20.6 410 232 479 20.2 228 548 19.8 224 617 19.4 220 686 19.0 216 755 18.6 212 824 18.2 893 208 962 17.8 204 1031 17.4 200 1100 17.0

(b)

Fig. 5. Variations in the power unit output in response to stepped changes in the frequency and with different droop values. Droop, %: (a) 4 and (b) 6; (1) N, MW; (2) df, mHz; (3) pl.s, MPa; and (4) Ht, %.

CHECKING THE OPERATION OF THE FREQUENCY CONTROL SYSTEM WITH DIFFERENT DROOP VALUES The SOCDA Standard demands that the operation of a control system be checked by simulating a stepped change in the frequency for two values of the control system droop equal to 4 and 6%. It has been adopted that a stepped change in the frequency must have different signs and must consist of three steps, and that the maximum increment of power must be equal to 5% of
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

the turbines rated power. The dynamic and static error with which the setpoint is followed must lie within 1% (the specied range) of the power unit rated capacity. The power unit response is checked in the upper, lower, and middle parts of the control range. Figure 5 shows the transients obtained for the 300-MW turbine of Unit 5 at the Iriklinsk DPS during its operation at an initial load of 226 MW. We see that the required change in the power output is obtained with the specied droop

844 N, MW 700 650 600 pl.s

CHERNOMZAV, NEFEDOV pl.s, MPa 23 21 19

550 500 13:55:00 13:58:00 14:01:00 14:04:00 14:07:00 450


N

17 15

Time, h : min : s
Fig. 6. Transient change in the power output by 100 MW in response to a stepped change in the frequency.

turbines, the results of which have conrmed that the requirements of the SO-CDA Standard are complied with [2]. Changing the turbine power in a fast and precise manner allows its output to be brought within the specied range of values irrespective of the sign with which the disturbance is applied; 50% of the required change is achieved in 10 s, and 100% in 30 s. When an emergency deviation of the frequency occurs, the full required change in the power output must be achieved in 2 min [1]. A typical example of the transient triggered when an emergency stepped change in the frequency by 12.5% occurs is given in Fig. 6, which shows the curves obtained for the 800-MW unit No. 3 at the Perm DPS, at which the 100% change in the power output is achieved, in accordance with the requirements of the SOCDA Standard, within 2 min. PARTICIPATION OF POWER UNITS IN SPFC Tests carried out during continuous operation of a power unit with a dead band equal to 10 mHz at a load equal to its rated value make it possible to estimate whether the requirements of the SOCDA Standard can be complied with. The transient curves shown in Fig. 7 depict variations in the parameters of the 300-MW unit No. 7 at the Iriklinsk DPS in an interval of time equal to 45 min. When actual deviations of the frequency in the power grid occur both toward increasing and decreasing with respect to the 10 mHz dead band, control commands for the turbine control valves are generated, and the boiler load setpoint is changed when the power controller is in operation. Displacements of

14:10:00

14:13:00

14:16:00

value and with the simulated deviation of frequency in accordance with the SO-CDA Standard. ESTIMATING THE MANEUVERABILITY OF TURBINES WHEN FREQUENCY DEVIATIONS OCCUR The use of the microprocessor part of the control system in combination with its retrotted hydraulic part allows the control commands to be followed accurately and with high speed of response. This conclusion follows from the tests carried out in some power units equipped with 300- and 800-MW LMZ and Turboatom
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

93 34 51 301 24.7 81 18.9 92 33 50 24.6 80 18.8 91 32 49 299 24.5 79 3002 18.7 90 31 48 297 24.4 78 89 30 47 295 24.3 77 18.6 88 29 46 24.2 76 18.5 87 28 45 3001 293 24.1 291 24.0 75 18.4 86 27 44 74 85 26 43 18.3 289 23.9 84 25 42 3000 23.8 73 18.2 287 83 24 41 23.7 72 285 23.6 71 18.1 82 81 283 23.5 70 18.0 80 23.4 69 17.9 281 79 23.3 68 17.8 78 279 23.2 67 23.1 17.7 77 277 76 23.0 66 17.6 275 75 22.9 65 273 22.8 64 17.5 74 23 40 22 39 21 38 20 37 19 36 18 35 2998 17 34 16 33 15 32 2997 2999

14:19:00 3

7 8 +10 mHz 10 mHz 5

6 2 4

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Fig. 7. Participation of power units in SPFC (1) N, MW; (2) pl.s, MPa; (3) Ht, %; (4) pc.s, MPa; (5) CV-5, %; (6) CV-6, %; (7) CV-7, %; and (8) turbine rotation frequency n, rpm. THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

IMPROVEMENT OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEMS

845

control valves Nos. 5 and 6, changes in the live steam pressure, and, accordingly, in the generator power output are clearly recorded. The transients are stable, and the parameters vary within the permissible limits; hence, the power unit can be involved in participation in SPFC. Analysis of the results obtained from the tests of a turbine control system that incorporates a microprocessor part and a hydraulic part retrotted in accordance with versions implying different degrees to which its mechanical and hydraulic elements are displaced allows the following conclusions to be drawn. (1) Retrotting the control systems of turbines with individually governing control valves in accordance with version 1 is the optimal choice with respect to the following criteria: (i) the minimal dead band can be obtained; (ii) it offers the best conditions for making the loading characteristic linear with the use of the microprocessor part; (iii) it allows the maximum possible traveling speed of control valves to be obtained with the minimal overshoot; and (iv) it allows the oscillations of servomotors (valves) to be minimized or eliminated under steady operating conditions. (2) Retrotting a control system in which one servomotor is used to govern a group of control valves has all the above-mentioned advantages except with the possibility of linearizing the loading characteristic using the microprocessor part. There are also certain constraints on reciprocating the control valves. (3) Retrotting a control system equipped with an EMC-controlled intermediate slide valve does not allow a microprocessor system to be used for linearizing the loading characteristic. The hydraulic lines through which signals from the intermediate slide valve (control pressure) are transmitted to the servomotors' shutoff valves impose limitations on the maximum possible speed with which the servomotors can move. Despite these constraints, all requirements of the SOCDA Standard, including those for the dead band, are fullled. Work on putting into use the microprocessor parts of the turbine control system was carried out in parallel with development of FPCSs or process control systems in 11 power units. Tests for conformity with the SOCDA Standard have by the present time been carried out in

nine power units, and the power stations have already received certicates of conformance for them. CONCLUSIONS (1) The developed microprocessor parts of steam turbine control systems, taken in combination with their retrotted hydraulic parts, make it possible to operate with a dead band of 10 mHz and operatively change the droop. The static and dynamic characteristics of a steam turbine equipped with such a control system comply with the requirements of the SOCDA Standard. (2) The developed versions for retrotting the hydraulic part of a control system imply different degrees to which the hydraulic elements are displaced for minimizing the dead band. (3) As regards turbines the control valves of which are individually governed, their loading characteristic can be linearized in the microprocessor part of the control system. When frequency deviations occur, the error with which the turbine power output is changed with both signs does not exceed 1% of the rated power. If a turbine is equipped with servomotors that drive a few control valves, the mechanical links of this group of valves need to be specially adjusted to obtain a linear loading characteristic. If an EMC-driven intermediate slide valve is used to control the servomotors, all the control valves must also be adjusted to obtain a linear loading characteristic. (4) The tests carried out in accordance with the certication program have shown that development of microprocessor parts for the turbine control systems is the necessary condition for bringing power units in compliance with the requirements of the SOCDA Standard. REFERENCES
1. Norms in Accordance with Which the Power Units of Thermal Power Stations Should Participate in Selective Primary and Automatic Secondary Control of the Frequency: a Central Dispatch Boards Systems Department Standard (Moscow, 2005) [in Russian]. 2. V. A. Bilenko, A. D. Melamed, E. E. Mikushevich, et al., Development and Application of Automatic Frequency and Power Control Systems for Large Power Units, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 1426 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)].

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ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 846858. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text V.A. Bilenko, E.E. Mikushevich, D.Yu. Nikolskii, R.L. Rogachev, N.A. Romanov, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

Improvement of Process Closed-Loop Control Systems for Power Units


V. A. Bilenko, E. E. Mikushevich, D. Yu. Nikolskii, R. L. Rogachev, and N. A. Romanov
ZAO Interavtomatika (Interautomatika AG), ul. Avtozavodskaya 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia AbstractWe describe the results of activities carried out at ZAO Interavtomatika (Interautomatika AG) on the development and putting into use of improved systems for closed-loop control of the main process values of Russian power units equipped with once-through boilers. We also consider a general approach for improving control systems and describe specic technical solutions taken for furnishing the main technological items of coal- and gas-and-oil-red power units with closed-loop control systems. DOI: 10.1134/S0040601508100054

Systems for closed-loop control of process values are the basic element of facilities using which automatic control of power units is performed during their operation at working loads and during operations for starting them up or shutting them down. Much attention has always been paid in Russian power engineering to activities aimed at improving the conguration of process closed-loop control systems (CSSs) and adapting them for new process circuits and operating conditions of power units. One factor that retarded progress in this eld was the use of out-of-date analog controllers, facilities poorly adapted for possible extension of the functional capacities of CLCSSs. A changeover to microprocessor equipment and widespread use of distributed microprocessor automatic process control systems (CLCSs) that have been seen in the last 1015 years are the factors due to which much improvement has been made in the function diagrams of CLCSs, they have become more reliable and immune to failures, and better quality of control processes has been achieved. This paper presents the results obtained from work on developing and putting into use systems for closedloop control of the main process values of Russian power units, during which their monitoring and control systems were fully or partially upgraded on the basis of programm instrumentation and control systems (I&CSs) developed by Siemens: TELEPERM XP-R, SIMATIC PCS7-PS, and SPPA-T3000. The main attention is paid to the CLCSs of traditional power units equipped with once-through boilers. The analysis that has been carried out was based on the experience we gained from activities on putting CLCSs in use in coalred units, among which were 800-MW units nos. 1 and 2 at the Suizhong thermal power station (TPS) in China and the Berezovo district power station (DPS), 500-MW units nos. 710 at the Refta DPS, and 300-MW units nos. 3 and 4 at the TPS of the city of Aksu in Kazakhstan and unit no. 8 at the Zmievka TPS in the Ukraine, and gas-and-oil-red 800-MW units nos. 1

and 2 at the Perm DPS, 300-MW unit no. 5 at the Stavropol DPS, units nos. 15 at the Iriklinsk DPS, unit no. 8 at the Konakovo DPS, unit no. 10 at the Sredneuralsk DPS, and units nos. 2 and 4 at the Kirishi DPS. We are grateful to the management and leading specialists of these power stations for creative participation and help in organizing these activities. THE CAPABILITIES OF MODERN I&CS FOR IMPROVING THE CLCS OF POWER UNITS Modern I&CSs, in particular, the above-mentioned microprocessor control systems of Siemens used at Interavtomatika, have advantages that allow the CLCSs of power units to be improved to an extent much greater than the level that can be achieved through the use of traditional facilities and rst-generation microprocessor-based systems. The list of these advantages includes the following. (1) The new equipment is extremely reliable and has in-depth self-diagnostic features, properties due to which complex, multiply connected, and fully variable CLCS structures can be constructed in such a way that a failure of their elements, especially an undetectable one, is an extremely unlikely event. (2) The new equipment has highly developed basic software, using which virtually any physically executable logic of automatic control with the required volume of dynamic and logic processing can be implemented. (3) the new equipment has facilities for comprehensively diagnosing the CLCS peripheral equipment, like sensors, drives, and actuators, which generate the necessary information about deviations that has occurred and allow the necessary changes to be made in the CLCS structure.

846

IMPROVEMENT OF PROCESS CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS

847

(4) the new equipment allows a subject-oriented operator interface to be developed, which includes the following features: (i) various forms of information indicating how well the CLCSs operate and possible malfunctions in their operation; (ii) online and ofine (postoperation) displaying of curves graphically illustrating trends in groups of interrelated process values, control elements positions, and internal variables of CLCS algorithms; (iii) online presentation of the function diagrams of CLCS algorithms with the current values of their external and internal variables; (iv) automatic generation of logs for the entire list of events related to the CLCS operation, including the actions of operative personnel on switching on/off the CLCSs or changing their conguration; (v) construction of video frames with a combined use of different forms in which data on the CLCS operation is displayed; (vi) construction of the manmachine interface in such a way that operative or maintenance personnel have the possibility to change the conguration of CLCS within predetermined limits in order to ensure their operability when nonstandard situations occur; and (vii) the availability of highly developed engineering facilities that allow changes in the CLCS function diagrams and their video frames to be made in a rapid and efcient manner and download these corrections in the I&CS in the online mode on the running equipment. Thus, modern I&CSs offer possibilities for making CLCS algorithms much more sophisticated and the procedures for adjusting them considerably simpler, for monitoring the operation of controllers in clear form, and for correcting their operation when off-design situations occur. MAIN LINES OF ACTIVITIES FOR IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF CONTROL PROCESSES The main tendency seen in the way in which the CLCSs of power units are improved consists of improving the quality with which a power units load and main values are maintained with simultaneously minimizing the volume in which operative personnel participate in direct control of both control elements and controllers setpoints. First of all, this relates to the load control range: from 50 (40) to 100% for gas-and-oil-red power units and from 70 (60) to 100% for coal-red ones. It is already at this point that any change in the load should be carried out automatically. Among the factors that generate the need to do so are that a power unit involved in common primary frequency control (CPFC) must comply with certain requirements, that the actual load curve is essentially nonuniform, that stringent commercial requirements are placed on the accuracy with which it must be maintained (1% of the
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

rated load), and that a large number of power units will in the future have to participate in the selective primary and automatic secondary control of frequency (SPFC and ASFC, respectively) [1]. It should be pointed out that the serious penalties power stations have to pay for disconnection of power units generated the need to take measures for ensuring an automatic emergency power unit unloading system (AEUS) be operable. It is extremely important that these requirements must be fullled continuously during long-term operation of a power unit. Therefore, all possible occurrences of technological constraints or failures of individual items of process equipment and functional failures of CLCS peripheral equipment must be responded to with minimal possible disturbances to the power system assignments and degradation in the quality with which the internal values of a power unit are maintained. The following are the general avenues in which the functional capabilities of systems for closed-loop controlling the process values of power units are perfected. (1) Automatically generating the optimal setpoint of technological values through the use of cascade closedloop controllers, analog dependences of operating values (vs. the load, pressure, etc.), signals bearing information on the quantitative composition of auxiliary equipment (burners, mills, and fans), and logic conditions characterizing the operating regimes. (2) Improving the control algorithms used in local systems for closed-loop controling inertial process values (primarily, temperatures) through the use of simplied models of controlled sections. Not only does it allow PID and more complex control laws to be obtained in classic two-loop CLCSs, but it also allows additional control loops to be introduced, e.g., in local systems for closed-loop control of temperatures by means of injections fed in between the sections of steam superheaters, or multiloop CLCSs to be constructed by combining several local CLCSs when individual injections are taken out from operation. (3) Neutralizing the mutual inuence of local CLCSs by adding compensating branches (dynamic functions) in between them. The use of such solutions allow control channels to be dynamically decoupled from each other and better quality of transients to be obtained for typical disturbances, primarily, when changes in the load occur. A correct choice of decoupling methods, i.e., the ways in which compensating branches are connected, helps simplify the setpoint of the entire multiply connected CLCS of a power unit, which boils down in this case to a sequence of operations for adjusting and putting in operation local CLCSs without the need to use iterative procedures [3, 4]. One efcient way in which multiply connected CLCSs comprising similar local CLCSs can be decoupled consists of designing closed-loop controllers for the total (or averaged) and differential deviations of the controlled quantities [5].

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(4) Automatically changing the structure of CLCS circuits when changes occur in the operating conditions of the equipment, when automatic process control is disabled states arise, or when functional failures of CLCS peripheral equipment occur: (i) replacing the main or additional values in accordance with logic conditions or by detecting the minimal or maximal deviations between their specied and actual values; (ii) adding, excluding, or changing additional control loops in local CLCSs; and (iii) reconguring the structure of interconnected local CLCSs, including the so-called reversal logic concept [6]. (5) Making wide use of means for automatically tuning dynamic characteristics of local CLCSs (master controllers, slave controllers, and differentiators) and dynamic function units inserted in between them taken in combination with using closed- and open-loop control laws in accordance with which the control outputs are generated (in the rst case, in response to changes in the operating conditions with the same conguration of the CLCS, and in the second case, when changes are made in its conguration). (6) Making CLCSs more immune to failures by timely diagnosing the failures of sensors and actuators and choosing the appropriate conguration of a given CLCS and/or the local CLCSs connected to it (see point 4). MAIN SOLUTIONS TO THE CONFIGURATION OF CLCS FOR POWER UNITS EQUIPPED WITH ONCE-THROUGH BOILERS A power units CLCS includes a unit part, which performs the functions of a frequency and power control system (FPCS), and CLCSs for individual units of the boiler and turbine. The number of automatic controllers used in large power units with capacities of 300-, 500-, and 800-MW runs as many as 100200. Some of these controllers, primarily those for turbine and auxiliary equipment, have very simple single- or two-loop congurations (in the latter case, they use a supplementary signal for the position of a control element), and the development of such controllers usually does not give rise to any essential problems. As regards the technological systems of a boiler, the majority have to be furnished with complex CLCSs interconnected with one another and with the boiler and turbine power controllers (BPC and TPC), which are part of the frequency and power control system (FPCS) [1]. Below, we will address the problem of selecting the optimal structural solutions for the CLCSs of the boiler as a whole and of its individual units, placing emphasis on once-through boilers as apparatuses much more complex from the viewpoint of their control. The outline function diagrams of CLCSs for a oncethrough boiler are shown in Fig. 1. A problem that has

always been of fundamental importance in constructing CLCSs for a once-through boiler is how to distribute the functions between the CLCSs for feed and fuel, namely, which will control the load and which will control the temperature conditions along the boiler path upstream of the rst controlled injection [7, 8]. According to the approach that was followed in the Russian power engineering for a long time, the feed-water owrate controller was used as a load controller in coalred boilers (so-called scheme 1; see Fig. 1a), whereas the fuel controller was used to perform these functions in gas-and-oil-red boilers (scheme 2; see Fig. 1b). As is well known, the zone in which guaranteed steam superheating is ensured (in which the temperature measurement point has to be selected to control the water to fuel ratio) in the coal-red once-through boilers of 500and 800-MW power units is situated at a considerable distance from the beginning of the steamwater path. Since this circumstance gave rise to certain difculties in controlling these boilers, a tendency emerged in the 1980s and 1990s of using scheme 2 for coal-red boilers, which, however, has not received wide use in practice. It should be pointed out that thermal power stations outside Russia also use two alternative solutions for the distribution of functions between the feed water owrate and fuel controllers. In Germany, a country in which once-through boilers have received the widest use in Europe, scheme 2 is used irrespective of which kind of fuel is red. Power stations in the United States, the fraction of once-through boilers at which is smaller, usually apply scheme 1. One important advantage of scheme 1 is that its use results in more favorable dynamics of temperature signals at intermediate sections of the boiler path in case of disturbances in fuel owrate as compared with changing feedwater owrate; this difference tends to increase as the load decreases, a feature characteristic for the majority of boilers. This advantage makes scheme 1 [8] considerably more protable in terms of the quality with which a multiply connected CLCS controls the temperature of steam, power unit output, and pressure of steam upstream of the turbine as compared with scheme 2, especially for disturbances in the supply of fuel, which cannot be intercepted by means of a signal used as an indicator of fuel owrate. As regards coal-red boilers, apparatuses in which disturbances in the fuel feed channel occur in relatively frequent occasions, and the values of which do not always correspond accurately enough to variations in the signal reecting the fuel owrate, the dynamic advantages of scheme 1 are obvious. An argument in favor of using scheme 2 for coal-red boilers is that disabling of automatic control for increasing process values, which arise rather frequently when dust systems (for boilers with direct injection) or dust feeders (for boilers with an intermediate hopper) are shut down, can be taken into account in a convenient manner. Scheme 2 generates a response to such disturbance by means of the initial
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FPCS BLSA Wref FSA Gf.ref CLCS of livesteam temperature DC CLCS of the outlet injection CLCS of reheat steam temperature

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Feed CLCS Generation of flowrate deviations

Fuel controller

CLCS of the GAP Corrector of O2 Generation of setpoint Air controller FDFi (a) EFDi Corrector of tf.g Rarefaction controller

Dust system CMs

DC

Controller Controllers of W of Wi

CLCS of DS1

CLCS of DS2

CLCS of the outlet injection Temperature corrector Injection control valves

CLCS CLCS of emergency of SSHE bypass injection

TFWP, EFWP

FCVi

Dust system CMs

Corrector CV on the of gas to fuel bypass oil pressure ratio of SSHE

FPCS BLSA Gf.ref FSA Wref Feed CLCS Fuel controller Corrector of gas to fuel oil pressure ratio Fuel controller Corrector of O2 Generation of setpoint Air controller FDFi EFDi Corrector of tf.g Rarefaction controller CLCS of the GAP DC Generatio of flowrate deviations DC Controller Controllers of Wi of W CLCS of the outlet injection CLCS of livesteam temperature

CLCS of reheat steam temperature Temperature corrector Generation of setpoint CLCS Controller of emergency of flue gas recircuinjection lation Corrector of gas to fuel oil pressure ratio

CLCS of the Temperature corrector

Gas CLCS Gas CV

Fuel oil CLCS Fuel oil CV

TFWP, EFWP FCVi (b)

FGREFi Injection control valves

Fig. 1. Outline function diagrams of the CLCSs for coal-red (a) and gas-and-oil-red (b) once-through boilers. BLSABoiler load setpoint adjuster, FSAfuel owrate setpoint Gf.ref adjuster, FWSAtotal feedwater owrate setpoint Wref adjuster, GAP gasair path, CEscontrol elements, FDFforced-draft fan, EFexhaust fan, FGREFue gas recirculation exhaust fan, TFWPturbine-driven feedwater pump, EFWPelectrically driven feedwater pump, CVcontrol valve, DSdust system, SSHEsteam-to-steam heat exchanger, FCVfeed water control valve, and DCdynamic function unit.

structure of the boiler CLCS, whereas scheme 1 needs to be reversed; i.e., the output from the fuel controller must be switched over to the feed-water owrate CLCS. The use of scheme 2 for gas-and-oil-red boilers was given preference in order to exclude unnecessary inuence of the control system on the owrate of fuel as a consequence of sufciently stringent requirements placed on the quality of the combustion process, on one hand, and since there are no special factors that would
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cause the occurrence of fuel disturbances, on the other hand. These arguments sounded convincingly because power units operated at that time predominantly in the base load mode. One more argument in favor of using scheme 2 for gas-and-oil-red boilers is that most of these boilers have a two-ow steamwater path while being equipped with only one control valve for controlling fuel owrate. In this case, scheme 2 is implemented

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directly: the controller of gas owrate serves to control the load, and the device for controlling the owrate of feedwater along the ow maintains its temperature conditions. If scheme 1 is used, the solution is not so seamless: the load control function is imposed on the device for controlling the total owrate of water in the ows; the function of maintaining the average temperature conditions in the ow (e.g., the signals for the half sum of temperatures or the positions of injection valves) is imposed on the fuel owrate controller; and the function of controlling the difference between the indicators of temperature conditions, on the device for controlling the difference of feedwater owrates between the ows. For coal-red boilers, the furnaces of which are subdivided into two half-furnaces, and the owrate of fuel can be controlled individually in each of these halves, e.g., by separating the dust systems or dust feeders for the half-furnaces, the above-mentioned advantage of scheme 2 is not obtained. Today, when the need has arisen to use power units under essentially variable operating conditions, including their participation in CPFC and, very soon, in SPFC and ASFC, the approaches used previously have to be revised. Indeed, disturbances applied by changing the load are now becoming most essential and it is almost impossible to keep the water-to-fuel ratio undisturbed during them. The fact that the preferred method for correcting this ratio consists of changing the owrate of fuel makes the arguments in favor of using scheme 1 more signicant. At the same time, most of the projects implemented by Interavtomatika specialists have been developed in accordance with the approach adopted several decades ago: scheme 1 is used in all coal-red power units and scheme 2 in all gas-and-oil-red power units. The above-mentioned drawback scheme 1 has for coal-red units (frequently disabling automatic control for fuel owrate need to be taken into account) has been overcome through the use of multiply veried structural solutions for taking automatic control disabled statusesinto account, primarily by using the reversal arrangement; an example illustrating its operation is constraints below. The positive results obtained from putting scheme 1 in use, in particular, in the 500-MW power units at the Refta DPS [9] and the 800-MW power units at the Berezovo DPS [10] have fully conrmed that the adopted decision was correct. Whether the decision to use scheme 2 for gas-andoil-red units is correct or not is not so obvious. Indeed, the quality with which the temperature conditions were maintained along the boiler path under such complicated conditions as tests for conformity with the Standard of the System Operator Centralized Dispatch Administration (SOCDA) within the limits of emergency margin [1] or when the automatic emergency power unit unloading system (AEUS) comes into action remained good for the majority of power facilities (examples will be given below). At the same time,

there were some cases, e.g., for PK-41 boilers, which have a remote transition zone, additional efforts on improving the conguration of CLCS and carefully tuning them had to be taken to achieve acceptable quality of control during operation under the above-mentioned conditions, especially at low load. The use of scheme 1 would in all likelihood make it possible to improve the quality of control; however, in the opinion of the customers, such a considerable change in the approach for boiler control may give rise to considerable difculties for the operating personnel, who have for years been accustomed to another principle of controlling the process, in particular, due to the abovementioned reasoning regarding the existence of two ows of medium, in which the temperature conditions must be maintained, and that only one valve is available for controlling the supply of gas or fuel oil. This is why the adopted scheme 2 was left unchanged. IMPROVEMENT OF CLCSs FOR THE MAIN TECHNOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF BOILERS Generating the setpoints for water and fuel owrates. The signal for the specied boiler load, which is in fact the setpoint value of the feedwater owrate Wref (see scheme 1 in Fig. 1a) or fuel owrate (see scheme 2 in Fig. 1b), is generated at the output of the boiler load setpoint unit (BLSU). When the power unit operates in the range of working loads, the BLSU either passes the FPCS output signal or receives commands from the operator. The setpoint value for the other main control output, i.e., Gf.ref (scheme 1) or Wref (scheme 2) is generated in the corresponding unit: the fuel owrate setpoint unit (FSU) (see Fig. 1a) or feedwater owrate setpoint unit (FWSU) (see Fig. 1b). These units perform the following functions: (i) generating static characteristics for the setpoint signals for feedwater and fuel owrates, which are nonlinear in the general case; (ii) changing this characteristics taking into account the current value of feedwater temperature tfw; (iii) generating a dynamic function to compensate for the difference in the dynamics with which a signal characterizing the temperature conditions along the boiler path responds to disturbances in the feedwater and fuel owrates; and (iv) adding the output signal from the temperature master controller. A CLCS of the supply of fuel in coal-red boilers. The problem of equipping the fuel feed unit of coalred boilers, primarily those with direct-injection dust systems, had no nished solution in the Russian power engineering until the mid-1990s. Interavtomatika specialists have succeeded in solving this problem for coalred boilers equipped with different types of dust systems:
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(i) boilers with hammer mills (the 500-MW power units at the Refta DPS and 300-MW power units at the TPS in the city of Aksu); (ii) boilers with medium-speed mills (the 800-MW power units at the Suizhong TPS); and (iii) boilers with pulverizing fans (the 800-MW power units at the Berezovo DPA and 200-MW power units at the Kharanor DPS). The main solutions using which CLCS of the supply of fuel for coal-dust boilers with direct injection of dust were constructed are as follows. (1) The fuel CLCS comprises a controller for the total owrate of fuel and CLCSs for individual dust systems (see Fig. 1a). The systems used in the P-57 boiler for a 500-MW power unit can be subdivided for the half-furnaces (their mutual inuence is not very strong), and individual fuel CLCSs are constructed for each half-furnace comprising four dust systems. Such division is not advisable for the P-67 and TPP-807 boilers of 800-MW power units, and the CLCSs of all eight dust systems are controlled from a common fuel controller. A similar solution, i.e., with a common fuel controller, is used for each shell of the PK-39 boiler operating at a 300-MW two-boiler power unit, each furnished with four dust systems, and for the TPE-216 boiler of a 200-MW power unit equipped with six dust systems. (2) The signal characterizing the total owrate of dust to the boiler (or to a half-furnace) is generated by multiplying the total rotation frequency of raw-coal feeders (RCFs) by the caloric indicator, an automatically calculated parameter that characterizes the quality of fuel and is determined by currently integrating the ratio of power unit output to the total RCF rotation frequency (without subdividing the boiler into half-furnaces and shells). The weighed sum of this signal and fuel oil owrate signal is used to form the control deviation for the fuel controller. (3) Each dust system is equipped with its own CLCS. Such a CLCS for hammer and medium-speed mills comprises two interconnected controllers: one for the dust system load, which controls the RCF rotation frequency and the other for the mill load, which adjusts the owrate of primary air. The air mixture controller, which is the dust systems third controller, operates in a watchdog mode and usually does not participate in joint operation with the other controllers that respond to the boiler load setpoint. To prevent the mill from becoming overlled when the primary air setpoint range is exhausted, the so-called local reversal logic is carried out and the primary air controller begins to control the dust system load controller, causing the RCF rotation frequency to decrease. The mill output watchdog controllers coming into action is one more factor that may impose an upper limit on the dust system load. The principle in accordance with which the CLCS of such a dust system operates is described in detail in [9].
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

The CLCS for pulverizing fans also has two control outputs: the RCF rotation frequency and the addition of cold recirculation gases to the drying agent, a control action used for controlling the temperature of air mixture. Safe operation of the mill is ensured here by means of two watchdog controllers: one for the mill output, and the other for a low temperature of air mixture, both generating commands for unloading the RCF. (4) The fuel controller generates commands for the dust system load controllers, replacing the RCF setpoint signals by the same setpoint. Once a limitation on increasing the dust system load arises (when the local reversal logic or the watchdog controller comes into action), the fuel controller is disconnected from this dust system and connected again after the fuel controller comes into action for the rst time to decrease the load. A stepped program is used to put the dust system in operation; this program automatically brings the RCF rotation frequency to the mean value of this parameter for the RCFs that are in operation and connects the dust system load controller to the fuel controller commands. (5) Once the control ranges of all dust systems switched in operation in the automatic mode are exhausted (the most typical factor that may cause such a situation to occur is emergency or forced tripping out of one or more dust systems), a common reversal logic is carried out; i.e., the output of the fuel controller is switched over to the BLSU (see Fig. 1a), i.e., for changing the feedwater owrate, which must be decreased at the initial moment of time. Starting from this moment, the temperature master controller begins to maintain the temperature conditions along the boiler path through adjusting the feedwater owrate, setting its value so as to put it in correspondence with the fuel owrate existing in the boiler. If the boiler is subdivided into two half-furnaces, the power unit output will be maintained at the same level by controlling the second half-furnace. However, the permissible difference of water owrates between the ows will impose a limitation on excessive loading of the second half-furnace [9]. It is important to emphasize that, as is shown in [3], despite the difference in the dynamic characteristics with which the temperature controlled by the temperature master controller responds to disturbances in water and fuel owrates, dynamic characteristics of the master controller need not be changed after the common reversal logic comes into action, provided that characteristics of the dynamic function unit generated as part of the FSU is properly chosen (see Fig. 1a). A CLCS of the supply of fuel in gas-and-oil-red boilers. No difculties with controlling the owrate of fuel are usually encountered in such boilers during the combustion of gas or fuel oil. The use of the traditional arrangement comprising means for controlling the owrate of the appropriate kind of fuel and a watchdog controller for the minimal pressure supplemented with a pressure controller at the initial stages of starting pro-

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cess is quite sufcient for obtaining the required quality of control. The control of fuel owrate during combined combustion of gas and fuel oil involves more complexity. Interavtomatika specialists use in their projects a universal concept that supports different modes of combined combustion: with varying the owrates of both kinds of fuel and with varying the owrate of only one of them while the other remains xed. If the owrates of gas and fuel oil are varied jointly, a cascade controller is used, which controls the ratio of the pressures of gas and fuel oil and serves to equalize the thermal loads of burners ring different kinds of fuel irrespective of the number of burners that operate on each kind of fuel. The logic used in the scheme and special methods of follow-up allow a smooth changeover to be made from one principle of controlling joint combustion of fuels to another and to the ring of only one of them. The widely used burners of AMAKS offer new possibilities for controlling the supply of gas. Interavtomatika specialists have worked out and implemented seven projects for furnishing these boilers with CLCSs. A control shutter is installed on each burner. Initially, this shutter was intended for making the start-up process safe, but it turned out that this shutter can also be used to perform a number of tasks related to CLCs of gas supply. For example, when the power unit operates in the range of working loads, the list of these tasks includes elimination of nonuniformities in the release of heat among the half-furnaces and redistribution of gas owrates between the tiers of burners to suppress the emissions of nitrogen oxides. One decision that turned to be especially efcient, taking into account the tasks of SPFC and ASFC, for which the power unit load has to be varied in a wide range without changing the number of burners, and which has been implemented in the 300-MW power units at the Iriklinsk DPS, consists of introducing a loop for maintaining the pressure of gas downstream of the main gas valve at a level exceeding the minimum admissible pressure by partially closing the control shutters of burners. CLCS for feed-water owrate. Despite certain similarity that exists in the tasks that have to be solved in controlling the feed-water units of different boilers in the set range of their loads: two or four ows and one or two turbine-driven feedwater pumps, the structure in accordance with which the feed CLCS is constructed has certain distinctive features depending on the specic features of equipment that operates for a long period of time. Therefore, Interavtomatika specialists, on one hand, adhere in their projects to general solutions and, on the other hand, try to take into account the specic features of the feeding system of each individual power unit. The list of general solutions includes the following. (i) The total owrate of feedwater fed to the boiler is controlled by means of the turbine-driven feedwater pump (TFWP), whereas the difference between the

owrate of water in a concrete ow and the mean owrate averaged over all ows of the boiler is controlled by means of the boiler feed-water controller. The use of such a conguration makes it possible to decouple the controllers in dynamic processes, decrease the frequency with which actuators have to receive commands to open/close and make the operation of the feeding unit more stable [5]. (ii) Efforts are taken to minimize the pressure difference across the boiler feed water valve (BFV) and simultaneously preserve the control margin for increasing the controlled parameter, the required pressure difference across the injection valves, and the sufcient slope of the BFV controller when the TFWP operating values approach the control ranges lower boundary. (iii) The systems that have been developed incorporate circuit solutions that take into account the occurrencein both general and dynamic modes onlyof constraints for the minimum and maximum pressures downstream of the TFWP, for the maximum admissible pressure difference across the BFV, and for the BFV and TFWP control ranges. The general solutions are supplemented during the design stage and to a greater extent during the setpoint stage taking into account the characteristics of the BFV and TFWR, possible discrepancy between the characteristics of BFVs in different ows, the availability and values of backlashes and excursions of valves, and the ratios of their values for the BFV and TFWP, as well as other technological features of the feed unit and the boiler as a whole. CLCS for the live-steam temperature. This CLCS consists of local CLCSs for injections and a temperature master controller, all interconnected to form a cascade CLC structure. The main purpose of this system is to maintain the outlet stream temperature, and its auxiliary purpose is to maintain the required control ranges for the injection valves. The use of this approach eliminates the need of operating personnels intervention in the operation of the temperature CLCS. Unfortunately, there are some factors that add difculty to this problem. (1) Operators try to reduce the owrates of water for injection in order to minimize the level of temperatures along the boiler path. This is especially important for equipment that has been in operation for several decades. Such a desire is fullled by partially taking the injections out from operation or by bringing them in the closed position (the opened valve with the closed gate valve) with switching the valves controlling them to operate in the watchdog mode. (2) Process ows may be separated into several branches, usually, downstream of the built-in gate valve; in this case, there is no option but to use a single master controller for bringing the injections in two parallel ows within the required range.
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(3) The injections are placed at the path cross sections located in the zone of maximum heat capacity in the entire range of loads or in a part of it, and also when the power unit operates with its high-pressure heaters disconnected; as a result, the temperature upstream of the injections, and especially that downstream of them, cannot be used as controlled values. The main solutions Interavtomatika specialists have developed for constructing CLCS for controlling the live steam temperature consists in the following. (1) The temperature master controller and the controllers of all injections, including those operating in the watchdog mode, are necessarily used and incorporated into a single interconnected structure. (2) A signal characterizing the position of one or more valves on the injections situated along the ow of medium, which may be the valve position itself or the temperature difference across the valve, is used as the main controlled variable for the injection controller or the temperature master controller. The valve position signal is more preferable, especially for the rst injections along the ow of medium, which are located near the zone of maximum heat capacity. If the ows are subdivided into several branches, a resulting signal is generated, which characterizes the position of injection valves in both the ows and is determined as the averaged value of control deviations between the positions of valves. If the deviation between their positions and the setpoint position is large, priority is given to the control deviations of the valve that moves toward opening. (3) Increasing, as far as possible, the number of temperature signals taken from the zone of guaranteed superheating, e.g., in between the steam superheaters sections, that are used in the temperature master controller and injection controllers, irrespective of the time constants of the steam superheater sections that appear in this case. (4) Applying a dynamically processed load signal to the input of injection controllers (see Fig. 1) to obtain a leading response in the course of changing the power unit output. We can take as an illustration the CLCS for the rst injection of the 500-MW power unit at the Refta DPS. Since this injection is beyond the connes of the guaranteed superheating zone, there is no point of using the temperature downstream of it in the CLC control. At the same time, this injection is the largest in capacity and plays a very important role in maintaining the temperature conditions along the path. A signal for the temperature of medium in between the steam superheaters banks, a location in which the level of temperatures corresponds to the guaranteed superheating zone in the entire range of loads, was therefore used. The dynamic characteristics this signal shows in response to a disturbance in injection are, of course, less favorable as compared with those of the temperature downstream of the injection should it respond to such a disturbance; noneTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

theless, the quality with which the controller of this injection responded to disturbances in the steamwater path was found to be satisfactory. The main result we obtained from the use of this signal is that it allowed an efcient response to disturbances in fuel owrate to be obtained, a property due to which the injection itself came into action in time to compensate for this disturbance and, which is most important, the temperature master controller, which used the signal for the position of the rst injections valve as the main one, changed the fuel-to-water ratio. CLCS for the gasair path. The lines in which the air supply CLCS and the rarefaction CLCS, systems used in the gasair path control system, are improved follow primarily from the need of obtaining good quality of control in response to considerable changes in the load and comprise the following: (i) generating a signal for air owrate in accordance with a calculation formula on the basis of signals for the power of the forced draft fan and the pressure difference across it; if it is not possible to use the latter signal (when there is no pressure gage at the forced draft fans suction), the signal proportional to the square root of the air pressure upstream of the burners is used for this purpose; a direct use of the air owrate signal for CLC purposes entails difculties because the sensors that use the pressure difference across constriction devices often give unreliable readings; (ii) using dynamic function units that generate setpoint signals for the air CLCS (Fig. 1), which cause the owrates of fuel and air to vary in different ways depending on the sign with which the load is changed to prevent O2 concentration from dropping below the permissible level; (iii) making automatic operations for sequentially switching one forced draft fan after another from one speed to another; (iv) applying a leading signal from the air supply CLCS to the rarefaction CLCS; and (v) augmenting the rarefaction CLCS (see Fig. 1) with a cascade controller for the difference of ue gas temperatures, the output signal from which is added to the control deviation of guide vanes forced draft fans through their synchronization circuit (in accordance with recommendations of some customers). CLCS for the reheat steam temperature. This group of controllers, which produce control commands for the emergency injection and bypass of the steam-tosteam heat exchanger, is constructed using the solutions similar to those employed in the CLCS for the live steam temperature, in particular, addition of temperature signals, construction of multiloop congurations, and use of simplied models of the controlled plant. As regards the CLCS for the recirculation of ue gases, noticeable changes have recently occurred in the approach for determining its functions. Earlier versions of these functions incorporated the bringing of emer-

854
1
540 519 500 481 462 443 424 405 385 367 348 329 310 291 272 253 234 215 196 177 158 139 120

BILENKO et al.
2
300 295 290 285 280 275 270 265 260 255 250 245 240 235 230 225 220 215 210 205 200

3
850 834 812 790 768 746 724 702 680 658 636 614 592 570 548 526 504 482 460 438 416 304 372 350 850 834 812 790 768 746 724 702 680 658 636 614 592 570 548 526 504 482 460 438 416 304 372 350

5
3900 3798 3689 3580 3471 3362 3253 3144 3035 2926 2817 2708 2599 2490 2381 2272 2163 2054 1945 1836 2727 1618 1509 1400

10 11
540 519 500 481 462 443 424 405 386 367 348 329 310 291 272 253 234 215 196 177 158 139 120

3900 12 360 354 3798 347 3689 3580 11 340 393 3471 326 3362 319 3253 10 312 3144 305 3035 298 2926 2817 9 291 284 2708 277 2599 2490 8 270 263 2381 256 2272 2163 7 249 242 2054 235 1945 1836 228 6 221 2727 1618 214 1509 207 1400 5 200

1.1 540 519 500 481 462 443 424 405 386 367 348 329 310 291 272 253 234 215 196 177 158 139 0.7 120

1 5

10 11 6

7 8 4

29.08.06 19:15:00

19:21:00

19:27:00

19:33:00

19:39:00

Time, h : min : s

Fig. 2. Transients triggered by the common reversal from fuel to water on the side B in the 500-MW coal-red single unit No. 9 at the Refta DPS (the P-57-11 boiler and the K-500-23.8-2 turbine). (1) Power, MW; (2) pressure upstream of the turbine, kg/cm2; (3) setpoint (reference signal) for the owrate of feedwater in the leg A, t/h; (4) setpoint for the owrate of feedwater in the leg B, t/h; (7) pressure in turbine strengthening line 1, kg/cm2; (8) position of turbine valves, mm; (9) caloric indicator; and (10) and (11) upper and lower permissible boundaries for the accuracy of maintaining the power, MW.

gency injections into the CLCS range with keeping a dependence of the controller values versus the load for suppressing NOx (see Fig. 1). At present, many power stations conduct operation in the entire range of loads with the guide vanes of recirculation fans kept fully open. EXAMPLES ILLUSTRATING THE OPERATION OF CLCSs OF THE PROCESS VALUES OF POWER UNITS CLCS of a coal-red power unit. Figure 2 shows an example illustrating the operation of the 500-MW power unit No. 9 at the Refta DPS when a steady fuel combustion mode experienced a fairly strong disturbance due to the occurrence of both local reversals and common reversal concept in one of the half-furnaces. The initial event that caused these processes to occur was deterioration in the quality with which fuel was supplied and red (and possibly in the quality of fuel) in the entire boiler and especially in the half-furnace B. This deterioration manifested itself in that the power unit output and the pressure of steam upstream of the turbine showed noticeable drops, which caused the owrates of feedwater and fuel to increase considerably. The values by which both the main controlled owrates to the boiler increased for the half-furnace A and ow A were almost the same; as regards the ow B, the signal characterizing the owrate of fuel increased to a degree much higher than did the signal for the ow-

rate of water. One of the dust systems used in the halffurnace B was shut-down as the RCF rotation frequency increased, which can be seen from the temporary drop that occurred in the signal for the RCFs total rotation frequency (the fuel owrate signal). This shut-down was rapidly responded to by increasing the load of the dust systems that remained in operation, and this caused the occurrence of rst local reversals and then also the common reversal for the half-furnace B, which can be seen from a drop in the owrate of feedwater in the ow B. This drop, which lasted for 34 min, was caused by the action of the local reversal logic. This circumstance corroborates the conclusion according to which not only should further loading of the dust system be stopped when a constraint occurs for the owrate of primary air to the mill, but its load must be reduced. During the rst half of the above-mentioned interval of time, the drop in the load of the half-furnace and ow B was compensated for by an increase in the load of the half-furnace and ow A. However, once the difference between the owrates of water in the ows reaches the maximum permissible value equal to 150 t/h, the watchdog controller monitoring this difference suspends further increase in the owrate of feedwater in the ow A (and, consequently, the owrate of fuel in the half-furnace A), and the owrate of water begins to decrease adequately to the decrease in the owrate of feedwater in the ow B.
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Once the operating values of the dust systems for the half-furnace B had stabilized and, accordingly, once the owrate of feedwater in the ow B had begun to increase under the effect of the own temperature cascade controller, the owrates of feedwater and fuel in the ow and half-furnace A began to increase in the same manner. As soon as the increase in the owrate of feedwater in the ow B had caused the total owrate of water for the boiler to reach the value corresponding to the power controllers setpoint, a further increase in the ow Bs owrate began to entail not an increase, but a decrease, in the owrates of water and fuel in the ow and half-furnace A. This process continued until the owrates of feedwater in the ows became equal to each other and the structure of the feed and fuel CLCS restored in the initial form. CLCS for a gas-and-oil-red power unit. Figure 3 shows examples illustrating the operation of the CLCS for the 300-MW power unit no. 5 at the Stavropol DPS under rather heavy operating conditions of the power unit. All these experiments were carried out during the operation of power unit on gas. The main emphasis has placed on the quality with which the live-steam temperature was maintained (the data are given as applied to one of the boilers ows). The specic features with which the temperature CLCS was constructed in this power unit are as follows. Both the injections are constantly in operation. The CLCS of the second injection has been implemented in accordance with Interavtomatikas standard two-loop circuit containing a simplied model of steam superheater. As regards the rst injection, the temperature downstream of it could not be used for control purposes, since there are some operating conditions under which it falls in the zone of maximum heat capacity. In addition, other temperature measurements were also unavailable. Therefore, the CLCS of the rst injection was constructed in accordance with a single-loop circuit with a combined PID controller. The proportional and integral components of the control output are generated from the signal corresponding to the position indicator of the second injections valve, and the differential component from the temperature of steam upstream of the second injection. A combination of control deviations in the positions of both the injections was used as the controlled variable of the temperature master controller. Attention should be turned to the fact that the experiments were carried out at different times: the tests of the AEUS (Fig. 3d) were carried out in spring of 2006 when the system was commissioned, and the tests for compliance with the SOCDA Standard (Figs. 3a3c) were carried out in the fall of 2006. The dynamic characteristics of the injection controllers and especially of the temperature controller were noticeably improved in the course of operational setpoint that was carried out in the period of time between these dates, and this can be estimated from the results that were obtained. The
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

Parameter

Fig. 3a

Fig. 3b

Fig. 3c

Fig. 3d

t, C 8.7 +2.9 10.5 +0.3 12.2 +7.8 t, C 536.3 547.9 534.5 545.3 532.8 552.8

0 +17.7

545 562.7

maximum values by which the live steams outlet temperature deviated from its setpoint value during these disturbances are given in the table. The maximum values by which the steam outlet temperature deviated when the power unit load was varied in the entire control range from 140 to 300 MW at a rate of 10 MW/min, during which the power output deviations were kept in the range 1%, were rather small: 2.9C toward increasing and 8.7C toward decreasing. The larger deviation toward decreasing the temperature is due to the fact that the control ranges of each injection toward decreasing were exhausted for a short time (for approximately 2 min in each of them). This is due to the fact that the setpoint position of injection valves adopted at the majority of power stations is in the range from 20 to 40% both in order to decrease the level of temperatures along the boiler path and due to the fact that deviation of temperature toward decreasing is less hazardous than toward increasing, from the point of view of proximity to protection setpoints. The values by which the outlet steam temperature deviated during the tests for checking whether the power unit is ready to participate in SPFC within the emergency margin (see Figs. 3b and 3c) remained within safe limits (not more than 8C toward increasing and not more than 13C toward decreasing) during operation at both load values despite the fact that the disturbances had quite a considerable amplitude (37 MW) and were applied with a period of 5 min, which was considered to be close to the possible resonance frequencies of the boilers temperature CLCSs. We also observe here that the control range toward decreasing is exhausted, and even for a longer period of time, but only for the second injection. The rst injection always remains within the permissible range and comes into action almost simultaneously with the second one. The temperature master controller has a somewhat increased dead band, a circumstance due to which it does not come into operation during small disturbances; at the same time, we see from the graphs that the temperature master controller comes into action promptly when tangible disturbances occur in the operation.

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10

247 541 74

168 185 244 250

187 527 70

103 130 181 190

1 10 4
127 513 66 37 76 124 130

3
67 499 62 78 121 64 70

485 58

94 34 4

10

21:20:00

21:22:30

21:25:00

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21:30:00

21:32:30 (a)

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21:37:30

21:39:59

Time, h : min : s

5 1

185 84

161 559

262

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4
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20 66 31 511 140

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09:35:00

09:38:59

09:41:15

09:44:23

09:47:31

09:50:39 (b)

09:53:47

09:56:55 10:00:03

10:03:09

Time, h : min : s

Fig. 3. Transients in the 300-MW single unit No. 5 at the Stavropol DPS during operation on gas (the TGMP-314A boiler and the K-300-240-2 turbine). (a) Changing the power unit load from 140 to 300 MW at a rate of 10 MW/min (3.3%/min); (b) and (c) tests for checking conformity to the SOCDA Standard during SPFC within the emergency margin 370 mHz (37 MW) in the upper and lower part of the control range, respectively; and (d) operation of the AEUS after disconnection of the TFWP at a load of 300 MW; (1) power, MW; (2) live steam temperature, C; (3) output of the correcting controller of live steam temperature; (4) position of the second injection, %; (5) position of the rst injection, %; (6) setpoint of fuel owrate, thousand m3/h; (7) setpoint of owrate of feedwater, t/h; and (9) and (10) upper and lower permissible boundaries for the accuracy of maintaining the power, MW.

The value by which the outlet steam temperature deviates (toward increasing) when the AEUS disconnects the TFWP at 100% load, which is the heaviest

version of emergency protection for the boilers temperature conditions (see Fig. 3d), is also quite acceptable and equal to 18C. In this experiment, the time for
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232 77 215 575 238

857
3 4 2 1

5 1

177 73 151 559 20

2
122 69 87 543 162

4 5

68

65

23 527 124

13

61 41 511 86

42 57 105 495 48

14:03:45

14:06:30

14:09:34

14:12:29

14:15:24

14:18:20 14:21:15 (c)

14:24:10 14:27:0614:29:59
325 115

Time, h : min : s
1128 605 81 267 334

1 1
171

63

838

579 75 192 216

2
17 11 748 553 69 117 159

4
137 41 558 527 63 43 71

291 91

367

501 57 32

16

7
445 145 173 475 52 107 104

22:55:00

22:55:55

21:56:52

21:57:48

21:50:45

21:59:41 22:00:37 (d)

22:01:34

22:02:29

Time, h : min : s

Fig. 3. (Contd.)

which the ranges of both the injections are exhausted is somewhat longer and equal to around 5 min, after which the temperature cascade controller brings both of them within the permissible range. As was indicated above, the operation in this mode had been tested before the controllers were nally adjusted. At present, with the new tuning parameters used in the injection
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

controllers and temperature cascade controller, both the time for which the injection valves exhaust their control range and the value by which the temperature deviates from its setpoint will be noticeably smaller. Such operating conditions have not occurred since then. Thus, the function diagrams of CLCSs developed at Interavtomatika allow both coal- and gas-and-oil-red

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BILENKO et al. tems of Power Units and the Principles Used for Tuning Them, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 2126 (1989) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (1989)]. 6. V. A. Bilenko and N. I. Davydov, Reconguring Connected Two-Loop Automatic Control Systems of Power Units, Elektr. Stn., No. 3, 3336 (1984). 7. N. I. Davydov, A. S. Rubashkin, and M. D. Trakhtenberg, A Scheme for Closed-loop control of the OnceThrough Boilers of 150-, 200-, and 300-MW Power Units (BTI ORGRES, Moscow, 1966) [in Russian]. 8. V. A. Bilenko, N. I. Davydov, V. Z. Chesnokovskii, and N. P. Rosich, An Analysis of the Dynamic Characteristics of a Multiply Connected System for Controlling the Power and Temperature of a Power Unit Equipped with a Once-Through Boiler, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 1117 (1987) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (1987)]. 9. V. A. Bilenko, N. N. Derkach, E. E. Mikushevich, and D. Yu. Nikolskii, Development and Commissioning of Systems for Controlling the Main Values of a Boiler within the Scope of the Process Control System of the 500-MW Power Unit at the Refta District Power Station, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 29 (1999) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (1999)]. 10. V. V. Belyi, Yu. A. Kiselev, V. A. Savostyanov, et al., Upgrading the Automatic Process Control Systems for the 800-MW Power Units at the Berezovo District Power Station, Elektr. Stn., No. 1, 4954 (2004).

power units to be operated in their load control ranges under the heaviest disturbances both in the power and in the power system with almost no intervention by operating personnel. REFERENCES
1. V. A. Bilenko, A. D. Melamed, E. E. Mikishevich, et al., Development and Application of Automatic Frequency and Power Control Systems for Large Power Units, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 1426 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)]. 2. V. A. Bilenko and I. A. Shavochkin, An Analysis of the Effect from Introducing Complex Laws for Transforming Additional Signals in Multiloop Automatic Control Systems of Power Units, Teploenergetika, No. 4, 5765 (2006) [Therm. Eng., No. 4 (2006)]. 3. V. A. Bilenko, N. I. Davydov, and V. Z. Chesnokovskii, The Use of the Mixed Independence Principle in Multiply Connected Automatic Control Systems of Power Units, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 1822 (1982) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (1982)]. 4. V. A. Bilenko, Organization of Operations for Tuning Multiple Connected Control Systems of Power-Generating Equipment, Teploenergetika, No. 11, 1824 (1990) [Therm. Eng., No. 11 (1990)]. 5. V. A. Bilenko and E. E. Mikushevich, Selecting the Structure of Multiply Connected Similar Control Sys-

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ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 859867. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text A.I. Galperina, L.L. Grekhov, V.Yu. Krylov, A.V. Mikhin, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

Automation of Operations for Starting Power Units Equipped with Once-Through Boilers
A. I. Galperinaa, L. L. Grekhova, V. Yu. Krylovb, and A. V. Mikhinb
b

ZAO Interavtomatika, ul. Avtozavodskaya 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia Stavropol District Power Station, Solnechnodolsk, Stavropol krai, 356127 Russia

AbstractAn attempt is made to generalize the experience gained from solving some problems pertinent to arrangement of operations for starting a power unit. DOI: 10.1134/S0040601508100066

Starting up of a modern power unit is the most complicated procedure of all its operating modes. This is because a large number of continuous and discrete control operations have to be carried out in the course of starting processes, the equipment reliability criteria lie in a narrow range, some items of equipment may be unavailable or fail during starting operations, and the level to which these operations are automated is rather low. The task ZAO Interavtomatika specialists set before themselves from the very beginning of their work has always been to essentially improve the level to which domestically produced power units are furnished with automatic control systems through using the capacities available in modern instrument and control systems (I&CSs). PROBLEMS RELATED TO AUTOMATION OF STARTING MODES The set of operations for starting a modern large power-generating unit equipped with a once-through boiler and designed to operate at supercritical parameters includes the following: (i) checking the equipment and preparing it for starting; (ii) switching the auxiliary systems into operation; (iii) speeding up the main equipment; (iv) making switching operations in the process circuits when a transition is made from starting modes to steady operating conditions; and (v) generating startup setpoints for the main parameters of equipment (the temperatures of live and secondary steam, owrates of water and fuel, live steam pressure, etc.) and controlling them during the starting process in accordance with these setpoints. Attempts to deeply automate starting operations with the use of old (outdated) equipment were taken constantly, but without great success, although they brought some positive results. The problems encountered in attempts to automate complex, long-term, and, as a rule, irregularly repeated processes with the use of

outdated relay equipment or logic control devices with xed logic are mainly due to the following factors: (i) these facilities have rather limited capacities for creating complex and multioptional logic of devices for automatically performing startup operations and automatic controllers able to adapt themselves to changing operating conditions; (ii) these facilities have poor exibility for introducing changes in the logic of automatic control devices, the need for which inevitably occurs during adjustment work, and require large manpower for making these changes; (iii) the characteristics of equipment and actuating elements, on the one hand, and the setpoints of analog automatic control devices, on the other, are unstable; and (iv) there is a lack of well-developed means for the operator to monitor and correct the execution of stepped programs and other algorithms for automatically starting equipment and systems. The possibilities for automating power equipment in generaland starting operations in particularaltered fundamentally with the advent of microprocessor control systems. The advantages of microprocessor control systems showed themselves most prominently as a means for constructing comprehensive full-scale automation systems. THE POSSIBILITIES OF MODERN I&CS FOR AUTOMATING STARTUP MODES In their projects for equipping power-generating facilities with automatic control systems, Interavtomatika specialists use microprocessor-based systems of the Siemens and Dukhov Research Institute of Automation (VNIIA), which offer a full scope of properties required for applications in such a complex eld as power engineering: (i) high reliability;

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(ii) well-developed basic software, including components using which complex stepped programs and switched-off logic automata can be constructed; (iii) well-developed possibilities for diagnosing the state of peripheral devices; and (iv) an efcient operator interface. Central to successful automation of starting operations is using the above-mentioned properties of I&CSs to construct a set of automatic controllers and logic programs with the use of stepped logic in the form of stepped programs (SPs) and situation logic in the form of switched interlocks. The ability of automatic controllers to work in a wide range of operating conditions is achieved by automatically changing the structure and setpoints of controllers as changes occur in their operating conditions and using devices for generating setpoints (programming devices). The use of starting automata depends to a considerable extent on the possibilities available in the interface of an operator or a job-setter for monitoring, analyzing, and diagnosing the operating algorithms. For example, the control window of a stepped program presents full information on the state of the program (the number of the step being executed, waiting time, and check time for executing a step, a jump to another branch, etc.) and the basic software of stepped programs makes it possible to generate alarms when the time allotted for executing each stage of the program has been exceeded, when the conditions being checked are not fullled for a long period of time, and when other abnormalities occur. When a delay in the execution occurs, the algorithm of the program can easily be called on the display with indicating the states of all inputs and signals in dynamic form so that the factors caused the delay to occur can be easily revealed. Processes that cannot be represented as steps with a clear-cut sequence of technological operations are handled using situation algorithms, i.e., algorithms that operate in a watchdog mode anticipating the onset of conditions under which certain actions must be taken. These algorithms differ from usual protective interlocks in that they are more complex, have exible optional logic, and that they can be switched on and off by the operator and by commands from upper-level programs. The use of versatile microprocessor devices provides the possibility to reviseand in many cases improvethe technology in accordance with which starting operations are carried out, taking into account measures for automating them. The use of starting automata allows the following positive features to be obtained: the starting modes are carried out with good repetitiveness, the regular design sequence of operations is guaranteed (irrespective of the individual features of the operator), the equipment reliability criteria are fullled while the rates of heating and loading are kept within their rated limits, the values by which the parameters deviate from their normal levels (tempera-

ture excursions) are minimized, and fuel is rationally used, since the starting mode is accurately conducted and any excessive forcing of the boiler is excluded. BASIC SOLUTIONS FOR AUTOMATION OF STARTING OPERATIONS Stable operation of control functions, their exibility, and the ability of certain algorithms to survive when other algorithms failall these features are obtained by constructing automation algorithms in accordance with the hierarchical principle. According to this principle, each algorithm in charge of automatic control of an individual equipment item and controlling of one parameter or group of interrelated parameters is constructed so that its operation is maximally independent on the operation of other algorithms. Separating functionally independent stages suitable for being independently controlled from the overall sequence of technological operations is an important factor in this respect. Experience gained from construction and adjustment of starting automata in very different types of power-generating equipment, including 800-MW coalred power units, made it possible to determine the typical stages of starting operations that can be automated as rather self-contained functions. The list of the main typical enlarged operations carried out in the course of starting a power unit may include, e.g., the following: (i) lling and starting the condensate path and the deaerator; (ii) starting the circulation system; (iii) starting the vacuum system and picking up vacuum; (iv) starting the feedwater path; lling, pumping, and washing the boiler; and setting up the start-up owrates; (v) starting the gasair path and ventilating the furnace; (vi) pressurizing the gas conduits and preparing them for start-up; (vii) start-up the boiler, controlling the owrate of fuel, and bringing the system to the kickoff parameters; (viii) kicking the turbine, speeding it up for idle running, connection to the network, and picking up the initial load; (ix) switching the low- and high-pressure regeneration systems in operation; (x) controlling the power unit loading and heating in accordance with the assigned starting schedule; (xi) controlling the supply of fuel to the boiler (together with starting-up additional burners, switching the dust systems into operation, and making a transition from starting fuel to main fuel); (xii) controlling the discharges from the boilers start-up unit and shifting to operation in the oncethrough mode;
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AUTOMATION OF OPERATIONS FOR STARTING POWER UNITS EQUIPPED


SP for starting the power unit

861

SP for preparing the boiler for starting

Providing advice to the operator for starting-up the burners and starting the dust systems SP for pumping the boiler SP for opening the MSV

SP for starting the turbine


SP used in the SW for HPHs

SP for preparing the turbine for starting

SP for filling the CFWP

SPs used in the SW for FDMs and furnace ventilation

SP for dust systems

SP for the HSRCI

SPs used in the SW for ELPs, CPs, and vacuum pickup

SP used in the SW for LPHs

Disconnected interlocks for the boiler

Temperature cascade controller

Load programmer

Device for programming the temperatures of primary and secondary steam

Disconnected interlocks for the CFWP

Fuel controllers

Air and draft controllers

CS of the feed unit

CS of the mill

CS of fuel oil supply

Controllers of injections and bypasses

CS of the HSRCI

CS of the turbine valves

Controllers of levels in the CFWP

Fig. 1. Example of the structure of algorithms used in the power unit control system. FDMsForced draft machines, ELPsejector lifting pumps, CPscirculation pumps, MSVmain steam gate valve, HPH and LPHhigh- and low-pressure heaters, HSRCI high-speed reduction and cooling installation, CFWPcondensate-feedwater path, SWsoftware, CS control system, and SPstepped program.

(xiii) switching from the starting electrically driven feedwater pump (EFWP) to the turbine-driven feedwater pump (TFWP) (for the standard 300-MW power units); and (xiv) change over for operation with the rated pressure upstream of the turbine and opening the built-in gate valve. Each of the above-listed stages of the technological sequence in accordance with which a power unit is started up is of individual interest for being automated. This is because such factors as the time taken to carry out a stage, the large number of actions for making switching operations in the technological circuits and controlling the parameters, and the volume of parameters that have to be monitored place a considerable burden on the operating personnel and create conditions under which errors can potentially be committed and deviations from the standard technology may occur. An especially difcult situation occurs when several parallel operations have to be done at the same time. Additional operators are involved in such cases; however, this does not guarantee that no deviations will occur from the regular design process. The problem of automating each of these operations has successfully been solved in the projects of process control systems (PCSs) Interavtomatika specialists have developed for a large number of power units with capacities ranging from 300 to 800 MW. The total volume in which each particular power installation is equipped with automatic control system depends on the
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

composition of initial information adopted for the project, the customers desire, and local conditions. An example of an enlarged structure of a set of automata for controlling a power unit and their connections is shown in Fig. 1. Of course, the different degrees to which power units, especially those commissioned 1020 years ago or earlier, are equipped with sensors for remotely monitoring the parameters, with electrically driven valves, and remote control facilities, affect the depth to which these units are automated and the extent to which the operation of starting automata depends on the operator. However, experience shows that in most frequent occasions the available scope of monitoring and control facilities is minimally sufcient for the majority of the most important automata. In some cases, InteravtomaSteam from turbine extractions

SE-8 To the boiler Tfw HPH-8

SE-7

SE-6 From feedwater pumps

HPH-7

HPH-6

Fig. 2. Technological circuit of the HPH unit. SE-6SE-8 are steam extraction gate valves.

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GALPERINA et al. Program steps Monitored conditions Preceding steps Rates of rise in Tfw and pHPH-8 are OK Gate valve SE-8 is open or pHPH-8 > 2 Commands

Yes

No Partially open SE-8 No No

Yes Rate of rise in pHPH-7 is OK and pHPH-8 pHPH-7 > 2 Rate of rise in pHPH-6 is OK and pHPH-7 pHPH-6 > 2 Gate valves SE-6, SE-7, and SE-8 are open Yes Finishing operations

Yes

Partially open SE-7

Yes

No Partially open SE-6 No

Fig. 3. Structure of the main function diagram used in the HPH starting program.

C, kg/cm2 200 15

MSK HH:mm:ss 01:10:00

100%

150 10 1

75%

100 3 5 50 2 4

50%

25%

0 0

19:00

19:10

19:20

19:30

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Time, h : min

Fig. 4. Variation of the parameters when the HPH is automatically switched on. (1) Temperature of feedwater downstream of the HPH; (2), (3), and (4) pressure of steam in of HPH-8, HPH-7, and HPH-6, respectively. THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

AUTOMATION OF OPERATIONS FOR STARTING POWER UNITS EQUIPPED Waiting for the starting scheme heating criteria Determining the type of starting. Selecting the setpoints for the type of starting. Determining the necessary time delays Tm, HPC < 200C Tm, HPC > 200C Opening the drains Checking the HSR steam lines heating criteria Not ready Preparation for kicking without IPC Ready Preparation for kicking with IPC

863

Kicking, listening, and speeding up to 1000 rpm Switching on the scheme for heating the HPC flanges and studs (if necessary) IPC is connected HSR heating is in progress Manual selection of the HRS heating mode Without steam from AH With steam from AH Preparing the scheme Increasing rotation for supplying steam frequency to 2000 rpm from AH Connecting the programmer for finally heating the HRS Waiting for the heating of HRS Waiting for expiration of time delay Increasing rotation frequency to 3000 rpm Switching on the scheme for heating the IPC flanges and studs (if necessary) Waiting for connection to the network Opening the HPC CVs, closing the HSRCI, and closing the drains
Fig. 5. Flow chart of the turbine startup program. HSRhot steam reheater, AHauxiliary header, CVcontrol valve, HPC high-pressure cylinder, IPCintermediate-pressure cylinder, and HSRCIhigh-speed reduction and cooling installation.

tika specialists recommend, based on the results of preliminary examination of equipment, that some additional measurements should be provided, the scope of which is usually limited to not more than two to ve sensors, and that a few stop or control valves should be furnished with electric drives.
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Satisfactory state of control actuators (when there is no ow in their closed state, backlash, or uncontrolled excursion; when they have acceptable owrate characteristics; etc.) is a factor essential for successful automation of processes. Although a microprocessor-based control system may compensate for some drawbacks of

864 rpm 3000

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2000 1 1000 2 2:10 2:20 2:30 2:40 Time, h : min

Figure 2 shows a simplied technological circuit of the HPH unit, in which the main parameters that have to be monitored during HPH loading are indicated, and Fig. 3 shows the main function diagram of the HPH starting program, which controls the permissible rate of heating. The program has been constructed as a sequence of cyclically repeated steps, in which commands are generated for partially opening the steam gate valves provided that the parameters being monitored lie within the permissible limits. The steam gate valves are opened by applying control pulses of variable length depending on the degree of their being opened that has already been reached. If the permissible rates of heating are exceeded, further opening of the gate valves is suspended until a time coresponding to the actual buildup of the parameters passes. The operation of the program is nished after all steam gate valves have been opened. The curves in Fig. 4 illustrate the result of the operation of the program for switching-on the HPH in the course of power unit starting (a power unit equipped with a T-250/300 turbine was taken as an example). The average rate of rise in the feedwater temperature was around 1.7C/min, the maximum permissible value of which is 2C/min. The stepped program for preparing the turbine for kickoff, speeding up the turbine to idle running mode, and making operations for picking up the initial load after the generator is connected to the network is another typical example of means for automatically starting a turbine. When the execution of this program is in progress, all the turbine and pipeline heating criteria required to begin the turbine starting process are monitored, switching operations that have to be made in accordance with the technology for heating pipelines and assemblies are carried out, and the turbine rotor is speeded up and held at an intermediate rotation frequency in accordance with the relevant manual. As a rule, the algorithm is organized (on the request of power station personnel) so that, once the turbine rotor has been initially kicked off and reached the minimal rotation frequency, the program waits for the operators permission to continue the operations (it is implied that the personnel has inspected the rotating turbine and listened to it in situ). The operator conrms his or her permission by clicking the virtual pushbutton on the video display. For the starting operations to be automated, the technology for starting a turbine from different thermal states has been brought as far as possible to a common standard and the remaining differences have been taken into account in the stepped program in the form of branches, which perform different technological operations based on the results of checking criterial conditions. The differences in the starting parameters of steam, which depend on the turbines thermal state, are handled by means of a live-steam temperature programmer, which generates an setpoint for the kickoff parameters (a description of this device is given below).
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Fig. 6. Turbine speedup process in the course of starting a 500-MW power unit. (1) Setpoint of the speedup controller and (2) turbine rotation frequency.

control members by means of software, good control of parameters can be obtained only if the control valves are in a good condition. EXAMPLES OF PUTTING STEPPED PROGRAMS INTO USE The stepped program for switching-on the steam circuits of high-pressure heaters (HPHs) can be taken as a typical example of putting such programs into use. One specic feature of this procedure is that the rate of rise in the temperature of feedwater downstream of the last HPH and the pressure of steam in each of them must be monitored and maintained within the permissible limits. In addition, a certain pressure difference must be kept between the heaters to ensure normal operation of cascaded spilling arrangement for draining the heating steam condensate. The technology for switching the HPH into operation and the sequence of operations were modied in such a way that they remain the same for any possible state of the power unit. The stepped program for switching the HPH in operation has been constructed so that it can be used not only when the power unit is being started, but in any other situation, e.g., for connecting the repaired HPH when the power unit is in operation. It should be borne in mind that the way in which the pressure in extractions and, hence, the temperature of feedwater downstream of the HPH rise in the course of starting a power unit depends not only on the rate with which the gate valves on the supply of steam to the HPH are opened, but also on the rate with which the power unit itself is loaded. The stepped HPH starting program monitors the rate of change in these parameters and suspends further opening of steam gate valves, irrespective of the factors that caused the increase in the HPH loading rate.

AUTOMATION OF OPERATIONS FOR STARTING POWER UNITS EQUIPPED

865

Signs of the turbine Waiting for turbinestartup. startup commencement Generating the setpoint for turbine kickoff parameters Thermal state of the turbine Fixing the initial setpoint Sign of connection to the network Waiting for connection to the network Reliability criteria (relative expansion and temperature of the rotor) Actual steam temperatures Sign of turbine disconnection Smoothly increasing the setpoint to the rated level with suspending the process if constraints emerge Retaining the setpoint until the turbine is disconnected

Setpoint selection block Setpoint for the temperature controllers


Fig. 7. Flow chart of the temperature programmer algorithm.

The outline owchart of the turbine startup program is shown in Fig. 5, and Fig. 6 shows an example how the turbine of a 500-MW power unit is speeded up to the idle running mode. Heating up the turbine in the course of its loading is among the most important stages of the power unit starting process. The temperature controllers receive setpoints from the temperature programmer, a special algorithm that calculates this setpoint taking into account not only the turbines thermal state and the standard starting owchart, but also constraining factors: the relative expansions of rotors and the difference by which the actual temperature of steam lags behind its assigned value. The temperature programmer generates the setpoint in a stagewise manner: (i) before the turbine startup is commenced, the programmer monitors its temperature state, generates, and continuously corrects the setpoint for the kickoff parameters of steam; (ii) at the moment the turbine is kicked off, the programmer xes the setpoint and maintains it at a constant level until the generator is connected to the network; (iii) after the generator is connected to the network, a specied time delay is counted for the period of time
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during which the initial load is taken and the parameters are stabilized (in some specic situations, there may be no such a delay); and (iv) after the time delay is over, the programmer begins to increase the setpoint for the temperature controllers with a rate determined by the specied starting owchart; the increase in the setpoint is terminated once the rated value is achieved. As the increase in setpoint is in progress, the programmer monitors the constraining criteria (this is usually the relative expansion of the rotor) and suspends its operation if a hazardous level is reached. In addition, to prevent the occurrence of thermal shocks, the programmer temporarily suspends its operation if the actual temperature of steam considerably lags behind its assigned value or if large temperature discrepancies occur between different legs of steam lines. The result from calculation of the turbine rotors thermally stressed state can be used for controlling the rate of increase in the setpoint. The function diagram of the algorithm for generating a setpoint for the temperature controllers is shown in Fig. 7, and Fig. 8 shows an example illustrating how the live-steam temperature programmer operates in the course of starting a 500-MW power unit. The suspensions in the setpoint that are seen on the graph are due

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500 1 400 300 200 100 0 03:00 3

04:00

05:00

06:00

07:00 08:00 Time, h : min

Fig. 8. Operation of the live-steam temperature programmers in the course of starting a 500-MW power unit. (1) Programmers setpoint, (2) generator power output, and (3) temperatures of steam in legs A and B.

to the above-mentioned technological constraints (in particular, due to the fact that the relative expansion of the high-pressure rotor reached the limit specied for the programming device). It should be pointed out that the temperature programmer only generates a setpoint for the controllers. Whether the setpoint from the programmer is successively executed depends on the operation of injection controllers themselves and the boiler load programming and controlling devices, which must conduct the boiler operation in such a way that the temperature controllers were within their control ranges. The transition from the starting EFWP to the TFWP is a short but important stage of the power unit starting process. The operating personnel have always encountered difculties in carrying out this operation. A circumstance that adds difculty to the control of this process is that the usual skills of manual control are not applicable for ne adjustment of parameters using the interface of video displays. Equipping the power unit with facilities for carrying out this stage in a fully automatic manner makes it possible to relieve considerable part of the burden placed on the operators, exclude the occurrence of errors, and conduct the stage without considerable uctuations in the parameters. An example illustrating the operation of the device for implementing automatic changeover from the EFWP to the TFWP in the 300-MW power unit at the Stavropol district power station (DPS) is shown in Fig. 9. The top level in the hierarchy of a power units starting automata incorporates devices that are very important and complex in adjustment: the boiler load programmer and coordinating programs for controlling the burners and/or dust systems and changeover from one

kind of fuel to another. The complexity of these algorithms stems primarily from the fact that they can be tried out and adjusted only when the lower-level automata are fully available; unfortunately, the adjustment of the latter often takes a long period of time because starting operations are infrequent and the periods between them are long. In addition, a tight dispatch schedule, which gives no time margin for doing adjustment work, frequently does not allow the personnel to use those rare starting modes in full extent. Only in individual cases do power station personnel agree, with reluctance, to continue work on adjusting novel and complex automata and controllers after the previously introduced scope of automatic control facilities has been adjusted, preferring to work in the old fashion. Nonetheless, the tasks of furnishing a boiler with systems for automatically carrying out its loading process have successfully been implemented in many Interavtomatika projects. We can mention as examples the 200-MW gas-red power unit at the Surgut GRES-2 DPS, the 300-MW gas-and-oil-red power unit at the Stavropol DPS, the 800-MW coal-red power units at the Berezovo DPS, and other power-generating plants. It should be pointed out that the task of performing fully automatic control of fuel supply in starting a coal-red boiler and making a transition from starting fuel to coal dust has not hitherto been advanced to the point of being ready for regular use in any power unit. Only automata for carrying out a number of individual operations or stages of these complex procedures have been implemented. CONCLUSIONS (1) The experience gained from work on automating complex technological systems of power units and stages of their starting processes testies that the task of automating the starting operations can be successfully solved in almost any power unit. The possible extent to which a power unit can be automated depends on the technical state of equipment, the degree to which the power unit is furnished with facilities for remote control and monitoring, and the desire of the customer. (2) How successfully the starting processes are automated depends on how rationally the entire set of operations is subdivided into individual self-contained stages, how optimally the starting functions are distributed among the automatic controllers and stepped and situation logic programs, and how their interaction is organized. (3) A carefully worked out operator interface, which must have such features as consistency of control, convenience, clarity, and possibility of easily analyzing the current state of algorithms and factors caused delays in their execution, is of utmost importance for successful introduction of starting automata. (4) The sequence in which starting algorithms are adjusted must be constructed so that automatic controllers and situation logic automata should become ready
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420 3 4 5 2 140 280

210

140

70

05:25:51 05:27:28

05:29:07

05:30:46

05:32:24

0 05:34:03 05:35:40 Time, h : min : s

Fig. 9. Variation of the parameters during the transition from the EFWP to the TFWP. (1) Flowrate of water to the boiler, t/h; (2) pressure downstream of the EFWP, kg/cm2; (3) pressure downstream of the TFWP, kg/cm2; (4) owrate of water downstream of the EFWP, t/h; and (5) owrate of water downstream of the TFWP, t/h.

rst, then local stepped programs, and then coordinating upper-level programs. (5) The results obtained from the work Interavtomatika specialists have carried out for furnishing power units with capacities ranging from 300 to 800 MW with automatic control systems have conrmed that the majority of starting automata can be implemented and can show stable operation. REFERENCES
1. A. G. Sviderskii, Kh. Kherpel, and V. L. Kishkin, Technical Facilities for Automation of Power Industry Plants, Elektr. Stn., No. 1, 712 (2004).

2. V. A. Bilenko, Functional Capacities of Modern Process Control Systems for Thermal Power Stations and a New Level of Automation, Elektr. Stn., No. 1, 1318 (2004). 3. V. V. Belyi, Yu. A. Kiselev, V. A. Sevastyanov, et al., Upgrading the Process Control Systems of the 800MW Power Units at the Berezovo GRES-1 District Power Station, Elektr. Stn., No. 1, 4954 (2004). 4. L. L. Grekhov, V. A. Bilenko, N. N. Derkach, et al., The Process Control Systems of the 500-MW Power Unit at the Reftinsk District Power Station, Elektr. Stn., No. 5, 5168 (2002).

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ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 868876. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text V.A. Bilenko, O.A. Manevskaya, A.D. Melamed, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

Results from Tests of the System for Automatically Controlling Frequency and Power of the PGU-450 Power Unit at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 Cogeneration Station
V. A. Bilenko, O. A. Manevskaya, and A. D. Melamed
ZAO Interavtomatika, ul. Avtozavodskaya 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia AbstractThe structure of the system and the results of tests for checking the preparedness of the power unit for common primary control of the network frequency are described. An analysis of the results is presented, and an assessment is made of whether the PGU-450 unit can participate in selective primary and automatic secondary control of frequency and power. DOI: 10.1134/S0040601508100078

A system for automatically controlling the frequency and power (FPCS) of a PGU-450 combinedcycle power unit operating as part of the full-scale automatic process control system of Unit 1 at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station was developed and commissioned in March of 2006.1 According to the RAO Unied Energy Systems of Russias (RAO EES Rossii) Order No. 524 dated September 18, 2002, participation of power stations in common primary control of network frequency (CPFC) must be considered one of the most important conditions for connecting a power unit to electric networks. On June 2, 2006, tests for estimating the preparedness of the power unit for participation in CPFC were carried out with a view to check whether this FPCS meets the requirements of the above-mentioned order. At present, no requirements are imposed on combined-cycle plants for their participation in selective primary and automatic secondary control of the power network frequency (SPFC and ASFC). Nonetheless, the results obtained from the above tests make it possible to analyze whether the combined-cycle power plant (CCPP) can achieve the indicators established for solving these tasks and, accordingly, to estimate the prospects for participation of such CCPs in SPFC and ASFC. MAIN EQUIPMENT OF THE 450-MW UNIT 1 AT THE KALININGRAD TETS-2 COGENERATION STATION A combined-cycle installation as a controlled object has features that distinguish it considerably from the traditional power units. This circumstance predetermines the peculiarities of CCPPs in solving such power system tasks as primary and secondary control of fre1 The

quency and power. The basic circuit of a heat-recovery type CCPP, the category to which the PGU-450 power unit at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station belongs, is schematically shown in Fig. 1. The binary combined-cycle installation of the Kaliningrad TETs-2s PGU-450T power unit comprises two GTE-160 gas turbines of Leningrad Metal Works (LMZ) with an adjustable inlet guide vane device (IGVD), the outlet diffuser of which is connected to P-96 boilers of the Podolsk Machinery Construction Works, and an LMZ T-150-7.7 steam turbine. The GTE-160 gas-turbine unit (GTU) is a singleshaft turbine set operating in accordance with the simple gas-dynamic cycle with the initial gas temperature equal to 1060C and the temperature of gas at the turbine outlet equal to 544C. The electric power output the GTU generates under the design external conditions and at an efciency of 33.8% is equal to 150 MW. Individual boilers are installed downstream of each GTU used in the PGU-450T power unit. Gases leaving the gas turbine (GT) ow into P-96 two-pressure drum heat-recovery boilers (HRBs). Each boiler comprises horizontally arranged heating surfaces and two highand low-pressure steam-generating circuits with steam drums and natural circulation in the evaporating cir-

GT1 HRB1

GT2

ST
HRB2

term automatic power control system is widely used along with the term FPCS adopted in this paper.

Fig. 1. Basic conguration of a heat-recovery type CCPP.

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cuits. No means are used to control the pressure and temperature of steam in the boilers during their operation in the working range of loads; the boilers are designed for operation at sliding parameters of steam, which depend on the temperature and owrate of gases entering into the boilers from the gas turbines, as well as on the steam turbines operating conditions. Steam from the high- and low-pressure steam superheaters enters into the high-pressure cylinder and the chamber between the 16th and 17th stages of the steam turbine (ST). The T-150-7.7 steam turbine is equipped with three controlled steam extractions and has an electric power output of 161.6 MW when running in the rated condensing mode and 128.6 MW when running in the rated cogeneration mode. The parameters of steam in the turbine steam path are given below.
Parameters of steam in the high-pressure circuit upstream of the high-pressure cylinders stop valves: rated/minimum admissible pressure2, 7.225(73.65) MPa (kg/cm2) 3.8(39.0) rated/maximum temperature, C 512.7/545 rated/maximum/minimum admissi453.6/525/130 ble steam flowrate2, t/h Parameters of steam in the low-pressure circuit: rated/minimum admissible 0.534(5.44)/0.47(4.70) pressure2, MPa (kg/cm2) rated/maximum temperature, C 221.7/250 rated/maximum/minimum admissi85.8/150/40 ble flowrate2, t/h Steam pressure downstream of the 0.167 (1.70) high-pressure cylinder, MPa (kg/cm2) Cooling water temperature, C 24.4 Design pressure in the condenser, MPa 0.00843 (0.09190) (kg/cm2)

The turbine comes as a single-shaft two-cylinder machine with throttle steam admission and is designed to operate at sliding parameters of steam in both the circuits. The turbine is used for directly driving an Elektrosila TFG160-2U3 generator and for supplying heat to consumers. CONSIDERATION OF THE SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGICAL FEATURES OF THE PGU-450T UNIT IN SETTLING THE MATTERS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF FREQUENCY AND POWER IN THE POWER SYSTEM One important peculiarity of gas turbines and, accordingly, of a CCPP as a whole is that their efciency shows a rather essential dependence on the temperature of gases at the turbine inlet, a circumstance that generates the need to strictly maintain the rated temperature of gases.
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The working range of gas turbine loads is that in which the temperature of gases remains unchanged. The required temperature is maintained by jointly adjusting the owrate of fuel (gas or diesel fuel) and the compressors IGVD turning angle, which determines the owrate of air to the combustion chamber. Therefore, the lower boundary of the working power range depends on the moment at which the IGVD closes. The lower boundary value for the GT-160 gas turbine running under the design external conditions is equal to around 60%. Another condition that determines the working range of loads during operation on gas is the moment at which the combustion chamber shifts from the operation in the diffusion mode to the premixing mode, which allows nitrogen oxide emissions to be efciently suppressed. According to the experience gained with the operation of the GT-160 units installed at the Severozapadnaya cogeneration station in St. Petersburg and the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station, the load at which this transition is made is somewhat lower that corresponding to the fully closed position of the IGVD. As the GT load reduces after closing the IGVD, the temperatures of gases at the inlet to the gas turbine and at the outlet from it decrease fairly rapidly. As the temperature of gases at the GT outlet decreases, so does the temperature of steam at the steam turbine inlet, for which a low-temperature protection is installed with a setpoint equal to 440C. Hence, only an insignicant reduction in the gas turbine load with respect to the working ranges lower boundary can be permitted, below which its load cannot be reduced, no matter whether it is for participation in primary control of the frequency or for the purposes of emergency load shedding. Thus, the boundaries of the working load range for CCPPs are as follows: (i) the lower boundary of loads corresponds to the power output of the unit (half unit) when the gas turbines (one or both) operate with their IGVDs beginning to open; and (ii) the upper boundary of loads corresponds to the maximum power output at which the power unit can run under current weather and process conditions. The characteristics of the GTs depend considerably on the ambient temperature. As this temperature increases, the upper and lower boundaries of the working load range decrease (as the ambient air temperature increases by 1C, the maximum possible load of one GTs drops by around 0.5 MW), and the temperature of gases at the GT output and the temperature of steam at the steam turbine inlet that correspond to these boundaries increase. As the environmental temperature decreases, the opposite change is observed: the load range boundaries increase, and the temperature of gases at the GT output and the temperature of steam at the ST inlet that correspond to these boundaries decrease. It is often indicated in the literature that the CCPP steam turbines should operate at sliding pressure with

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the valves kept fully open, a mode considered to be the most economically efcient one. However, such an approach runs counter to the requirements of Rules of Technical Operation, according to which each turbine must participate in primary control of the network frequency in accordance with its static characteristic, for which a certain valve displacement margin should be available. Therefore, the valves are kept in some intermediate position so that a certain control margin is retained. Such operating conditions are maintained either directly through the use of a device for controlling the specied position of valves or indirectly by means of a device controlling the pressure of steam upstream of itself, the setpoint to it being either constant or depending on the load. If a change in the CCPP load is not connected with participation in primary control of the frequency, and if no special requirements are placed on the speed of load variation, such a change is carried out only by adjusting the gas turbines, whereas the steam turbine follows the change in steam output and takes a new load with the inertia constant of the heat-recovery boilers, the time constant of which is on the order of a few minutes. When the ST operates in a purely condensing mode, the loads of the turbines operating within the CCPP are interrelated: the ST load is approximately equal to half the total load of the gas turbines. For a number of reasons, operation with equal loads is most preferable for gas turbines. Thus, when the CCPP equipment operates in full composition (two GTs and one ST), all the turbines run with approximately the same loads, and when only one GT is in operation (the CCPP operates in the half-unit conguration), the GT load is a factor of 2 larger than the ST load. If the ST operates in a cogeneration or combined mode, its electrical load will be less than half the total load of the gas turbines and it will depend on the fraction of district heating load being generated. Unlike traditional power units equipped with steam turbines, the initial change of load in which is carried out by adjusting the steam turbine valves and is limited only by the possibilities of their displacement, the rate with which the load of gas turbines can be varied is limited by strict temperature conditions and must be obtained by synchronously changing the positions of the GT control valves and IGVD of its compressor. It should be pointed out, however, that the rate with which the GT fuel valves and the steam turbine valves are displaced may be sufciently high, whereas the IGVDs of gas turbine compressors (in particular, those, of GT-160 turbines) are as a rule driven by means of a usual servo motor with a constant traveling speed. Therefore, the following limitations are imposed on the GT load variation rate for the GT-160 unit: (i) via the GT power setpoint channel (manually or automatically from the unit-level process control systems (PCSs)) at a level of 11 MW/min; and (ii) when the turbine speed governor is in operation, at a variable upper limit, which depends on the control

deviation and the duration of the transient, with the maximum possible value equal to 38 MW/min. The GT-160 turbine, which is manufactured under license from Siemens, comes with basic software for the electrical part of the GT control system. The abovementioned setpoints are part of this software and cannot be changed. The adopted constraints have in all likelihood been substantiated from the considerations of inadmissible rise in the temperature of gases caused by an increase in the load, because the change in air owrate may in this case be insufciently fast to follow the change in the fuel owrate. As regards decreasing the load, in particular, emergency load shedding, the additional dynamic variation in the temperature toward decreasing is the only relevant factor here, which inuences the service life of the turbine metal. THE FPCS HARDWARE The FPCS has been constructed within the framework of the instrumentation and control (I&C) facilities of the power units process control system on the basis of the TPTS-51 hardware manufactured at the Dukhov All-Russia Research Institute of Automation (VNIIA) under license from Siemens. In addition, there are local PCSs that are supplied completely with process equipment. Among them are the electrical parts of control systems (EPCSs) for the steam and gas turbines. These local systems have been integrated in the power unit process control system in different ways: the steam turbines EPCS is constructed using the same equipment as the power unit process control system, whereas the EPCSs of each gas turbine are made as independent systems constructed using the Siemens SYMADYN I&C system. Data exchange between the power unit process control system and EPCS of the steam turbine is made using digital bus, while that with the EPCSs of gas turbines is carried out via wired connections through the I/O devices of both the systems. The second method is preferable from the point of view of the speed with which signals are transmitted; however, it has disadvantages in terms of the accuracy with which analog information is exchanged, because the analog-to-digital (digital-to-analog) converters of the I/O devices introduce certain errors. Along with the signals required for operation of the interconnected control algorithms that run in different types of I&C system, the scope of data exchange also includes signals using which the local PCSs of gas turbines communicate with the operators interface-level process control system of the CCPP, which is constructed using the Siemens OM-650 system. A point of fundamental importance is that the EPCSs of gas turbines incorporate an electronic speed governor, whereas the ST rotation speed governor has remained a mechanical-hydraulic device and has not been included in the steam turbines EPCS.
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fref + f

871

Simulator of frequency deviations

NGT1 NGT2 NTS

Npl.ref SRL

N. Power unit output controller

+ +

FC

fref + FC3

N.ref

fref +

SRL GT1 NGT1.ref FC1 + NGT1

fref f

SRL GT3 NGT2.ref FC2 + GT2 speed governor NGT1 fref

Controller for the pressure or position f of HP valves TCM

GT1 load controller GT1 speed governor +

GT2 speed governor

Hydraulic ST speed governor

CVs of GT1

CVs of GT2

CVs of ST

Fig. 2. Function diagram of the FPCS for the PGU-450 unit. CVsControl valves; HPhigh pressure.

MAIN FUNCTIONAL AND ALGORITHMIC SOLUTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING THE FPCS The automatic frequency and power control system for the PGU-450 power unit (Fig. 2) incorporates a unit part and FPCSs for each of the turbines. The unit part comprises the power units power output controller and a device for generating a reference signal for the units total power output Nref, which consists of two components: (i) a frequency corrector (FC), which generates a setpoint for the units power output for the primary frequency control channel; and (ii) a setpoint rate-of-change limiter (SRL), which generates a setpoint for the planned component of power Npl.ref, which characterizes tertiary control of the frequency. In the general case, a channel for secondary control of frequency with its own SRL should be added to the 3 setpoint generation structure. The unit frequency corrector uses the median mean value of the measured rotation frequencies of three turbines. The automatic frequency and power control system for the gas turbine, which is constructed on the basis of
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the SIMADYN I&C system, has a fairly complex structure using which different schemes for controlling the frequency and power of GTs can be implemented. LMZ specialists have developed and put into use a version closest to similar Russian solutions. A simplied structure of this version is shown in Fig. 2. A gas turbines FPCS comprises a GT load controller itself, a turbine speed governor, frequency correctors (FC1 and FC2 in Fig. 2), and a SRL. It is exactly this SRL that performs the above-mentioned limitation of the rate of change in the GT load at a level of 11 MW/min. As was already mentioned, the steam turbine is still controlled in the traditional way, i.e., by means of a mechanical-hydraulic speed governor and an electronic controller producing commands for the turbine control mechanism (TCM). A specic feature pertinent to the control of the steam turbine used in a binary CCPP is that two TCMs are used for the high-and low-pressure valves and that each TCM is furnished with its own electronic controller comprising, as a minimum, channels for controlling the pressure and the position of valves. The circuits through which the high- and lowpressure valves are controlled in the hydraulic part are interconnected, a circumstance that gives rise to some problems in adjusting the electronic controllers for the high- and low-pressure loops. At present, all LMZ turbines manufactured for combined-cycle power units, starting from the K-110-6.5 turbine for Unit 1 at the Ivanovo DPS, come with electronic speed governors,

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Correcting power controller of GT1 TPTS51 SIMADIN FPCS of GT1

Scheme for parallel synchronization of correcting controllers

Correcting power controller of GT2 TPTS51 SIMADIN FPCS of GT2

Fig. 3. Function diagram of the power unit output controller.

equipment in which there are no hydraulic connections between the systems for controlling high-and low-pressure loops. Control of high-pressure valves plays the main role in controlling the frequency and power. Therefore, only the controller producing commands for the high-pressure valves is shown in Fig. 2 and only its operation is analyzed below. To avoid a situation in which the high- and low-pressure controllers may block the operation of the ST speed governor, a frequency corrector is included in the structure (FC3). In accordance with the above-described approach for controlling the PGU-450 units power output, the units power controller (UPC) produces control outputs only to the gas turbines. The function diagram in accordance with which the UPC is constructed and its interconnections with the FPCSs of gas turbines are shown in Fig. 3. The units power controller comprises four algorithmic units: (i) a unit for generating imbalance of the total power; (ii) analog correcting PI controllers for controlling the power output of each GT (two units); and (iii) a scheme for parallel synchronization of GTs, which serves to equalize the gas turbine power outputs provided that there are no technological constraints. The UPC circuit also makes it possible to apply the output signal to the steam turbine (the dashed line in Fig. 2). At present, such a possibility has not been put into use due to the following reasons. (1) The ST high- and low-pressure control valves are interconnected as to their hydraulic circuits, a factor due to which partial closing of the high-pressure control valves might cause the low-pressure control valves becoming fully closed during tests at low loads.

(2) The ST speed governor is implemented in the hydraulic part of the turbine control system; accordingly, it is not possible to connect this governor to the output of a device simulating frequency deviations, nor is it possible to operatively change the ST droop (the ST droop remains equal to its value that was set up during the initial adjustment of the turbines hydraulic control system. (3) The speed with which responses to disturbances are generated is slower in the case of using the turbine control mechanism than it is in the case of using the STs hydraulic speed governor. The question of whether or not it is advisable to use the common-unit FPCS for controlling the TCM can be revised after a hydraulic ST control system is retrotted to become an electrohydraulic one. Certain modications had to be made in the FPCS of the PGU-450 unit for carrying out tests to ascertain whether it conforms to the requirements of common primary control of frequency. Specically, a device for simulating frequency deviations was added to the FPCS circuit (see Fig. 2), the output signal of which is applied to the inputs of the following devices to bring the test conditions maximally close to actual frequency deviations in a power system: (i) the units frequency corrector; (ii) the GTs individual frequency correctors; and (iii) the GTs speed governors. As was shown above, the current FPCS has been congured so that the steam turbine changes its power output in step with the rate at which the steam output of boilers is increased. For this reason, the role of the unit controller consists in forcing the change in the GTs power output to temporarily compensate for the delay with which the ST power output is changed. Thus, when a change occurs in the network frequency, the FC of the GTs power controller causes the latter to change
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the GT power output in accordance with the FC droop and the correcting signal from the units power controller causes the GTs power controller to additionally (temporarily) change the GT power output, thus compensating for the delay with which the ST power output is changed. ORGANIZATION AND PERFORMANCE OF TESTS The tests were carried out in accordance with the Methodical Guidelines on Checking the Readiness of Thermal Power Stations for Primary Control of the Frequency in the Unied Energy System of Russia, a document attached as Appendix 1 to UESs Order No. 524 dated September 18, 2002. Checks of the automatic frequency and power control system were carried out near both the lower and upper boundaries of the power units working range. The tests were carried out with two droop values: 6 and 4%. A pair of experiments was carried out in both the lower and upper parts of the power units control range (toward increasing and decreasing the load) for each droop value. The droop values were specied for the gas turbine speed governors and for three frequency correctors: the unit FC and the gas turbine FCs. The frequency deviation values were taken equal to 285 mHz for the 6% droop and 219 mHz for the 4% droop. These disturbances correspond to the power output deviation equal to 45 MW or 10% of rated power for the PGU-450 power unit taking into account the 10-mHz dead band of the primary controllers. The dead bands of the primary speed governors of GT1 and GT2, the frequency correctors of GT1 and GT2, and the unit frequency corrector were increased before the tests so as to make the dead band from the rotation frequency sensor equal to 0.070 Hz. The conditions under which the experiments near the control ranges lower boundary were carried out were as follows: (i) both the gas turbines operated when their IGVDs began to open; the power units base load was equal to 330 MW; and both the GTs operated at almost the same loads (the difference was around 2.5 MW); and (ii) the STs high-pressure control valves were opened to 9599% of the control range and operated for automatically maintaining the pressure of high-pressure steam at the turbine inlet, and the STs low-pressure control valves were opened to 2437% of the control range and operated for automatically maintaining the pressure of low-pressure steam at the turbine inlet. The conditions under which the experiments near the control ranges upper boundary were carried out were as follows. (1) Both the gas turbines and the steam turbine ran with their outputs close to the rated power values, and the power units base load was equal to 390 MW. A decision was taken during the tests to depart from the
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base load equal to 400 MW, since a fairly high temperature of outdoor air of around 17C caused the IGVDs of both the GTs to fully open as their load was increased, and the devices for controlling the maximum temperature of gases at the GT outlet, which were implemented in the SIMADYN-based control systems of each GT, began to unload the turbines, so that the load did not increase to the required value. (2) The loads with which both the GTs operated during the tests were, as during the tests at the control ranges lower boundary, almost the same, differing from each other by around 2.5 MW. (3) The STs high-pressure control valves were opened to 9599% of the control range and operated for automatically maintaining the pressure of high-pressure steam at the turbine inlet, and the STs low-pressure control valves were opened to 3144% of the control range and operated for automatically maintaining the pressure of low-pressure steam at the turbine inlet. The setpoint for the pressure controller of high-pressure steam was varied in accordance with variations of the base load in order to keep the high-pressure control valves in a position close to full opening. The controllers operated in the automatic mode, because the power station personnel worried that the levels in the drums might become unstable during the tests. TEST RESULTS The accuracy with which an FPCS operates is regarded as satisfactory if the power unit output is nom within the range 1% N p.u with respect to its assigned value. The parameters used as criteria for numerically characterizing a transient are the interval of time from the moment a disturbance was applied to the moment at which the power changes by 50% of the required value and the interval of time from the moment a disturbance was applied to the moment at which the power unit output ts into the permissible band determined by the accuracy with which the FPCS maintains the power nom (1% N p.u ), i.e., when it changes by 90% of the required value. As an illustration, we present the curves of transients obtained in the tests carried out near the lower (Fig. 4) and upper (Fig. 5) boundaries of the control range for a droop of 6%. The quantitative values of the adopted criteria are given in Table 1. The characteristics we obtained from these tests of the power units FPCS were found not to be fully in compliance with the requirements for CPFC. These requirements (which were specied in UESs Order No. 524 dated September 18, 2002) demand that 50% deviation must be achieved within the rst 1015 s and 90% deviation must be achieved for gas-and-oil-red power units within 300 s. Hence, we see that the period of time for which the initial deviation is achieved is approximately a factor of 2 longer than its permissible

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Time, h : min : s

80

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280 280

Fig. 4. Experiments near the control ranges lower boundary with the GT droop equal to 6%. (1) Power units total output, MW; (2) and (3) upper and lower boundaries of the accuracy with which a power output must be maintained, MW; (4) and (5) GT1 and GT2 power outputs, MW; (6) ST power output, MW, and (7) frequency deviation, mHz.

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Fig. 5. Experiments near the control ranges upper boundary with the GT droop equal to 6%. The notation is the same as in Fig. 4. THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

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value, whereas the nal deviation is achieved within a period of time much shorter than the required one (75 s instead of 300 s). That the power output varies almost linearly and the results obtained from individual tests with a disturbance equal to 5% of load allows the conclusion to be drawn that it is possible to extrapolate the obtained results for the indicators of selective primary control of network frequency (SPFC), because a change in the power unit load depends primarily on the permissible rate with which the GT load can be varied. It follows from this (Table 2) that the indicators for SPFC within the normal margin (at a 5% disturbance) will be as follows: the 50% deviation is achieved for approximately 15 s, and the 90% deviation for 33 s. The values of both these indicators are somewhat larger than the standard ones (10 and 30 s, respectively), though only insignicantly. The requirement imposed on the initial change in power for SPFC within the emergency margin (a 12.5% deviation of power) will not be fullled either (a deviation by 50% will be achieved in approximately 38 s); however, no problems will occur with respect to the total duration of the transient, which must not exceed 2 min: the 90% deviation will be achieved in approximately 1 min 22 s (see Table 2). The obtained indicators can be improved when actual deviations of frequency occur in the power system owing to the fact that the steam turbines hydraulic speed governor will participate in responding to frequency disturbances. This improvement will always take place when the frequency increases, a situation in which the steam turbine load has to be reduced, and also when the frequency decreases if the turbine valves are not fully open in the initial state. The characteristics of the steam turbine will be improved for the task of primary control of frequency, and its role will be estimated during tests when an electrohydraulic ST control system is installed instead of the hydraulic one that has existed to date at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station. Another means using which the PGU-450T indicators for primary control of frequency can be improved consists of taking a signal from the units power controller to control the steam turbine. The above-mentioned methods through which the indicators characterizing primary control of frequency can be improved with the use of a steam turbine when it is necessary to increase the power unit load (i.e., when the frequency decreases) are only possible if an ST control range toward increasing is available; i.e., if there is a sufcient margin for shifting the turbine valves toward opening. It also follows from the test results that no problems arise for the PGU-450T unit with fullling the requirements for automatic secondary frequency control. The maximum rate of change in the load equal to 4%/min, i.e., 18 MW/min, which is required in accordance with the SOCDA Standard, can be achieved by changing the gas turbine load alone via the common-unit control
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Table 1. Results of tests for checking the preparedness for CPFC Droop, % Mean time for achieving Mean time for achieving 50% of the required 90% of the required change in power, s change in power, s experiment 6 4 6 4 standard experiment standard 300 300 300 300

Near the control ranges lower boundary 30.5 1015 75 31 1015 61 Near the control ranges upper boundary 29 1015 62 32 1015 60

Table 2. Results from extrapolation of experimental data for estimating the preparedness for SPFC Mean time for achieving 50% of the required change in power, s Mean time for achieving 90% of the required change in power, s

Indicator

During normal disturbance (5% of rated power unit output) Standard 10 30 Extrapolation 15 33 During emergency disturbance (12.5% of rated power unit output) Standard 15 300 Extrapolation 38 82

channel, the limitation for which is equal to 22 MW/min for two GTs. When only one GT is in operation, this limitation is equal to 11 MW/min, whereas the required rate of change in the half-units load is equal to 9 MW/min. Thus, the results from the tests that have been carried out on the FPCS of the PGU-450 unit for compliance with the CPFC requirements (with a disturbance equivalent to 10% of rated load) and the extrapolation of the obtained results for estimating whether the requirements of the SOCDA Standard for SPFC (from the point of view of control dynamics) and ASFC are fullled allow us to draw the following conclusions regarding the possibility of fullling these requirements for the PGU-450 unit and other combined-cycle plants with a similar structure. (1) The requirements for ASFC and the dynamic characteristics of CPFC and SPFC are fullled completely within the emergency margin (12.5%) with respect to the total time of the transient. (2) The tests carried out on CCPPs equipped with ST hydraulic speed governors have shown that the indicators characterizing the dynamics of SPFC within the

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normal margin with regard to the time for which half of the required change in the power must be achieved (the initial part of the transient) and the total time of the transient are fairly close to the standardized values and must approach the standardized values or even outperform them during actual participation of CCPPs in frequency control, as well as in experiments with CCPPs equipped with electronic steam turbine speed governors. (3) The indicators characterizing the dynamics of CPFC and SPFC within the emergency margin are considerably inferior to the standardized values with respect to the time for which half of the required change of power has to be achieved (by factors of 2 and 3.5, respectively). This is due to the fundamental constraints imposed on the possible rate of change in the gas turbine load. The values of these indicators can be improved to some degree during actual participation of CCPPs in frequency control. Assessment of whether a considerable improvement can be made in the indicators of CCPPs equipped with electronic steam turbine speed governors requires special investigation. At present, two new CCPPsnamely, the PGU-325 installation of Unit 1 at the Ivanovo DPS and the PGU-450 installation of Unit 3 at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station, the structures of which are similar to that of Unit 1 at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station and which are equipped with LMZ steam turbines and Interavtomatika process control systemshave been furnished with electronic steam turbine speed governors. There are plans according to which the ST control systems used in the PGU-450 power units installed at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station and at the Severozapadnaya cogeneration station in St. Petersburg have to be retrotted with the use of electronic speed governors. The LMZ management intends to supply all new steam turbines for similar CCPPs only with electronic speed governors. Hence, those in charge of working out plans for the participation of CCPPs in system-wide control of frequency may use, as a rst approximation, the assessments of the quality of transients expected in the case of using electronic ST speed governors. As was mentioned above, no requirements are currently placed on combined-cycle plants for their participation in ASFC and SPFC. All the above-mentioned standardized indicators characterizing the dynamics of

transients have been determined for gas-and-oil-red power units. Nonetheless, the CCPP being considered successfully meets the requirements, in particular, those for SPFC within the emergency margin, except with the dynamics of the transient in its initial part. Gas-and-oil-red power units satisfy the requirements for SPFC within the emergency margin. However, whereas no problems arise with meeting these requirements in the initial part of the transient, the requirements for the time within which the process has to be completed can only be met by considerably forcing the boiler, which gives rise to certain difculties (see Footnote 3). In our opinion, it is advisablefrom the point of view of solving power grid challengesthat CCPPs not be barred from participation in SPFC but be used in such a way that the advantages of CCPPs and traditional power units can be rationally combined, and also in the distribution of power backups. It follows from this that a special document similar to that available for the traditional thermal power stations has to be developed that would specify the norms according to which CCPPs should participate in ASFC and SPFC. CONCLUSIONS (1) A system for controlling the frequency and power of a power unit has been installed in the PGU-450 power unit at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station as part of the power units process control system and has been constantly used since March of 2006. (2) At present, the PGU-450-based Unit 1 at the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station fully meets the requirements for ASFC and also the dynamic characteristics of CPFC and SPFC within the emergency margin with regard to the total duration of the transient. (3) The existing constraints on the rate of change in the GT power output do not allow the requirements for CPFC and SPFC within the emergency margin to be fullled in the initial part of the transient. (4) The obtained results reect a number of advantages of CCPPs from the point of view of their participation in SPFC; this makes it advisable to develop a special document (similar to the SOCDA Standard for the traditional power units) that would specify the norms according to which CCPPs should participate in SPFC and ASFC.

THERMAL ENGINEERING

Vol. 55

No. 10

2008

ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 877885. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text I.Z. Chernomzav, D.A. Zhezherya, R.V. Mukharryamov, A.A. Perezhogina, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

The System for Automatically Controlling the Processes in a GTE-110, Russias First High-Temperature Large-Capacity Gas Turbine
I. Z. Chernomzav, D. A. Zhezherya, R. V. Mukharryamov, and A. A. Perezhogina
ZAO Interavtomatika, ul. Avtozavodskaya ul. 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia AbstractThe tasks imposed on the control of the GTE-110 gas turbine unit are considered together with the results of experiments carried out at a test rig and on the PGU-325 combined-cycle power plant at the Ivanovo district power station. DOI: 10.1134/S004060150810008X

The GTE-110 gas turbine unit (GTU) of OAO Saturn Research and Production Association is the rst Russian power-generating installation intended for use as part of different combined-cycle power plants (CCPPs): 325- and 170-MW heat-recovery CCPPs and a 420-MW CCPP the gases from which are discharged into a power-generating boiler for afterburning. The prospects for the use of GTE-110 units stem from the need to technically ret power units that are already in operation and constructing new power units. In its technical characteristics, the GTE-110 unit is one of the best GTUs: the temperature of gases at the turbine inlet is equal to 1210C, and the GTU efciency is equal to 35%. This installation features the lowest specic consumption of metal relative to similar indicators of other gas turbines for close power capacities. The turbines ow-path part comprises four stages; its air-cooling system has a branched conguration with the use of an airwater heat exchanger for additional cooling of air. A 15-stage compressor is installed on the common shaft, the compression ratio of which is equal to 14.75 at rated power and design parameters of outdoor air. An inlet guide vane device (IGVD) is installed upstream of the compressor, which serves to extend the range in which reli-

able operation of the compressor is ensured and improve the economic indicators of the CCPP during operation at partial loads by maintaining the temperature of ue gases at its rated level. The GTE-110 gas turbine unit is furnished with an air-cooled T3FG-110-2MU3 generator, which comes with an STS-2E-220-1900-2.5UKhLCh thyristor excitation system connected in accordance with a self-excitation arrangement. The technological structure of the GTE-110 unit incorporates around ten subsystems, which must be controlled in a coordinated manner to organize normal operation of the entire GTU. The GTE-110 unit is equipped with a modern microprocessor-based process control system (PCS) developed at ZAO Interavtomatika, which solves the tasks pertinent to monitoring and control of the GTU [1]. The function diagram illustrating how this APCS interacts with all systems of GTE110 is shown in Fig. 1. The list of PCS functions includes the following: (i) automatic control of the parameters of GTE-110, including rotor rotation frequency, temperature of gases downstream of the turbine, and electric power output;

PCS of the PGU-325 power unit

PCS of the GTE-110 unit

TSD

Generator

Excitation Compressor and BG system

Gas turbine Pneumatic control control and protections

Group of fuel devices

Gas Lubrication Cooling water preparation system system station

Fig. 1. Interaction of the PCS with the systems of the GTE-110 unit. TSD is the thyristor starting device and BG is the barring gear.

877

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Stepped program for starting/shutting down the GTE-110 unit

Stepped program for controlling the system of gaseous fuel

Stepped program for controlling the system of liquid fuel

Mechanisms of the gaseous fuel system

Controllers of the GTE-110 unit

Logic control of GTE-110 systems

Mechanisms of the liquid fuel system

Fig. 2. Function diagram illustrating the control of GTE-110 systems.

(ii) technological protections of the GTE-110 unit; (iii) automatic control of fuel supply when the turbine is started up and reaches the nominal rotation frequency; (iv) discrete control performing logic algorithms when the GTE-110 is started up and shut sown in normal and emergency modes; (v) automated control of all auxiliary equipment during startup, shutdown, and normal operation; and (vi) control of electrical equipment. GTE-110 CONTROL TASKS AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION A gas turbine unit is a complex plant from the point of view of controlling it. The processes in a gas turbine occur fairly rapidly, and several actuating mechanisms have to be controlled simultaneously under all operating conditions. The PCS of a gas turbine serves to perform the following functions: (i) the operation of protections and interlocks and automatic switching of backup auxiliary equipment; (ii) closed-loop control of parameters; (iii) automatic logic control and process interlocks, including automated control of process units, automatic devices and functionally interconnected groups of process equipment, and control performed in accordance with sequential logic dependences, including step-bystep programs; (iv) remote control; (v) emergency and warning alarms; (vi) data presentation; monitoring, recording, and archiving the parameters and state of equipment; and (vii) recording of emergency situations. The gas turbine startup and shutdown processes are carried out using the following stepped programs: a gas turbine startup and shutdown program, a gaseous fuel

control program, a liquid fuel control program, and a program for switching on the gaseous-fuel-red channel of the central zone. The PCS incorporates the following devices using which a gas turbines main parameters are controlled: a fuel feed regulator; a fuel consumption programming device; a device for controlling frequency and power; a device for controlling the temperature downstream of the turbine, which generates commands for the IGVD; function units for generating setpoint for owrates and positions of valves for gaseous and liquid fuel; and a limiting controller of temperature. The PCS for the GTE-110 unit incorporates around 70 protections, which generate commands for shutting down the turbine if emergency conditions occur. Gas Turbine Stepped Control Programs. The gas turbine startupshutdown program serves to control the sequence of operations and monitor the gas turbine parameters. It is used for automatically starting the turbine, monitoring the starting process and canceling it if malfunctions occur, shutting down the turbine when the operator trips it out, and connecting and disconnecting the preselected fuel system during startup and shutdown operations (in this case, the corresponding stepped program for gaseous or liquid fuel is started). The gaseous (liquid) fuel control program serves to control the sequence of technological operations that are carried out when the turbine is started, runs in the normal mode, and is shut down during the operation on the selected kind of fuel. This program includes operations for controlling the components of the gaseous (liquid) fuel system both when the turbine is started and when the supply of gaseous (liquid) fuel is terminated. Figure 2 shows the function diagram illustrating how the control of GTE-110 systems is organized. Control of Fuel Flowrate in the GTU. The owrate of fuel is controlled by adjusting the position of valves in the pilot and central zones.
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These controllers include the following elements: a unit of main controllers, which comprises power output and frequency control loops; limiting controllers, including a device for controlling the temperature of gas downstream of the turbine; a maximum power controllers, the limiting setpoint of which depends on the outdoor air temperature and pressure; and a controllers for the minimal owrate of fuel to the combustion chamber; and a unit for generating the assigned owrate of fuel, which serves for distributing the fuel among the valves of the central and pilot zones; the minimal owrate of fuel through the central zone channel depends on the outdoor air temperature, and the maximal owrate of fuel through the pilot zone channel depends on the outdoor air temperature and on the IGVD turning angle. The fuel owrate programming device serves to generate the assigned owrate of fuel when the gas turbine is started. When the gas turbine engine runs in a normal operation mode, the assigned owrate of fuel is generated by means of the rotation frequency or power output controller depending on the operating mode. When any parameter participating in the algorithms of limiting controllers (the temperature of gas downstream of the turbine, electric power output, or owrate) goes beyond the permissible threshold, the unit of limiting controllers comes into action and remains so until the parameter that went beyond the threshold is returned within the permissible limits. Devices Controlling Rotation Frequency and Power. The gas turbine is speeded up by means of a thyristor starter to 2600 rpm, after which the frequency controller comes into action and brings the rotation frequency to 3000 rpm. After the generator is synchronized with the power network, the power controller comes into action with an assigned value of power output equal to 4 MW. Further control of power unit loading is carried out using a power setpoint adjuster. Commands from the unit-level power controller or from the operator may switch the power setpoint adjuster used in the GTE-110 unit to operate in the automatic mode, in which it will receive a reference signal for the ultimate power output from the unit-level power controller. If the Normal Shutdown signal is ON, the gas turbine stepped startupshutdown program generates commands to the power setpoint adjuster in response to which it generates an ultimate setpoint equal to 1 MW and the operator selects the rate of change in the setpoint (from 1 to 7 MW/min). Once the electric power output reduces to 1 MW, the generator is switched-off from the network and shifts to run in the idle mode. The turbine cools down for 10 min, after which its valves are automatically closed, and the rotor runs down until it stops completely. The frequency controller can be set up for coming into action when the rotation frequency is below 700 rpm.
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

Emergency shutdown of the turbine can be done by clicking on the virtual pushbutton on the operators control console or pressing the button on the standby control console; these operations cause the stop and control valves to close. A device for controlling the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine by controlling the IGVD serves to adjust the turn angle of the GTE-110 units inlet guide vanes for setting up the owrate of air required for obtaining the necessary temperature of gases upstream of the boiler (when the GTE-110 unit operates as part of the PGU-325 combined-cycle plant). A PI-controller of the IGVDD turning angle is used to place the inlet guide vane in the required position depending on the control diviaction between the assigned and current temperatures of gases downstream of the turbine. The mutual inuence of the gas temperature controller generating commands for the IGVD and the temperature limiter is excluded by setting the rst one to operate with a setpoint for the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine reduced by 7C. The technological protections operating in the PCS serve to perform the following functions: (i) carrying out diagnostics of the input analog and discrete signals; (ii) changing the structure in accordance with which protection signals are generated when failures of sensors occur; (iii) generating virtual jumpers for enabling and disabling protections; (iv) indicating the state of protections (enabled/disabled); and (v) presenting information on the state and operation of protections on video displays for the operator. The operation of some protections can be checked on the running equipment, among which are those for overspeed, no-burning, low lubrication pressure, and high temperature of gases downstream of the turbine. The other protections can be checked on the stopped GTE-110 unit by simulating the conditions under which they must come into action. A new computer program has now been developed using which all protections can be checked on the stopped turbine. The checking algorithm simulates signals the values of which correspond to their emergency levels. Since some protections have to be checked at lower values of their emergency setpoints, the algorithm has facilities for appropriately reducing the amplitude of the simulated signal. Once a protections coming into action is checked the record of, the simulated signal in the log is released.

880
Standby control console 30CWS01 with additional volume of functions

CHERNOMZAV et al.
Laser jet printer Ink jet printer

Matrix printer

Turbine

Workplace of an electrician U/I A B U/I U/I U/I U/I U/I U/I U/I

Workplace of a process engineer

U/I

U/I

Redundant system bus CS275

GE GE EE EE

GE GE EE EE

GE GE EE EE +24 B Power supplies 220/380 V AC 220 V DC

AS 220 EA

AS 220 EA

RS485

AS 220 EA

+24 B

Power supply cabinet Additional relay cabinet for controlling nonstandard actuators +24 B +24 B Additional power supply cabinet Gas preparation station and monitoring of additional parameters

Cabinet of interposing relays

Cabinet of interposing relays

Marshalling cabinet

Power supplies 220/380 V AC 220 V DC

Fig. 3. Structure of the PCS for the GTE-110 unit.

STRUCTURE OF THE PCS FOR THE GTE-110 UNIT The idea of constructing the PCS for the GTE-110 unit on the basis of the unied domestically produced instrumentation and control systems became reality after Interavtomatika and Dukhov VNIIA specialists jointly developed a number of high-speed controllers. The new TPTS-52.1724-01 module makes it possible to enter information from three electromagnetic rotation frequency sensors, calculate it in each channel along with checking its validity, determine the mean value from three frequency values, and generate setpoints for the rotation frequency. All tasks are calculated with a cycle of less than 10 ms. Being part of the system, this module obeys the laws in accordance with which the I&CS is constructed and can be made redundant and diagnosed as any other module. An electronic rotation frequency governor has been constructed and the functions of an automatic emergency control system (ECS) have been implemented on the basis of this and a number of other modules that were developed [2].

The technical structure of the PCS is shown in Fig. 3. It incorporates a lower, or controller, level, which consists of three cabinets that receive and process information and run the entire volume of direct digital control, protections, interlocks, automatic controllers, and logic programs. The gas turbine and compressor are controlled with the use of nonstandard actuating mechanisms that are not typical for the Russian power engineering. These are furnished with equipment for monitoring the integrity of control circuits, the state of which is displayed for the operator in video frames. The PCS incorporates a cabinet for controlling these actuators and a 24-V power supply cabinet. The I&CS, also includes cabinets housing IT14 vibration sensors, sensors for special measurements, spark protection units for the circuits of a number of sensors, a turbine speedup limiter, and a 220-V power distribution cabinet. The upper level of the PCS, which consists of operator workstations, performs the following functions:
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Plant Vertical-wise
11MBY00ER00 11MBK05CH001

ESP

A P

F V GTU

Graphs

ACS SP

Menu

BG
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clean air

1BG ON from CWTP 2BG OFF 1frequency 1 ON 2frequency 2 ON IGVD REF


11MBKO5EKOO1

11MBS05AN001 to the atmosphere

Rep FDU 11MBS05AN002


11HHS21CT001

to the atmosphere
11HHS22AN001 Rep 11HHS22AN001

Rep BG ON
11MBKO5EKOO1 IGVD

11MBA10DG001 11MBA10AA801

T P

deg kPa to HRB-11

ON and OK Disengaged

36 CC

11MBKO5EKOO1

11HHS21CP001

11HHS21AN001 11HHS21AN001

IBG 0.00 A
11MBO5CE012

CC

P1out; P2out;

kPa kPa

%
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11MBR20CP001

11MKA00FE001

MW
11MKA10CE001

from GT-11 oil supply system


11MBV40CT001

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11MBR20CP002 11PCM39CT00

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21 deg
11MBV 17 deg 41AP001 41AP002 41AP003

11PCM39AA801 11PCN39CF901

T 20 deg 11MBV40CP001 P 16 MW

removal of cooling water


11MBY20DS001

%
11PCM11AA001 11PCM23AA801

n
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Rep

Tgout
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11PCM10AA001 11PCM20CP001 11PCM10CP001 11PCM10CP002 11PCM10CT002
P MW

11PCM10CT001

GTU11

MW

deg

P MW

deg

supply of cooling water ?

Fig. 4. Video frame for controlling the GTE-110 unit used as part of the PGU-325 unit No. 1.

(i) online monitoring and control of technological processes; (ii) process and functional alarms; (iii) archiving, logging, and presentation of technological processes in graphic form; and (iv) calculation tasks. Operator workstations perform the main functions of online monitoring and control with use of necessary video frames. Each video frame contains, along with a static part, dynamic elements that represent the analog and discrete signals indicating the state of equipment items being monitored and controlled. As an example, Fig. 4 shows the video frame for controlling the GTE-110 unit. The indication displayed on the screen reects the operation of process equipment and informs the operator of the state of the monitoring and control system. New technical equipment on the basis of the SPPA-T3000 controllers are supposed to be used for further development of the PCS for GTE-110 units [3].
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

The experience Interavtomatika specialists have gained from their activities on other equipment, e.g., the PCS for the PGU-450 combined-cycle power plant, conrms that such a shift does not require much effort. RESULTS FROM TESTS OF THE PCS OF THE GTE-110 UNIT DURING INDEPENDENT OPERATION Speeding Up and Loading the GTE-110 Unit. The curves shown in Fig. 5 illustrate how the gas turbine is sped up to the idle running mode and subsequently loaded to 110 MW. The curves are given for the following parameters: (i) the rotor rotation frequency; (ii) the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine; (iii) the position of the control valves in the rst and second channels; (iv) the generator power; and

882 n, rpm N, kW 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 09:49
Automatic startup Heating in the idlemode Operation in the network

CHERNOMZAV et al. N, MW , % , C 480 2 1 3 6 4 09:57 10:05 10:13 I II 400 320 240 160 80 5 0 10:21 t, h : min 140 Frequency increment, rpm 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Ne, MW
Fig. 6. Static characteristic of the GTE-110 unit.

= 0.575 rpm

Fig. 5. GTE-110 starting process. (1) TSD power, kW; (2) rotor rotation frequency, rpm; (3) temperature of gases downstream of the turbine, C; (4) and (5) turning angle of the control valves in the 1st and 2nd channels, %; (6) generator power, MW; (I) synchronization; and (II) connection of the central gas channel.

(v) the power of the thyristor starting device. The gas turbine is started in a fully automated manner from a single pushbutton. Typically, the turbine starting process comprises the following stages: (i) the gas turbine is sped up by means of a thyristor starting device to a rotation frequency of 700 rpm and ventilated at this frequency for 10 min; (ii) the rotation frequency is increased to 900 rpm, after which fuel is admitted to the combustion chamber; (iii) the rotation frequency is increased further using the thyristor starting device and fuel owrate programming device; and (iv) the thyristor starting device and then the fuel owrate programming device are disconnected when the rotation frequency reaches 2600 and 2850 rpm, respectively, after which the rotor speed governor is switched into operation, which brings the turbine rotation speed to a level of 3000 rpm. Prior to starting up the turbine, the IGVD is closed, which causes the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine to rise to 480C for a short time when fuel is admitted to the combustion chamber. Once the rotation frequency reaches 2900 rpm, the IGVD is forcedly opened and the temperature drops very rapidly to 210C. After the rotation frequency has reached 3000 rpm and the turbine has been heated for 10 min, the generator is synchronized with the power system and picks up the initial load. The rate with which the GTE-110 unit is brought to the nominal power level is set by the operator on the rate-of-power setting device. This rate is equal to 7 MW/min for normal operating conditions. The ultimate power level is set up in accordance with the load curve. The combustion chamber of GTE-110 consists of two zones: a pilot zone and a central zone. The unit is brought to run in the idle mode and its load is picked up

to around 20 MW using the rst channel of the combustion chamber (the pilot zone). To increase the load further, the second channel (the central zone) has to be put in operation, which is switched on in a stepped manner to obtain stable combustion. The central channel is switched on and off automatically with the use of a step-by-step program. The Static Characteristic of GTE-110. The gas turbines static characteristic was determined on the running equipment after the generator had been connected to the network and picked up the initial load equal to 4 MW. The gas turbine load was increased by increasing the setpoint (reference value) of rotation frequency. The reverse branch was obtained by decreasing the setpoint rotation frequency. The maximum deviation between these values was equal to 1.15, or 0.575 rpm. It follows from this that the maximum dead band is equal to 9.6 mHz and lies in the middle of the load adjustment range and the control droop is equal to 4.96%. Tests of the Limiting Gas Temperature Controller. The controller for limiting the temperature of gas downstream of the turbine was checked by abruptly closing the IGVD to cause the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine rising above the limiting value, which was set at a level of 470C during the test. A change in the gas temperature downstream of the turbine by 13C above the limiting value was recorded during the test, which nonetheless was lower than the protection setpoint (+30C with respect to the limiting temperature). The results of these tests are shown in Fig. 7. The limiting controller partly closed the control valve to maintain a specied temperature equal to 470C. After the IGVD had returned in the initial position, the temperature of gases reduced and the control valve opened to its initial position. GTE-110 Loading and Unloading Processes. Figure 8a shows the GTE-110 loading process, which comprises the following stages: (i) the operation of the pilot zone with the IGVD held in the open state; the GTE load is slowly increased from 12 to 18 MW during this mode (section A);
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

THE SYSTEM FOR AUTOMATICALLY CONTROLLING IGVD, deg CV, % 50 2 30 40 483 3 20 10 0 10 20 1 30 40 16:48:00 16:50:53 T, C 500 490 480 470 460 450 440 430 420 410 IGVD, deg CV, % N, MW A 100 80 60 40 20 0 20
Fig. 7. Checking the operation of the limiting temperature controller producing commands for the control valve. (1) IGVD turn angle, deg; (2) turn angle of the second channels control valve, %; and (3) temperature of gases downstream of the turbine, C.

883

D B C 2 3 5 4

T, C 600 500 400 300 200 100 0

16:53:46 16:56:38 Time, h : min : s

1 12:27:22

100 200 12:33:07 12:36:00 Time, h : min : s (a) T, C IV 600 500 4 3 V 400 300 200 IV 100 0

40 12:21:36 IGVD, deg CV, % N, MW I 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 13:22:05 13:24:58 1 2

(ii) automatic connection of the central zone with the IGVD held open, after which the power output is increased to 30 MW; the owrate of fuel admitted to the combustion chamber is increased abruptly in order to switch on the central zone and maintain stable combustion; the amplitude of this stepped increase depends on the outdoor air temperature; that the power increased by 30 MW and the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine rose by 75% testies that the combustion processes in the combustion chambers central zone are stable (section B); (iii) switching over the IGVD to operate in the automatic mode (section C); (iv) loading the GTE-110 unit with the device for controlling the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine (by adjusting the IGVD) switched into operation until the temperature of gases reaches its rated value equal to 513C (section D); (v) loading the power unit while maintaining the temperature of gases at a level of 513C using the device for controlling the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine by adjusting the IGVD (section E); and (vi) operation at the specied level of power with maintaining the temperature of gases at a level of 513C using the device for controlling the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine by adjusting the IGVD (section F). The GTE-110 unloading process is shown in Fig. 8b. It comprises the following stages: (i) the power unit operates at the specied level of power with maintaining the temperature of gases at a level of 513C using the temperature controller adjusting the IGVD (section I); (ii) the GTE-110 unit is unloaded while maintaining the temperature of gases at a level of 513C with the temperature controller acting on the IGVD switched in
THERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

II 5

III

100 200 13:30:43 13:33:36 Time, h : min : s

13:27:50 (b)

Fig. 8. Automatic loading of the GTE-110 unit with maintaining the temperature of gas downstream of the turbine at a level of 513C during the operation at loads of (a) higher and (b) lower than 60 MW. (1) IGVD turn angle, deg; (2) and (3) turn angles of the control valves of the rst and second channels, %; (4) Ne, MW; and (5) temperature of gases downstream of the turbine, C.

operation (this is possible until the load is reduced to 60 MW) (section II); (iii) further unloading of the GTE-110 unit causes the temperature of gas to decrease, because the IGVD is on its lower limit and cannot maintain the temperature of gases at the specied level (section III); (iv) the IGVD is switched over to operate in the remote control mode and opened, causing the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine to drop to 310C (section IV);

884 IGVD, deg 140


07.03.2008 13:26:11

CHERNOMZAV et al. T, C N, MW 700 110 3 640 88

1 2

120

100

4 7

580 66

80 6 5 60

520 44

460 22

40 20:11:15
Sc

20:14:30
Text PI of GT1 IGVD T G dwnst. GT1 on GF N GEN GT11 N GEN ST PI of GT2 IGVD; 20 T G dwn GT2 on LF N GEN GT12;

20:21:01
LL 40 400 0 0 40 400 0 Value 92 515.5 104.5 93.699 73.628 523.53 107.64 UL 140 700 110 110 140 700 110

20:27:31
Unit of meas Time % 28.08.2007 20:36:03 Beginning of range C 28.08.2007 20:08:00 MW End of range MW 28.08.2007 20:37:16 % Step C 01.574 MW

400 0 Time, h : min : s

Signal code 11MBA10CG801 XQ01 11MBR20CT903A XQ01 11MKA10CE901 XQ01 10MKA10CE901 XQ01 12MBA10CG801 XQ01 12MBR20CT903B XQ01 12MKA10CE901 XQ01

Fig. 9. Loading of the gas turbines and the steam turbine of the PGU-325 power unit. (1), (2) and (3) Power outputs of the gas turbines Nos. 1 and 2 and the steam turbine, MW; (4) and (5) IGVD turn angle of turbines Nos. 1 and 2, %; and (6) and (7) temperature of gases downstream of the turbine, C.

(v) the power unit is further unloaded to 30 MW, and the central zone is automatically swetched-off with the IGVD held open (section V); and (vi) the GTE-110 unit operates using the pilot zone with the IGVD held open (section VI). RESULTS OF TESTING THE PCS OF THE GTE-110 UNIT DURING ITS OPERATION AS PART OF THE PGU-325 COMBINED-CYCLE POWER PLANT The PCS has been put into use in two GTE-110 gas turbines supplied from Saturn Research and Production Association and used as part of the pilot PGU-325 combined-cycle power plant at the Ivanovo DPS. The PCS of the rst gas turbine was adjusted in February and March, and that of the second gas turbine, in May of 2007. The processes used to control the gas turbine operating as part of the PGU-325 plant are similar to those used to control the gas turbine operating in an independent mode with the switched-on device for con-

trolling the temperature of gases downstream of the turbine by adjusting the IGVD. The PGU-325 unit has now been used in a half-unit conguration due to the limited volume in which gaseous fuel is supplied to the Ivanovo DPS. In what follows, we consider how two GTE-110 gas turbines, one of which operates on gaseous fuel and the other on liquid fuel, and a K-110-6.5 steam turbine are jointly loaded. The curves in Fig. 9 show the increase in the power output of the PGU-325 unit power when gas turbines Nos. 1 and 2 are loaded. When gas turbine No. 1 is loaded from 90 to 106 MW, the temperature of gases is stabilized by means of the controller, which controls the IGVD position toward opening from 57 to 92%. The trend seen in the IGVD motion corresponds to the power buildup pattern; as this takes place, the temperature of gases downstream of turbine No. 1 is established at the specied level equal to 517C. The moment at which the loading of turbine No. 2 begins is shifted in time by 16 min with respect to the loading of turbine No. 1.
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The temperature of gases downstream of turbine No. 2 is maintained by means of the temperature controller acting on the IGVD of this turbine. The way in which the IGVD position is changed from 42 to 74% is also close to the pattern of change in the power output. In both cases, the temperature controllers generated commands for increasing the owrate of air to maintain the specied temperatures of gases downstream of turbines Nos. 1 and 2. The specied value of temperature for turbine No. 2 was established at a level of 527C. Figure 9 also shows how the steam turbine is loaded to a power of 93.5 MW under steady operating conditions of the PGU-325 power unit. The above processes through which the load of both the GTE-110 units is controlled and the temperature of gases is maintained downstream of the turbines operating as part of the PGU-325 combined-cycle power plant at the Ivanovo DPS are stable and have been implemented with good quality. CONCLUSIONS (1) The algorithms for closed-loop and logic control, including protections, and step-by-step programs that have been developed allow the GTE-110 unit to be automatically started and run reliably in the entire range of loads during its operation on gaseous and liquid fuel, and they also allow the unit to be shut down in normal and emergency modes. (2) The test results have conrmed that the PCS of the GTE-110 unit meets the modern requirements for the control of frequency and power: (i) the control system droop is equal to around 5%; (ii) the dead band is less than 10 mHz; and

(iii) the static characteristic of the control system is linear in the entire range except with the region in which the central zone of the combustion chamber is swiched-on. (3) The developed algorithm of the power controller taken in combination with the algorithm for startup/shut-down of the central zone allows the gas turbine load to be controlled in the entire working range. (4) The temperature controller generating control commands for the IGVD stably maintains the specied temperature of gases downstream of the turbine, thus supporting normal operating conditions of the steam turbine used as part of the PGU-325 unit. (5) The interaction between the operation of the temperature controller producing commands for the IGVD and the operation of the limiting temperature controller producing commands for the control valve has been checked. The algorithm that controls joint operation of these controllers excludes their mutual inuence. REFERENCES
1. A. Ya. Kopsov, A. P. Livinskii, V. V. Lysko, et al., The Automated Process Control System of the Rig for Testing the GTE-110 Unit, Elektr. Stn., No. 7, 2731 (2003). 2. I. Z. Chernomzav and K. A. Nefedov, Improvement of Automatic Control Systems for Large-Capacity Steam Turbines, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 2733 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)]. 3. A. G. Sviderskii and Kh. Kherpel, New Technical Facilities for Equipping Power Industry Plants with Automatic Control Systems, Teploenergetika, No. 10, 913 (2008) [Therm. Eng., No. 10 (2008)].

THERMAL ENGINEERING

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ISSN 0040-6015, Thermal Engineering, 2008, Vol. 55, No. 10, pp. 886893. Pleiades Publishing, Inc., 2008. Original Russian Text K.A. Molchanov, V.P. Strashnykh, D.A. Zhezherya, O.A. Manevskaya, 2008, published in Teploenergetika.

The Full-Scale Training Simulator for Educating the Operative Personnel of the PGU-450 Unit at OAO Mosenergos TETs-27 Cogeneration Station
K. A. Molchanova, V. P. Strashnykhb, D. A. Zhezheryaa, and O. A. Manevskayaa
a

ZAO Interavtomatika, ul. Avtozavodskaya 14/23, Moscow, 115280 Russia b OOO ENIKO TSO, sh. Kashirskoe 31, Moscow, 115409 Russia

AbstractWe describe the full-scale training simulator for the PGU-450 combined cycle power plant, an installation combining an actual automatic process control system and a detailed physical model of process equipment that was developed in Russia for the rst time and had been put in operation before the power unit was started. DOI: 10.1134/S0040601508100091

The use of training simulators in power engineering for training the operative personnel is no longer a novelty. That their use is extremely efcient and necessary is pointed out in [1, 2]. Many power stations have purchased and put into use training simulators for both individual technological items and entire power units. Training simulators are used for carrying out training to cope with emergency situations, to educate personnel, and to hold competitions of operators. All these installations, except that for the Sochi thermal power station (TPS), are power units constructed in accordance with the traditional technology. At the same time, the areas in which Russian power engineering has been developed in recent years involve the use of combined-cycle power units, a technology that allows high-efciency values to be obtained that cannot be achieved in traditional power units and make the power-generation cycle much more friendly to the environment. Only a few power stations running in accordance with a combined (steamgas) cycle are now in operation in Russia (not taking into account Unit 3 at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station: the Severozapadnaya cogeneration station in St. Petersburg, the Sochi thermal power station, the Kaliningrad TETs-2 cogeneration station, the Ivanovo district power station, and some others. This is very little in comparison with the total number of traditional power units in Russia. Since the combined-cycle technology has only begun to come into use in Russia, the problem of training skilled personnel has gained special importance. The problem of training workers and maintaining their knowledge and skills has become especially relevant as advanced high-efciency process control systems (PCSs), facilities allowing a high level of automation to be achieved, are put into use. The personnel control the technological process through an PCS. On one hand,

this automated system, as it were, guards the operator, performing the major part of operations for monitoring and controlling the process, but on the other hand, high demands are placed on the skills of the personnel who operate with this system. Keeping an eye on how the automated technological process proceeds becomes the main function of the operating personnel; therefore, the workers must have a good understanding of the process and its control algorithms. Of course, high levels of skill can be gained in the course of long-term work with equipment; however, this takes a long time and involves high costs, all the more so because the cost of an error often turns to be very great. The only exit from todays situation of power facilities suffering from a shortage of skilled workers can be seen in the development of fullscale training simulators for operating personnel capable of fully replicating both the technological process and the manmachine interface together with the control algorithms used in the PCS. It is such a training simulator that has been developed and put in operation in Unit 3 at OAO Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station. Such training simulator is especially badly needed for the shift operators encountering modern power unit control systems for the rst time. The use of a training simulator allows a trainee to try to carry out any operating modes and switching operations, gain skills in handling the PCS, take a look at pictures clearly showing the principles in accordance with which the process systems operate, and feel the power unit, all in a quiet environment and without fear of inicting damage on the equipment. The operator interface, PCS algorithms, technological equipment, and processes had all to be modeled for developing a full-scale training simulator. It should be pointed out that the different technological systems of the training simulator were started in parallel withand sometimes even earlier thansimi-

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lar systems put into operation in the power unit that was constructed. Thus, it was the rst time in the work of Interavtomatika that the most complicated and important algorithms were elaborated on a simulator and then on eld equipment. SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE SIMULATED PLANT The simulated plant can be subdivided into two subsystems: (i) Unit 3 (PGU-450) at the TETs-27 cogeneration station, including its main and auxiliary equipment; and (ii) the automated process control system developed on the basis of the SPPA-T3000 instrumentation and control system (I&CS). The PGU-450T power unit is composed of two GTE-160 gas turbines, each furnished with its own P-107 heat-recovery boiler (HRB) comprising two steampressure loops, and a T-150-7.7 cogeneration steam turbine. Gas is used as main and standby fuel, and diesel fuel is used as emergency fuel. The GTE-160 gas turbine unit, referred to henceforth as the GTU, is a single-shaft turbine set operating with an initial temperature of gas upstream of the turbines rst stage equal to 1060 and 544C at the turbine outlet (under the design ambient conditions). The GTU electric power output reaches 155.3 MW at an efciency of 34.12% under such conditions. The P-107 heat-recovery boiler produced at Podolsk Machinery Construction Works (ZiOMAR) has a tower arrangement and comprises two steam-generating circuits of high and low pressure with steam drums and forced circulation in evaporating loops. The low-pressure drum is equipped with a built-in deaerator. The T-150-7.7 steam turbine, which has two cogeneration extractions, serves for directly driving a TFG-160-2U3 generator and supplying heat for district heating purposes. The turbine rated power output is equal to 161 MW during operation in the nominal condensing mode and 129.0 MW in the nominal cogeneration mode; the rated heat load is equal to 358 MW at a design outdoor air temperature equal to 2C. The experience gained from the development of a full-scale training simulator for the power unit at the Sochi TPS [3] made it possible to increase the volume in which the plant was simulated and extend the set of functions solved on the simulator developed for the TETs-27 cogeneration station. In particular, all process equipment, including the gas turbines and the steam turbine, has been simulated. The SPPA-T3000 I&CS, the latest product of Siemens, is a further development of the widely used I&CSs TELEPERM ME, TELEPERM XP, and TELEPERM XP-R. The combined engineering and operator interface of the SPPA-T3000 is shown in Fig. 1. The controller level is constructed on the basis of SIMATIC S7, a piece of equipment by Siemens that is
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always being developed and is well known in Russia. The hardware of the upper level and the software of the entire I&CS are new products developed as successors of the above-mentioned versions of the TELEPERM I&CS and the power engineering version of the software used in SIMATIC PCS7 PS; however, the architecture of the new products, as well as the objectives and capacities laid down in them, differ fundamentally from their predecessors. The automated plant has the following quantitative characteristics as applied to the training simulator:
Input signals: analog binary Output binary signals Control valves Shut-off valves Controllers with an analog output Auxiliary mechanisms Solenoid valves 1188 607 21 55 360 14 78 42

FUNCTIONAL AND HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TRAINING SIMULATOR As was indicated above, the training simulator comprises a model of technological equipment and a model of a system for automatically controlling the technological processes in this equipment. Figure 2 shows the structuralfunctional diagram of the equipment used in the PCS training simulator. The PCS model developed at Interavtomatika comprises a set of solutions aimed at making the training simulator as similar as possible to the actual PCS in the upper level, which comprises network exchange facilities and operator interface, and in the lower level, at which controllers operate. The upper level of the simulators PCS is equivalent to the upper level of the power units PCS. It was furnished with an SPPA-T3000 application server and two double-screen operator workstations constructed on the thin-client principle absolutely identical to those used in the power unit. Such a solution allows the workplaces at the training simulator to be made 100% replicas of those at the power unit. The structure of the automation servers with I/O devices used in actual PCS has been fully repeated in the simulator in the form of software emulation of physical devices. The training simulator comprises nine automation servers. The S7-417H controllers, the software of which completely replicates the control algorithms used in the controllers of the actual PCS, represent all these servers. The model of the gas turbine control systems (the high-speed control loop) has been imple-

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System Setpoint of GT GT-31 startup/ for T fl.g GT-31 Hierarchy of Unit 3 protections Indication of GT operation shutdown progra 521C GT-31 Operated Error Scheme Starting function Reset; of protections is in operation Loading rate Speed governor 11 MW/min; is in operation GT-31 startup enabled Power regulator HRB-31 startup enabledFire protection; Switch is in operation on frequency Operated corrector; Gas temp. reg. Reset Select GT-31 is in operation main fuel Power regulato Power is in operation Gas deviation Gas temp. reg. 0.0 is in operation for frequency; GT reg. error from GT-1 ATP GT-31 air system Control of TSD-31 10 1008 10 IGVD 31 330 G B 9.9

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Current user: User 1. Operating mode, built-in design disconnected

Fig. 1. Engineering and operator interfaces of the SPPTA-T3000 system.

mented in full scope, but is incorporated in the technological plant model to improve the computational characteristics. The inputs and outputs of interfacing devices, which are emulated by means of software, communicate with the models of sensors and actuators, which run on the instructors workstation. Data exchange between the technological model and the PCS model is carried out in accordance with the OPC protocol. The approach according to which the PCS model is constructed as the SPPA-T3000 system combined with emulation of controllers makes it possible to obtain an PCS model the processes in which are equivalent to those in the actually existing system. On one hand, the training simulator has operator and engineering interfaces fully replicating the actual ones; on the other, it has the same dynamic characteristics as the actual PCS. Owing to these features, the operating personnel can be trained not only to work with the technological equipment, but also to learn how the PCS works in different situations.

ENIKO TCO specialists have developed a model of technological equipment that covers the main and auxiliary heat-generating, mechanical, and electrical equipment of the power unit. All the main components of equipment are simulated in full scope on the basis of physical principles. Some items are simulated in the volume sufcient for acquiring skills in carrying out control and analyzing the situations that occur in this equipment. An important advantage of the adopted method for simulating technological processes is that it uses a small quantization interval (around 100 ms), a feature that allows transients in low-inertia control loops, such as gas and steam turbine speed governors, feed controllers, etc., to be adequately represented. In particular, self-oscillations (if any) triggered by a single switching of pulsed controllers, the minimum duration of which is usually around 200 ms, are simulated with the required accuracy. Operations for controlling the training simulator and streamlining the training process are carried out from the instructors workplace.
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Instructor: Assignment of external conditions models of valves, gate valves, and motors; assignment of equipment failures M

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Instructor's workstation

TCP Regular SPPA-T3000 server Emulation of automation servers (controllers, inputs/outputs, execution of ACS algorithms) Emulation of T3000n 15 @

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PCS model

Fig. 2. Functional diagram of technical facilities of the PCS training simulator.

MODEL OF THE PCS The PCS model has been constructed using the SIMIT basic software developed at Siemens. This computer program emulates the operation of automation servers (controllers with physical I/O devices) and serves as a link between the PCS upper level and the technological process. Not only the controllers and I/O modules, but also the PCS control algorithms, i.e., the entire lower controller level, can be simulated using this software. Owing to this software, the application server of SPPA-T3000 communicates with the emulators of automation servers as with actual controllers. Apart from communication with the upper level, the SIMIT software simulates the operation of mechanisms and shutoff and control valves and communicates with the subsystem simulating the technological process. This subsystem has been developed on the basis of special software built around the kernel Graphic Interface Workshop (GIW) software system. This kernel GIW software is augmented with dedicated models of technological systems developed using computer-aided design (CAD) tools. MODEL OF THE PROCESS EQUIPMENT Design documents for the process equipment, equipment drawings, and technical certicates serve as sources of input data for developing a model of process
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equipment. The list of these input data includes the lengths, diameters, and wall thickness of tubes; the geometrical dimensions of heat transfer surfaces and tanks; the parameters of throttling devices; the nameplate characteristics of electrical equipment; design calculations; and the like. Measurements on actual equipment have sometimes to be carried out due to the lack of necessary data in the documents to obtain the geometrical characteristics. The basic method using which the physical processes going in technological systems are simulated consists of solving the differential equations that describe material, energy, and mechanical balances in the system being simulated, which are supplemented with closing relations and thermodynamic properties of the media being considered. The integrated model for the training simulator of the power unit at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station was constructed using the computer-aided design systems of the following models (Fig. 3): (i) automatic control systems; (ii) thermal-hydraulic systems; and (iii) electrical processes. The models of the high-speed gas turbine control loops transferred from the PCS, the logic of switching operations in electrical circuits, the algorithms of electrical protections, etc. are the entities that were simu-

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Four-phase tank (J3M0100001) Partial gas pressure, Pa Partial steam pressure,Pa Water pressure, Pa Gas enthalpy, J/kg Enthalpy of steam above the level, J/kg Water enthalpy, J/kg Enthalpy of steam under the level, J/kg Gas temperature, C Temperature of steam above the level,C Mean temper. of mixture above the level, C Water temperature, C Temperature of steam under the level,C Gas density, kg/m3 Steam density above the level, kg/m3 Water density, kg/m3 Steam density above the level, kg/m3 3 Density of mixture under the level, kg/m Volume balances Gas velocity, kg/m/s Velocity of steam above the level, kg/m/s Water velocity, kg/m/s Velocity of steam under the level, kg/m/s Gas velocity, kg/m/s Volume of steam 3 above the level, m3 under the level, m actual mass, kg mass of steam above the level, kg

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Fig. 3. Working windows of the software for simulating technological processes. CAD systems for the models of: (1) Automatic control systems, (2) thermal-hydraulic systems, and (3) electrical processes. ASautomatic synchronizing device

lated using the tools for computer-aided design of automatic control systems. Among the entities the models of which are developed using the tools for computer-aided design of thermal-hydraulic systems are the technological systems and equipment the operating principles of which are based on mass, momentum, and heat transfer phenomena, and on the processes through which the kinetic energy of medium is converted into mechanical work and vice versa. Systems incorporating pipelines; shutoff, control, and safety valves; pumps; heat-transfer equipment, turbine stages, and vessels with level may be part of this category. Central to the system of basic equations for most of the equipment being simulated (except with the models of vessels with level) is the modeling of compressible medium described by four conservation equations for a homogeneous steamwater mixture and noncondens-

able gases. The heat carriers being simulated are modeled taking into account heat transfer to the structural elements and medium in the surrounding premise. The momentum conservation equation is considered in a 1D approximation taking into account the convective component and limitation of the coolant ow velocity for the velocity of sound. This model can describe the dynamics of processes in steam paths with high uid ow velocities. Vessels with a level of medium and devices in which steam is separated and condensed are simulated using a nonequilibrium model; i.e., water can be in superheated state and steam can be in a state subcooled to saturation. The liquid and steamgas phases lie below the level, and the steam and gas phases are above the level. The main equations of conservation are supplemented with closing relations, among which are those for calculating heat-transfer coefcient, hydraulic
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External conditions Synchronization Aut. synchr. GT1 0 GT2 0 ST 0 0 0 Accelerated heating 0 0 Supply on section No supply Supply on section Control Valve flowrate 50 100 0 0 No supply No control; 0 0 50 100 0 0 50 0 50 0 50 0 50 0 50 50 100 33NB11K182 Drain on the filter of 100 HP CEP 33NB11K184 Drain on HP-1 CEP 100 33NB12K186 Drain on the filter of 100 HP CEP 33NB12K188 Drain on HP-1 CEP 100 33NB21K184 Drain on HP-1 CEP 100 33NB21K171 Drain on the filter of HP CEP ON OFF ON OFF Outdoor air temperature, C Outdoor air pressure, kPa Outdoor air humidity External grid frequency T suct. net.wat. P suct.net.wat. P suct.net.w.pmp T ret.net.wat. P ret.net.wat P unit aux.head.fr.st.head. T unit aux.head.fr.st.head T pr.circ.wat.c1 to cnd P pr.circ.wat.c1 to cnd T pr.circ.wat.c2 to cnd. P pr.circ.wat.c2 to cnd P circ.wat.c1 to cool.twr. P circ.wat.c2 to cool.twr.

State of filters 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

err(No supply) tst(Pulled-off state) loc(Local control) T mkp.wat.mains to c.s1 No supply No supply P mkp.wat.mains to c.s1 Supply P1 2 No supply on section for signal T mkp.wat.mains to c.s2 Pulled-off state 5 Local control Heat release in bearings No control 100maximum failure 0normal operation "Switch off" 50 100 protection State of: GT32 min Throughput max 100 0 Stage bearing 32 0 Compressor bearin 32 0 Valve flowrate 32 Generator bearing on the turbine side 0 50 100 0 Generator bearing on the exciter side 32 No supply No control 30MAD11Q 30MAD11Q 30MAD11Q 30MAD11Q 0 0 0 0 First ST bearing Second ST bearing Third ST bearing Third ST bearing

Fig. 4. Operator interface of the instructor.

resistances, and corrections for the normal characteristics of equipment depending on the parameters of medium, ow modes, and geometrical characteristics. The systems and equipment in which electric power is generated and consumed are simulated using computer-aided design tools for electrical processes. The list of such systems includes synchronous generators, asynchronous motors, transformers, and switching devices. A synchronous generator is modeled using Park Gorevs classic equations, which allow the electrical processes in a synchronous machine to be described by means of differential equations with constant coefcients. The model describes both steady processes and transients with sufcient detail. INSTRUCTOR INTERFACE AND ORGANIZATION OF TRAINING PROCESS The scope of instructor duties includes providing methodological and technological support for the trainee. The instructors workplace, which is essentially a system for controlling the training simulator, comTHERMAL ENGINEERING Vol. 55 No. 10 2008

prises a set of facilities for changing the operating conditions of equipment, introducing various failures, and altering the characteristics of technological equipment. The external view of the instructor interface is shown in Fig. 4. The training process is organized as follows. The state corresponding to the specied training problem is loaded, and the required changes in the initial conditions, including external ones, are made through the control system. The instructor may create new training problems or modify the existing ones. For example, the instructor interface makes it possible to introduce various kinds of failures of process and peripheral equipment, such as degradation in the throughput capacity of pumps, change in the tightness of a path and heat-transfer coefcients in heat exchangers, seizure of control valves, loss of control by a gate valve, etc. The instructor does not inform the trainee about his or her actions or the failures that were introduced, thus making an impression of working on actual equipment and prompting the trainee to show his or her quick operating wits. The system is designed so that the current state can be saved at any moment of time for further analysis or for using it as an initial state in the training process.

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The following modes of power unit operation have been tried out on the simulator and are recommended for using as training problems: (i) preparing the power unit for starting and starting it from any initial thermal state under the specied external conditions; (ii) connecting the second steam turbine to the continuously operating rst one; (iii) carrying out planned shutdown of the power unit without cooling down the equipment and with cooling down of the heat-recovery boiler, steam lines, and steam turbine; (iv) shutting down one gas turbine while leaving the second one in operation; (v) shutting down the power unit in an emergency manner; (vi) running the power unit in its controlled load range, including the cogeneration mode, under different external conditions and with different states of common-station systems; (vii) changing the composition of operating auxiliary equipment in the power unit, e.g., connecting the cogeneration plant, disconnecting a pump, etc.; and (viii) running the power unit in off-design situations (when any sensor or controller fails, when any protection comes in action, when deviation occurs from normal operation of the condenser makeup plant, main pump, or any oil cooler of the steam turbine). Instructors interface is also required for carrying out the duties of a machine walkdown operator; in this case, the instructor manually controls the valves on demand of the trainee. USING THE SIMULATOR FOR ADJUSTING COMPLEX PCS ALGORITHMS It was for the rst time at the TETs-27 cogeneration station that Interavtomatika specialists gained the possibility of trying out logic and closed-loop algorithms before the rst operations for starting the plant were commenced. With the simulator at hand, it became possible to adjust such key algorithms as stepped programs for starting and shutting down the oil system of gas turbines, the system for supplying gas and diesel fuel, the system for suppressing the emissions of nitrogen oxides, and the program for starting and shutting down the entire gas turbine units. In addition, a program for automatically selecting the backup equipment for the drain pumps of delivery water heaters was checked; different schemes for controlling the level in the high- and low-pressure drums of heat-recovery boilers, as well as many other things, were tried out. The tuning parameters determined in the course of adjusting the plant on the simulator were set up as starting ones immediately before adjusting the actual plant. That the algorithms were tried out on a model before putting them into use made it possible to check and, if necessary, correct the

control logic beforehand and accomplish the adjustment work within a considerably shorter period of time. In addition, especially complicated algorithms were rst elaborated on the simulator and then transferred into the actual PCS. It should be pointed out that the values of setpoints rened on the eld equipment were very close to those selected during the adjustment on the simulator. This means that the PCS and the technological equipment were initially modeled with high accuracy. Such a good accuracy was obtained due to the fact that the model was constructed on the basis of not only design, but also experimental data that were obtained on similar power units (Units 1 and 2 at the Severozapadnaya cogeneration station and Unit 1 at the TETs-2 Kaliningrad cogeneration station during starting, shutdown, and other transient modes of their operation. Specialists from the ENIKO TSP and Interavtomatika have been conducting work at the TETs-27 cogeneration station on studying the processes in the actual plant and rening the model since the time the trial startups were begun until the present time. Analyzing accidents that have happened and working out skills in controlling a power unit under emergency conditions for the future is one more eld in which the simulator can be used. Carrying out such an analysis is possible since the PCS and plant models have been constructed with high static and dynamic accuracies. As an example, Fig. 5 shows how the level of water in the high-pressure drum changes with time when the power unit is shut down in an emergency manner due to the fact that the electrically driven feedwater pump stopped and no backup power supply was available for starting up the standby pump (one gas turbine and the steam turbine were in operation when this disconnection occurred). It can be seen from the graph that the dynamic picture of the transient in the eld plant is almost identical with that of the process reproduced on the simulator. It should be specially emphasized that the technology ENIKO TSO and Interavtomatika specialists use in working out training simulators allows full-scale engineering simulators to be constructed before the power unit itself is commissioned, a circumstance especially important for new types of power units for which no experience is available in both personnel training and engineering support for adjustment and commissioning work. In addition, the use of this simulator enables the personnel of the instrumentation and control (I&C) department to develop algorithms by testing and adjusting them on the simulator, after which these algorithms are transferred to the eld plant. The personnel of the I&C department becomes much less afraid of introducing different improvements in the power unit, an environment in which better efciency of the PCS is obtained in the nal analysis. At present, Unit 3 at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station is passing pilot commercial operation
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Fig. 5. Transients during emergency shutdown of the power unit caused by disconnection of EFWP. (1) Gas turbine power output, MW; rotation frequency of, 102 rpm: (2) steam turbine; (3) gas turbine; (4) steam turbine on the simulator; (5) level of water in the HP drum, cm; and (6) level of water in the HP drum on the simulator, cm.

and operational adjustment activities are being conducted on it. Data required for rening the dynamic characteristics of the model are collected as different operating modes are elaborated in the power unit. In view of the fact that a power-generating unit built around a combined cycle plant will soon be commissioned at Mosenergos TETs-21 cogeneration station, the operating personnel of this station were forwarded for training on the TETs-27 stations training simulator and have successfully passed the training course. An independent team of experts has tested the simulator and conrmed that it is technically equipped at a high level. The commission of experts has drawn a positive conclusion and issued a certicate of conformance with the Norms for Suitability of Software Tools for Training Power Engineering Personnel. CONCLUSIONS (1) The full-scale training simulator of Unit 3 (PGU-450) at Mosenergos TETs-27 cogeneration station, which was commissioned in August of 2007, differs from those existing at present in that it comprises, along with a physical model of the power unit, the actual set of algorithms and the actual operator interface. (2) The fact that the model of the technological process runs with a small quantization interval (around 100 ms) and that the quantization intervals with which

the control algorithms are executed are the same as in the actual PCS allows low-inertia processes like controlling the rotation frequencies of steam and gas turbine rotors, controlling feedwater owrate, etc. to be simulated with high accuracy. This circumstance places the training simulator at the same level as the latest achievements in the eld of development of educating systems. (3) That the training simulator was available for use before and during adjustment activities was a circumstance that allowed the operating personnel to be trained in advance and the most complicated control algorithms to be checked and preliminarily adjusted. REFERENCES
1. S. I. Magid, Theory and Practice of Constructing Training Simulators for Thermal Power Stations (MEI, Moscow, 1998) [in Russian]. 2. V. A. Rubashkin, Training the Operative Personnel as the Most Efcient Way of Excluding the Consequences of Accidents, in Proceedings of the Seventh All-Russia Conference of Managers of Educational Institutions in Power Engineering and RAO UES of Russias Personnel Training Departments, Omsk, 2006. 3. V. A. Chernakov, A. G. Sviderskii, V. P. Strashnykh, et al., Commissioning the Full-Scale Computer-Aided Training Simulator at the Sochi Thermal Power Station, Avtom. v Promyshl., No. 6, 152156 (2006).

THERMAL ENGINEERING

Vol. 55

No. 10

2008

17:01:05

Time

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