LINGUISTICS, ‘AN INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE AND. COMMUNICATION Fifth Edition ‘Adrian Akmajian ard A, Demers Ann K, Farmer Robert M. Harnish, “The MIT Pros Cambridge, Massachusets London, England{2-21 Massachuts Instat of Technology [A egtas reser, No pr ofthis book may be reproduced in any frm by any ‘lecrnic or echasicel ems finding poeepying, econ. oil tion sorage and retrieval) wihow penisson in wring fron the publisher, This book was i Times New Koman i 3B2 by AScoTypeseters. Hong Kong. Prine and! Bound isthe United Sates of AEE, Lary of Congress Cataloging Publicsion Data Linguistics » Momphology ‘Chapter 3: Phonetics snd Phonemic Transcription (Chapter 4: Phonology Chapter §: Syntax (Chapter 7: Language Variation ‘Chapter 8: Language Change ‘The chapters cited do not depend crucially on the ones that have been skipped over; thus, we lave ensure! tat wail Core exists wit this edition, For a one-quarter course with an emphasis on psycholinguiscs, eogni- ‘uve seenee, or human communication, the following isa possible format: (Chapter 2; Morphology Chapter 5: Syntax Chapter 6: Semantics Chapter 9: Pragmatics Chapter 11: Language Aquisition in Children Chapter 12: Language and the Brain ‘Teachers working within the semester system (or teaching courses that run two quarters in the quarter sytem) will ind that tis edition can bewal quite comfortably within a. 14 or LS-week tem, Bor example, for 8 ‘e-semesterImgushes course onented toward Mexe LANA! opie, the follwing is powsible format Chapter 2: Morphology Chapter 3: Phonetics and Phonemic Transcription ‘Chapter 4: Phonology Chapter 5: Syntax Chapter 6: Semantics Chapter 7: Language Variation Chapter 8; Language Change ‘Chapter 9: Pragmatics Obviensly, teachers with thor interests will pick diffrent modes For example, fora course with a psycholinguistc, cognitive science, oF Fhumast communication orientation, te following ehoice of topics seems reasonable: Chapter 2: Morphology Chapter 5: Syntax. ‘Chapter 6: Semantics Chapter 0: Prasmaties Chapter 10; Psychology of Language Chapter 1° Language Acquisition in Children Chapter 12: Language and the Brain short, by varying the selection of chapters, subsections, and special “PICS. teachers fem diverse hackerounds and in diverse acaglemic depart- ‘ments wall be able to design an introduction 10 linguisties that is custom tnxale fox heir purpones. PART I THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN LANGUAGEINTRODUCTION In this secon we will examine the stuctue of human language, and in doing so we will discover a system that is highly complex. Beginning stu- dens of ngusties are often surprise w fi! dat Inngust spied consier- hls tin fomulating theorist repent and acveunt for the cn (as well as the funetoning) of human language. What i there, afer al. 10 cexplit? Speaking one's native language is a natural an effodless task, corriod out with great speed and cars, Even young children ean do it with litle conscious effor, From this. itis commonly concluded that aside from a few rules of grammar and pronunciation there is nothing else 10 explain about human language. Ft it tums ont that thene i a great deal to explain. Wwe “sep 0 side" language and look at it as an objet to be studied! and deserbod anu! not merely used, we discover an exciong sphere of Numan knowledge ‘previously hidden from ws In beginning the study ofthe structural properties of human language, it is useful w note a common theme that runs throughout part T: the steuctural analysiy of hun language can be stated it kexts (1) ‘rete unis of various sons and (2) rules and principles that govern the ‘way these dserete units can be combined and ordered. In te sections on ‘morphology (chapter 23, phoneues (chapter 3), phonology (chapter 4), and syntax (chapter 5), we wal sense the significant dserete units that Tinpuists have pestulated in the study of these subareas of linguistics. In addition to isolating discrete units such as moxphemes, phonetic feacures. ‘and syntactic phrases, wo vil be discussing the mics and penciples by ‘which words are formed, sounds are combines! and varied, and syntactic units are structured andl ordered into larger phrases. i aiion w discussing the core areas of morphology, phonology, syntax, and semantics (chapter 6), we wall seuss tw subfields of Hingis:Pact ‘5 thar dav heavy on dose coe eas, namely, language vation {chp 7) an angvage cine (caper. nese chapters We ‘consider the wavs in which language varies across individual speakers: and dialect groups (regionally, socially, and cthnically) and how lan tegen vay and relate 4 cal other txvaly. Ths, having ol important structural units and rus fer combination in chapters 2-5, we wil then examine how sich nits and rues can vary along a numb of dincasions. ‘The SUbfelds sepecsemied in chapters 2-6 Tom the core of what has lasicallyboen known as serctural linguistics (a practic in the United ‘States from the 1930s to the 1950s), and they continue to form a central fait of ransformatinal/eneraive Ungustis, te Uranctical yerive swe adoot here. The later dates fen the publication of Noam Chomky's 1957 werk Symacic Smctures and has boe the dominant school of in fuss m the Une States sce that ume. It nas ao Game 10 be @ ‘einen seein Wester Boro and Tapa al fe teens ah ence in several Easem European counties as wel Assuming that the majority of our readers are native speakers of Engi, we have dawn te higuage data ase in this book alist exchisively fom English (ee A Linguistics Workbook. also published by the MIT Pres, fr exercises has en over 20 lnguages). We encourage {OU 10 tse Your mauve Imgusue judgments an evalua cur arguments and hyptheses, We mporant that yt fat hypo ine hi ean important aspoct of doing scientific investigations. We should aso ste thatthe gener aspects oF the lngusie Ianework we develop Here are proposed 0 hok! fe ll Ianguags, or at Teast fr lrge subset of an- ‘uages, and we encourage you to think about other languages you may Know as you stay dhe English examples What Is Linguisties? ‘The fied of linguistics. the scene study of aman natural language. i a growing and exciting area of study. with an important impact on fields as diverse as education, anthropology, sociology, laiguage teaching, cog- nitive psychology. philosophy, computer science. neuroseienee, and ari ficial imeligence, among others, Indeed, the last five fields cited, slong with linguistics, are the key components of the emerging field of cogni- tive scione, the study ofthe structure and furetoning of human cognitive processes. In spite of the importance of the field ofinguistes, many people, even highly educated people, wall eit you that they have only a vague wea of what the fila is ahowt. Some heioue that a Tinguist is a. person whe speaks several languages fluently. Others believe that linguists are lan ‘guage experts who ean help you decide whether iis better to say “ts for "’s-me." Yer itis quito possible 1 bo a professional inguist (and an excellent one af that) without having taught a single language class, ‘without having* interpreted at the UN, and without speaking any more than one language, ‘What is linguistics. then? Fundamentally. the field i concemed with the nature of language and (linguistic) communication. I is apparent that People have heen fascmled with language and communication for thousands of years, yet in many ways we are only hoginning to under. stand the complex nature ofthis aspect of human life. IF we ask, What is the nature of language? or How does communication work? we quickly realize that these questions have no simple answers ark are much 100 broad 10 be answered ina direct way. Similarly, questions such as What is energy? or What is matter) cannot be answered in a simple fashion, ‘and muced the entre Held of piyses is am attempt w answer tiem. Line sis is no differen: the field as a whole represents sn serpy to break‘ora down the broad! questions about the nature of language and communi- can mo smaller, more manageable quesuons that we can hope 10 sngwer, and in se doing ctahich reaconale reali that we can Bull on in moving closer to answers to the larger questions. Unless we limit our sights im this way and. e€stnct ourselves 10 particular trameworks tor examining diferent aspects of language and commusicaton, we cannot hope to make progress in answering the broad questions that have fasci- nated people foe s0 long, As we will see. the Feld covers a surprisinay broad range of topics related Ianguage and communication, Pont Tf the text contine chapters dealing primily with the sirwe- tural components of ianguage. Chapter 2. "Morphology," is cancemed ‘wah the properties Of words and wont-building rules. Chapter 3, “Pho- ralice and Phonemic Transcription.” introduces the physiology involved in the produetion of speech sounds as well as phonemic and phonetic ‘wanseripton systems that are used 10 represent the sounds of English, Chapter 4. "Phonologs" surveys the organizational principles tha doter ‘mine the pattems the speech sounds ae subject to. Chapter 5, "Syntax, Drosemis a study of the structure of semonoes and phrases. Chapter 6, Semantics.” surveys dhe propeiticn of Tingutic uneaing. Chapter 7, “Language Variaion." deals with the wavs speakers and groups of speakers can differ from each other in terms of the various forms OF Tamguage at dey use. Chapter 8, Language Chatige,” examines how langmages change over Fin: and how langnages can he historically related. Having examined cerain structural properties of human language in part 1, we tum 10 functional propenies in part I. Chapter 8, «Prag. matics.” explores some of the snes involved in deserihing human eon ‘munication and proposes certain communication strategies that people use when they tik 10 each other, Chapter 10, "Psychology of Lan- fuaze.” examines how language is produced ad waderstood, Chapter "Language Acquistion in Children,” studies the stages involved in language aoquistion by humans with normal brain function and reviews the evidence for positing a genetically endowed "Language Acquisition Device.” Finally. chapter 12. "Language and the Brain," deais with how Tanguage is stored and processed in the brain ‘Yo tum now trom the particular to the general, what are some of the Perhaps the most important fundamental assumption is that human la guage al all Ives is rle- (or principle) governed. Every known language What Is Linguisios? has systematic rules governing pronunciation, win formation, and gram: ‘matical construction, Further. the way in which meanings are associated with phrases ofa language is characterized by regular rules. Finally, the tue of language to communicate is governed by important generalizations that can be expressed in rules. The ultimate aim in each chapter, there: fore, is 10 formulate rules w describe and account for the phenomena unit vonsideration. Tindce, chagrer 7, "Language Variation” slows that even so-called casual speach is govemed by systematic: regularities cexpeessible in rule, ‘At this point we must add an important quablication © what we have {vot suid. That i, we are using the terme rule and rule governed in the spocial way that ingusts we them, This usage is very different fram the Tayperson's understanding of dhe terms, In school most of ws were taught scale tues of To 10 sk in er speak and write “correctlv"—rules such as "Do not end a sentence with preposition,” oF "Don't say ain.” or "Never split an infinitive.” Ru Of is som are called preserppive rules; that i 1 say, they prescribe, oF ictate to the speaker, the way the language supposedly should be written for spoken in onder forthe speaker to appear comect or educated. Pre- Seriptive rules are really ules of style rater than rules of grammar In sharp contrast, when linguists speak of rules, they are not refering {o prescriptive rules fiom grammar books. Rather. linguists try 19 for imulate deseriptive rules when they analyze language, rules that describe the actual language of some group of speakers and not some hyposhetcal lngnage that speakers "showld” nee. Desergtive mies expres generale izations and regularities about various aspects of language. Thus, when ‘we say that language is rule-zoverne, we are really saying thatthe study of human language has revealed numerous generalizations about and regulates in the structure and function of language, Even though lan- guage is govemed by strict principles, speakers nonetheless control a system thats webownded in scope, which is © say that there i no Tint v0 the kinds of things that can be talked about. How language achieves this property of efablty (unboundedness in scope) is addressed in chapters 2 and 5, “Morphology” and “Syncax Another import background assumption that linguists make is that various human languages consttite a unified phenomenon; linguists assume that it is possible © study human language in general and that the stdy of particular anguages will reveal feaurs of language thal are universal, What do we man by universal features of language?Chapter 1 So far we have wad the terms lnguace and human language without refering 10 any spcifie language. such as English or Chinese. Stents fave sometines peed by is gonial use od en Langage, i woul seem that ths use is rey foun cutie of finguistis-telated couse. Foreign language courses, alr all. deal with spec languages sich as French or Russian, Fase. pei human languages appeat on he su face 10 be so ilferent fom each other that it fie dificult to under stand ow linguists can speak of language as though it were a single ‘hing. Although is obvious that psi languages dif fom cach axe on te surface, if we lok closer we find that human languages are sures- ingly similar, For nstrce. ail known languages ae ata similar evel of cxompexity sna 388s iy my su Ui 3 piven srmge. All Lanpuges provide a means. for king questions. muking requests, making #8tons. and so on. And there is nothing that can be expressed m one language that cannot be expresed n any other. Obvi- culy, one language may have tome not found i another iggy, i itis always posible w invent teams 1 express What WE MEA yy, thing we can imagine or think. we can express in any human language ‘Tumning w one abstr propstics, ever de formal stustres of language axe similar all Insanges have sentences made up of smaller phrasal units, these units a turn being made up of woe, which are them- selves mae up of soquones of sounds. Af these features of human Jamguage re so cvs to ws tha we may fall ose how ups ts that languages share them, Wher linguist use the erm language, oF nar wal human language, hey are revealing tet bel that atthe abstract Jove, beneath tbe surface variation. languages are remarkably sina in firm and fanetion and confor to certain universal pincphks. In relaion 10 what we have just said about universal principles, we stould observe onee again bat est oF the iluraive examples this bok ae drawn fen the English languige. Te shoukl not mis you into supposing that what we say is relevant cnly to English. We will be ‘nsodocing fundamental concepts ofingwsis, and wo Bove that those fave tobe APDicable fo all languages. We hve chosen Engish examples so that you can Somteuaily chock our fatal clims and decide whether they are empirically well founded. Linguistics, perhaps more than any ‘lier sienes, provides an opportunity forthe student 0 participate in the research process. Especially in chante S. Serve" Wt ug be able to asess the accuracy f the evdenae that bears on hypaesis Whe Linas? and afer having felled the argumentation inthe chapter. ye ill he ina positon to cay ont similar reasoning processes inthe execs at teen. Finally. we ofr a bra obsersation aboat the genera nature of fn suis. To many linguists the ulimae sim ofingusies isnot simply to understand how language set is sacred and how it functions ‘We hope that a6 we cous @ winkstand nae bout uaa languags, wil conespodinely understand. mow about the noses of human thought in ths vi the sty of Tanage is umately the sty of the fuman ming, This goal perhaps test expres by Noam Chomsky in Fic bok Reflecionson Language (108, 3) Why end language? Thonn ats many pes ancien hy feng on ee do avd, of course, mean to disparage otbers or question their legtimacy. One ys fr easy stp be fae by ie eee agua in dss and want to dscove their order and arrangement, heroin in history or inthe Individual oF the ways in wich hey are used in thought in sence o in ar, er in norma social inrchange. One waco for studying Tanguane—aad for me personaly the most compelling teatoa—i tha iis trpting lo regard langage, {nthe waional prs es "a mror of mia." 1do net mean by this simpy ht the concepts expressed and disinewons developed in normal language use gve us ‘night mio the pattems of thought andthe weit o "common sense" consiructed by the human mind. More itiguing, ome at ast is the poss that by ying linge we may dscver brat pines thal gover is ite and us principles tht ae univer by bclgieal mse ad not mre histor ical accident, that derive fom mental characterises of th specie. A human lunguage is 2 sjsem oF remarkable cmplenty. 10 came to KNOW 8 BURN A suige Weald be an extraordinary intellectual achievement fra creature not spe ically designed to socomplsh this task. A normal ei acquires this knowledge fon mvely aight expontme and without specie ining He can then que Corley make us ofan inrcale sicire of spc les and guiding prin Pes umey his ough aoa fetings wo othe auusing fen ve Hess and sublepereepioes and judgmens. For the conscious mind, not spcally ‘signed forte purpose, ttomains a distant goal to rons and compres Wha the eM hie doe initely aed with minal tee. Th lone 2 Imimor of min in deep and sigan sense. I sa prt of human inl se, feted anew in each nvkual by operations tht He far beyond the reach fill or consciousness Bibiognphy Chomsky. N. 1975, Reflections on language. New York: Pantheon Books.Morphology: The Study of the Structure of Words 21 WORDS: SOME. RACKEROUND CONCEPTS We begin our study of human language by examining one of the most fundamental ants of linguistic structure; the word. Words play on inte ‘gral roje in the human ability to use language creatively. Far from being 4 static repository of memonzed information, a human vocabulary is & iymammie system, We cum ad words at will, We cin even expand their meanings into new domains How many words do we know? As it turns out, this is not an easy ‘question to answer, We all have the intuition that our vocabulary cannot bbe too enormous sinae we don't remombor having to learn a lot of words ‘Yet when we think about it, we realize that the world around us appeaes to be infinite in scope. How do we use a finite vocabulary to deal with the poteatially infinite sumber of situations we enveut would? We will learn thatthe number of sentences at our disposal is infinite (chapter 5), Our vocabulary also has an open-endedness that contibutes to our creative use of language ‘So again, how many words do we know? According to Pinker (1990.3) children just entering schoo! “command 13,000 words... typical high schoo! graduate knows about 60,000 words; 4 fiterate adull, perhaps tice that number.” This number (1 1000) may appear to be large, but think, for example, of all the people and all the places (sets, cits. ‘countries. et.) You can name. These names are all words you know. In sum, anyone Who has mastered a language has mastered an astonishingly lang lit of forts encaded in the form af worts ‘Tho Hit of word for any language (though not a complete list, as we will ee) is refered to as its lexicon.‘When we think about our naive Tanguage, the existence of words sexs ubvivts. Ae lk whew we Hea iliryspeaing Our naive Tae suage. we hear them utering wor. In reading a printed passage. we soe works on the B83 neatly separated by spaces. But now imagine yourself ina sation where everyone around yas speaking a frig language that you have just stated © sry. Sinddenly the existence of words no longer ems obvious. While listening w a ative speaker of French, or Navajo or Japanese, all you hear is a blur of sound, as you stain to recognize words you have lamed, Kenly the native apcakcr wow shor down a lite (the eternal complaint ofthe forciane!), ou woul be able to divide that blur of sound ino individual words. The physical reality of| speuu is ut for de mut pst te sig senna, wil breaks 4 ail between the won, Pinker (1995, 1514) mates, "Wo: [ative speakers} simply hallucinate word boundaries when we rach the edge of srt of sound that matches some enty 1 our metal dictionary. ‘Tho ability to analyze a continuous seam of sound (apaken language) into discrete unis (2, intividual words) is far foo wivil, and it con- stitutes a contra part of language comprehension (Se chapcr 10). When you have “mastered” a language, you ate able to scope individu ‘words without effet. This abity would not be possible if you dd not know and understand many properties associated with words What do we kaow when we know a word? To put it another way, what Aids infinaton hve we eae wh we Ran a won? Tunis at that the information encoded in 8 word is fay complex, and we wail soe that a word is associated with diferent kins of infomation. In dis- cussing these types of nformation, we wil fact be reernng to each oF the suild of inguisties that willbe eat within tis hook L. Phoneti| Phonological taformation. For every won we Know, We have Jeamed a pronunciation. Part of knowing the word sree is knowing ain sounds —more pocsly, a sora sequcnoe of sounds. Pets and phonology are the sick of linguists that stay the structure and systematic patterning of sound in human language (se chapters 3 and 4), 2. Lexical structure formation. For every word We have eared, we intel know something about its itera serceue. For example, our Inwitons fel us thatthe word sree cannot be broken down into. any meaningful parts, In contrast, the won ees seams to be made up of Wo parts: the word ree ps an addtional element, (kaows a the "pra ending). Morphology isthe sbfeX of linguists that studies the intemal sirvture of words and the relationships arson words 3. Syntactic information. For every word we learn, we learn how ic fis ito the overall structure of sentences sn which it can be used. Tor example, we know that the wort reads can be wel in a sentence ike ‘Mark reads the book, nd the word readable (related to the word read) tain be used in a sentence like The book & readable, We ary ne ken that rad is ealled a vesh or that read i calle an afetive: but we inwitively know, a5 native speakers, how 10 use those words in different Jamas oF sentences. yniae 1S che subheld of hngusties that studies the intemal stricture of sentences and the relationships among che intemal parts (ee chapter 5). 4. Semantic information. For virally every word we know, we have Feamed a meaning ot several meanings, For exampke, « Know dhe word Irother knew that it has a eonain meaning (ihe equivalent of male sibling”) In addition, we may or may not know certain extended mean- mgs of the word, as m John is so friendly and helpful e's @ regular Brother to me. Semantics is the subfield of linguistics that studies the nature of the meaning of individual words, and the meaning of works groupe! into pases an sentences (see chapter 6) 5. Pragmatic formation, For every word we leam, we know not any ite meaning oF mesmings ht als how 1a wii the ene! of seo ‘or conversation. For instance, the word brother can be used not only {0 refer 10 a male sibling but also as a conversational exclamation, a i "Oh brother! What a mess!” Income casos, words wom to have to but hho meaning as such. For example, the word Hello is used to greet, but it seems to have no meaning beyond that particular use. Pragmatics isthe subtekt of Tingustes that taies the wwe of words ¢ad planes an en ‘ences? in the actual context of dscousse (soe chapter 9) {a ation t0 being concerned with what we know when we know a Word, linguists are interested in developing hypotheses that constitute plusible representation: of this knowledge. At a staring point, one could ask if Webster's Il: New Riverside Dictionary isa good representa- lion of a speaker's knowledge of words. Do the dictionary entries repre- Sent what we know about words? For example, is the entry for the word ‘baker a good representation of what we know about that word? Consider the following ditionary entry for bake: bake (bak) v, baked, baking. 1-10 cook, esp. in an ovea, with dry heat to harden and cry m or as iL m an oven /bake pottery) —n, A socal gathering at which baked food is served. —bale'a nChapter 2 seen pair, can tell you that a gorker 1s “one who gorks.” Websters J, thee, ceazo: account fer the scope of what humans are able to do ia ere ating new words or analyzing existiog ones. Besides the types of information outlined bere—-information that we assume any native speaker must have leamed aboot a word in order 0 know it—there are other aspects of wonts that linguists seedy, which may fray nat he known 0 native speakers Foe example. wort anu their uses are subject to variation across groups of speakers. In. American English the word bonne: can be used to refer to a type of hat; in British Engl cam be abed 0 eee, as weil, w dhe hood OF a eur, Words und their uses are als subject to variation over time, For example, the English wont deer was once the general word meaning “asim.” but now itis wed fo refer only to a particular species of animal. These facts about ‘word variation and historical change may not be known to most native speakers cvee fr highly educated speabors, the history and dialootal variation of most words remain obscure—bu: such fix form the subject matter of other important subSeids of linguistics, namely, language variation and language change, which we wil explore in chapters 7 and . We have mza.chae words are associated with a wide range of informs tion and that each type of inforsiatioa fotmsa important area of study for a subieid of linguistics. In this chapter we will be concerned! with the subficid knowa as morphology. First we will introduce certain basie con 1 we will discuss how new wor are ere, cepts of woxptiology. Th and finally ill mosivate the postulaion of rule and principles of | word formation that will address the problems discussed above with re- spect 10 the inadequacies (shortcomings) of the dictionary as a epre- sentation ol speakers knowleage of words ‘aun Basic Questions of Morphology ‘Within the Feld of mowphnlngy. itis powsible to pose many questions about the nature of words, but among the more persistent questions have been the following: . What are words? ‘What are the basic building blocks in the formation of complex words? How is the meaning of a camplex wont related 19 the meaning of is pans? How are individual words of a language -eiated ( other” words of the + Famgwage? 15 22 ‘Morholoey “These ae all lifiult questions, ond Finguiss staying morphology have not sie arrived a completely eaisfactary answors ta any of thom Once ‘we begin 10 construct plausible answers, we quickly discover that inter- esting-and subtle new problems arise, which leads us 10 revise those ‘We ean soo this process ofconstructing and refining geawere by looking at our first question, What are words? To bexin to answer, this auestion, ‘we note that the word brother is a complex pattern of sounds associated With a certain meaning ("male sibling”). There is no necessary reason sy ‘ie particular combination of sounds represented by dhe word Drother should mean what it does. In French, Tohono O'odhacn (a Native Amet- jean language of southern Arizona and nonhern Mexico), and Japanese, the sounds represented by the words ire, wemnag, and 072000, respec tively, shure dhe meaning “mle sibling.” Cleaply, i is uot dhe nature a the sound that dictates what the meaning ought to be: hence, the paring cof sound and meaning is said to be arbirary. Its tue that every language contains onomatopoeic words (ie, words whose sounds imitate or mimic sounds in the world about us: meow, bow-woN: splash, bang, ot, crash, 12). But uch words form a very limited subset ofthe words of any given Tanguage: foe thast majacty of wor the sound-meaning pairing arbitrary. Thus, a8 fist definition, we might say that a word is an arbi ‘rary pairing ofsound and meaning However, there are at least two reasons why this definvon 1s an- adequate, First, it does not distinguish words and phrases oF sentences, which are also (desivaively) arbitrary pairings of sound and ‘meaning. Second, a word such as itn a sentence such as 11 is snowing has ‘no meaning. The word 1s sumply a placcholder forthe subyect position of| the sonicacs. Thetefore, o6é all sound sequcnecs ars ‘words. and not all sound sequences that native speakers would identify as words have i: ‘meaning. We have intuitions about what is and is not a word in our native Tanguage, but as yet we do not have an adequate definition forthe term wont In the noxt section wo will considor initial answors to tho second aye tion on the tise What are the basic builing blocks in the formation of ‘complex. words? COMPLEX WORDS AND MORPHEMES thas long been recognized that words must e classed! into at least 160 categones: imple and comsiex A sizzaie word such as tree seems 10 be a is6 Chapter 2 the mature oF the sound that dictates what the meaning ought 10. be ‘hence, the pairing of sound and meaning is said to be arbitrary. Itis true that every language contains onomaropoetc words (ue., words, whose sounds imitate or mimic sounds i the world about ws! mcoss, bow wor, splash, bang, hoot, erash, ete. But such words form avery Tite subset of the words of any given language: for the vast majority of words the sounl-uncaning paiving iy aubitray. Thus, a a fast definition, we wight say that woe is an arbitrary pairing af cmand and mecming However, there are at least two reasons why this definition is inde- uate, First, it does not distinguish between words and phrases or sen- ences. which aro also (derivatively) acbiteary paitings of sound and meaning. Second, a wont such as iin a sentence such as 1115 sowing has ‘no meaning. The word is simply a placeholder forthe subjct position fof the sentence. Therefore, not all sound sequences are words, and) not all sounel sequences that native speakers would identify as words have ‘a meaning. We have intuitions about what is and is not a word in our native language, but as yet we do not have an adequate definition forthe tem word. In the next scetion we will consider initial answers to the second ques- tion on the list, What are the basic building blocks in the fonnation of complex words? COMPLEX WORDS AND MORPHEMES thas feng bccn recognized that words must be classed into at east wo catezories: simple and complex. A simple wor suchas sre seems 0 be a ‘minimal unit; there seems to be no way 10 analyze it, ot break it down, further, ino taming pars. On dae other and, the word ree is made up of two parts the now tree aod the pleat envting, spelled «in thie case, The following ists of English words reveal that the plural -s (0-21) can be attached to nouns quite generally o Noun Plural Form (+2) boy bovs mike rakes lip lis dog dogs bush bushes brother brothers ‘Morpbology Not every noun jn English fons iy plural in his fasion, for example te plural of child i children, nox ehlds. However, for nouns such those in (D, and others ofthis large clas, we can say that complex plural fms suchas irees) are made up of a simple noun (such as 1ee) fo owed by the phil nding. The has pts of comple weds 4s, dhe cifret building blocks that make it up—are call morphemtes Eich ofthe plural nouns fisted in (1) is made up of two morphemes: 2 base mompemes sich a: boy or rake. and apleral mospbeme, 3, which ie attached f the hase mospheme. The meaning of each plural fom liste in () is a combination, in some inuitve sense, of the meaning of the tse mowpheme and the mcaning ofthe plural xpos. In sone cases a momheme may not have an identifiable meaning. For example -eeive in the wont receive does not have an independent meaning, and Yel recognizable as a nit occurring in other Words (e.. perce, con-ceve de-ceve). In shor, we will say that morphemes age the minimal unis of word building ina language; they eamnot be broken down any futher into eeognizahle or meaning parts. ‘he process of distinguishing the mosphemes nthe continuous steam ‘of sound can sometimes ead to novsl moypheme analysis. One example of reanalysis involves the altemation of the indie arile berween a an an. Consider the following words: 2 Sadler an educe ‘a napron a apron In an eae period of English the initial nin each ofthe nouns on the Jen was incorrectly interpreted a the final n ofthe indefinite article. A sil eaalyss may fe taking place again, hat the ether wry aon For example, have you hear (perhaps even said) something ke "That's a whole nother ballgame?” ‘Anothsr cxampis of reanalysis involves the Spanish worl tamale On encountering ths plural, English speakes—applving what they knew about English plural formation, in reverse—analyaed the singular as {amaie. The singular Spanish, in Zack, saat 1 wey interesting novel analysis comes from Swah ivoluing the Engsh-basod expression kipilf “alc cirle.” Ifyou pronounce the ‘Swahili 's ke the ee in English Keep and remember that cas do not {ive on the ight side ofthe road in every part of the were, you canChapter 2 termine why Ailefti means “tfc circle." An important characteris. tic of Sahil ie that it possesses a rich sot of prefix puis that are wsed With dlerent classes of nouns. One preix pair is ki- and vi, where ki is used in the singular and wi is used in the plural, You now have enough information to form the Swahili plural meaning “taf citeles.” Morphemes are categorized into two classes; free morphemes and ond soaplouiss, A fie worplew a sta alone ay at depict word in a phrase, such as the word tree in John satin the tree. hound ‘morpheme cannot stand alone but must be attached fo another mor Pheme—as, for example, the plural morpteme -s, which ean only occur herns toe more recently, with apple, grape, or some other fri). Certain bound mor- hemes are known as after (eg... others as ownd base morphemes (ean cram ) Mises aro refered to at prfter when thoy hed to the beginning of another moxpheme (lke re- in words such a8 redo, rewrite, rethink) and as suffices when they are attached to the end of fawother mipheme (ike ~ke ia woods sual as moderne, equi, cer tralzeh The morpheme to which an alfix is attached is the base (or sem) rmorpheme. A hase morpheme may be five [lke tee; ter is thus hoth & tree morpheme and a tree hase or bound (lke eran) A hasie clase Sion of Fnglish momhemes ie eummarized in Figore 22 Cerwin languages also have affixes known a5 inlxes, which are attached within another morpheme. For example, in Bonto Tgorot, a language wf the PRUEPPI2es. in infix ~in- in une fave he pos smpleted action (Sapir 1921). Taking the word kasu, meaning ‘one can insert the infix -in- immediately after te fist consonant ofa “wood, — FREE BOUND | INDEPENDENT ArIXES BOUND CONTRACTED 77 NaS FORMS prerixes Surin Rue 2 A Ise casifcation of Engish morphemss 9 Meepholory inf ~n-fits into the base morpheme kaye inthe internal "slot" k- ie ‘hence, kinayw), In addition, the inix -wm- is used in erin verb forms to Indicate turure tense; for example, -wm- can De acdea within @ morpheme seh ae tongan meaning “to colsirain » holiday "ta emats «wor form such as tamengao-ak, meaning "I will have a holiday” (ihe sulix -ak indicates the fist person “I"). Here. the infix -wm- fits into the base morphome tenga in the Enteral "slot" immediately following consonant (t sengao), Infxation is common in languages of Southeast Asia and the Philippines, and it is also found in some Native American languages. i must be noted. in eeard to figure 21. that not all bound morphemes are afites or bound bases. For exemple. in English eertain words have ‘oniracied ("shortened") Tonms. ‘The word will can occur either as wil in Senvonces such as They will go. oF in 9 contracted form, spelled in sentences such as They go, The form isa bound morpheme in that i ceannot occur as an independent word and must be attched to the pee ‘coding word or phrase (4s in they or The binds whe flew away'l retarn soon, respectively). Other contractions in English include ‘(the con: tracted form of 88 in The old car's not running anymore) ve (he con: tracted fom of Aave, as in dey ve gonejogging). i (ve Comacied form ‘of wold. a6 in 1d like to be rick). and several other contracted forms of auxiliary verbs. These contracted forms are all bound morphemes in the same sense a "To cum up, then. we have seen that words fll into two general clan simple and complex. Simple words are single fe morphemes that eannot be broken down further into recognizable or meaningful parts. Complex wads eaisist ot Grammatical Categories (Parts of Speech) ‘Hach word belongs to & grammatical category. For example, df is @ Un, compute is a verb famous is an adjective ae is a preposition, and (quickly ¢ an adverb, A word such as dajfadl shares various properties With the word dik For exampie, the plural six -£ ean be attached 10 och of these words, to form tho plural daffdite and disks, Ti is attaches to words lasifid as nowns and produees plural nouns. Though there are exceptions —for instance, iregular plurals (children and notChapter 2 lized in this fashion, whereas @ word such as famous cannot be, ‘Thus, there exists morphological evidence for distinguishing nouns from words belonging to other categories Morphological evidence also exists that differentiates the other cate- somes from one another. Verbs take the sux (as in bake-bakes,watk-walks, iis) in the prosent tense. "This is known as the "third person singular” form. bocause this isthe form of the verb that oceus when the subject af the sentence is third person singular. The following present tense verh forme illustrate this ° Singular Plural Ist person T walk We walk 2d perio You walk, You walk Sed person She walks. ‘They wat, He walks [Notice that the verb form remains the same in all eases, except when the kjot is thind person singular Verbs can also take the sux ~ing, as in Bake-baking, wall-walking, Aai-hiting,sing-inging, illustrated in sentences such at They are baking, Shel singing Adicetives ean usually take the sifies -er and -est fs in bie-bleger: DiREESE, ped-redderreddest, wiceswisor-visest), Some adjectives occur not with “Sor -est out with ine comparative Woras more and most ocaia-moee oswialmast boat) Adverbs share many of the properties of adjctives and are often formed HTOm adjectives by the addition ofthe sulk «ip. For example, the adjective quick con he converted into an adverb hy adding ly, to form (quickly (and similarly for pairs such as easy-easily ferocious-ferociousty ‘bvious-obviously). (Bat note that adverbs are not the only class of words that van ein in 4s. Adjectives cat tous witess dey ma i Eig lonelist man.) Prepositions have 20 positive morphological evidence for their lasstbeation. ‘The question now aries, Are those categories (part of spccch classes) found in all languages, or justin English? ‘The answer is by no means simple. However, linguists generally assume that certain “major” eate- Morphology fgories—in paticula, nouns and verbs—exist in most, if not all, guages. (Evidence exis, though, that in the lexicon of some of the [Native American languages of the Northwest, the noun/verb distinetion is instantiated jn a very abstract fashion.) By and large, the grammatical properties of « given partot-speech class are quite specie to a given language or small group of languages. For example, the property particular t nouns of taking 4 plural sux, which defines English nouns, obviously cannot be used as a general de fining property for nouns across languages. Although some other ‘an guagor have 4 plural sus for nouns (note, og, German Frau "woman" vs. Fraven “women”), other languages have no special allix for indicat ing @ plural form for nouns. For example, in Japanese a noun tke hom 1s In ‘ther languages the plural form for nouns is derived by a process known 4 replication, in which a specific part of the singular form is reduph ated (repeated) to consiruet the plural form. For example, in ‘Tohono 9 fe find pene such av dnibud “chaie™-dadaibud *chsive" awyn “horse” -kakawyu “horses,” gogs "dog"-gogogs “dogs,” in which the Bist consonant + vowel sequence of the singular form is repeated at the beginning of the word to constust the plural for, Honey single ax 10 indicate plurality in these eases. We see, then, that in some languages there is no morphological indication of plutal form for nouns; ‘in other languages the plural ts mogphologtcally indicates by an atx or hy redupieation (among ober ways) Th chor, i terme of ane imitive notions we ean probably say that nouns exist in many languages; but it ‘must be kept in ming that the specie grammatical properties associated ones own vary aeoes int ‘book, huwks" eat be aval with either singulat ot pla nea ‘Thoush it may be true that most if not all, languages share the cate- ‘gories noun and verb (and possibly a few others), itis also clear that ‘ther categories are found in Some languages but not others. For exam- Pl, Tapanacs hae a elise af Round momphamae known se parcces. which fate attached to noun phrases to indicate grammatical function. In 4 Jap. fanese sentence sich as Join-ga hon-o sonda “John read the book(s) the stot that John functions a2 the subject of the sentence particle (ihe “doer” of the setion), and the particle ~ indieates that fin “book, books” fonetions a6 the abject (that which “undergoes” the action) ofthe veils yond “res.” Engst as sy such patiies wide subject oe object: instead. such grammatical functions are indicated most often byChapter 2 word omer ‘The spe of an Faglish sentonoe typically precedes the verb and the objet typially follows it, asin John read the book ‘Convery. Engi has prammancalealgones not found in Japanese. For example, English has @ dass of words known as articles, including the le so-called definite acl) and a (he so-called indie ale, as in he book ora ook. Aces are nt foun in Japanese, the example sentence Zohn hor yonda illusuates. The noun on is followed by the particle - (indicating is object function), bu itis accompanied by no imomemes equivalent 10 the English aries. This is not to say that Japanese speakers cannot express te dierence in meaning beeen he book (definite ana spec) and 2 hook Kininite ant nenspife) In Japanese this diflereee is determined by the context (both linguistic and nonlinguistc) of the sentene. For example, if a ertain book has been nso in previous dour, speakers of Japanese interet oh Ihon-o vonda as meaning "Jn eal the book” rather than “Joka boo “To sum up, whother or no al languages share cenaln parof speech iteggrioe, wn rovertoloe expect fel gre wrele within any ven language that share significant grammatical properties. To account for tose smarts, we hypothesize that words sharing significant prop- ccs all tolong t the same category. Such categories are taitionaly labeled nour, verb, and soon, hat we must remain open othe posibiity that a given language may have a grammatical eategory not found in ‘thes. The existe of pastospeel categories shows thatthe Tesco ofa language inet simply ong. randoo Fst. Rather. its stutured into special subgroups of worts (he various grammatical categories). Open ver Closed Claes Words In discussions about words, a distinction is sometimes made between ‘open-class words and closed class words (sometimes refered to as content words and function wurds, scspectively). Taampcs of opeurlass worls include the English words brother. run tall quickiv, The open-clss words are those belonging to the major purtof-speech clases (nouns, verbs, agjecives, and adverbs), whic in any language tend w be quite large faut “open-ended” That i, sn vmnfiiet number af new warts am ‘reated and added to these classes (recall garkigrker). Tn contrast, closed-class words are those belonging to grammatical, or Function, clases (such as antoks, demonstratives, quantifier, conjune tions, and prepositions), which in any language tend to include a small Morphology umber of fixed elements. Function woes in English include conjunc tions fand, oF), articles (the, a), demonstratves (chs, that), quantifiers (all, most, some, few), aut prepositions (0, from, at, with). To take one specific case, consider the word and. The essential feature ofthe word and is that it functions grammatically 10 eonjoin words and phrases, as seen in the combination of noun phrases the woman and the man. Any change in membership of such a class happens only very slowly (over centuries) ‘and in small increments, Thus, a speaker of English may well encounter ddovens of pew nouns and verbs during the coming year; bu it is extremely unlikely that the Englisit langwage will acquire a new anile (or lose a irent one) in the coming yeur (or even in the speaker’ fee) ‘One familiar varity of language in which the distinction between ‘open-class words and closed-class words is important is known a rele- graphic speech (ot telegraphic language). The tern telegraphic derives fiom the kind of language used in telegrams, where considerations of space (and money) force one to be as tse as possible: HAVING WON- DERFUL TIME; HOTEL GREAT, RETURNING FLIGHT 256, SEND MONEY: STOP. Generally sneaking. in telegraphic forms of Janguage the open-class words are retained, whereas the closed-lass ‘words are omitted wherever possible. Telegraphic forms of language are not limited to telegrams and postcards but ean also be observed in early stages of child language, in the speech of people with cen brain dis- ‘orders known as aphasic brain syndromes, i clsified advertising, in certain styles of poetry. in newspaper headlines, and generally in any we ‘of language where messages must be reduced 10 the essentials ‘The morpheme elasifications discuss in this sccton are summarized im igure 2.2. Note, mneidentaly, that almnes cOUKE ASO De clase as belonging to "closed classes.” For example, the clases of prefs and ‘suffixes also consist of a small number of fixed elements, augmented or changed only vey slowly ove time, Both are somtimes grouped together ‘and refered t a grammatical morphonics. Teas been customary £0 wie the temm closed class 10 refer to function words (rather than 1 bound affixes), however, and we adopt that usage in figure 23, NEOLOGISMS: HOW ARE NEW WORS CREATED How can our finite vocabulary be expanded and altered to deal with our potentially infinite world? Fist, now words can be added, anv the mean ing of already existing words can be changed. Second, new words canChapter 2 i i ? i Morphology center a language throwgh the operation of word formation mies. (The part of language study that deals with word formation rues is also called derivationalmonpholosy.) Creating New Words and Changing the Meaning of Words Creating New Words (Neolagisms) Speakers continually create now words using the prooesses listed below. Under the right conditions these can be adopted by the lamer linguistic community and bacome part of the language. Coined Words Entirely new, previously nonexistent words Keep entering ‘a Tanguage. This offen happeas when speakers invent (or coin} new ‘words. (In tems of the two components of words (sound and meaning), spsakers coin a new word by inventing a new sound soquence and pair- ing i wath a new meaning.) Hor example, adolescent slang has g3ven us wont such as geek and diveeb, ‘Aeroayms The words radar and laser are acronyms: cach of the letiers ‘word. For example, radar drives from radio detecting and ranging, and laser derives from light amplification (by) stimulated emission (of) radi- fon, 148 amportant 9 ow that even though such words are ongially rote ae seeneyene, qakere quickly fieget euch evigine and the ara rym become new independent words, The world of computers offs ‘wealth of acronyms, Here are just a fewe @ Acronym Source URL (pronounced “carl") —_unitorm resource locator GUI (pronounced "gooey") graphical user interface OS tpronounced “doss") isk gperaing >9S:eu SCSI (pronounced "skwr7y") small computer system jntertaen Tocal grea network grapes merehange Format st one OF the abbreviauon: or shortening, ‘Acronym formation as processte that are inereesingly common in American sovity (and peshape Inlemationally) as a means of word formation.Chapter 2 Alphabetic Abbreviatons For many speakers of American English. one: jw abbrevialions such 4s CD. ER. ain PC have envoy veploved longer words, such as compact disc (or cerificate of deposit, emergency room. and personal compucer (ot policaly correct. respectively, in most styles of speech; Unrough tins process new. previously nonexistent words have come into use. Characteristic of these alphabetic abbreviations (or Inialisms) is that each of their letersi individually pronounced (hey contrast with acronyms im this respect Computer inspired alphabetic abbreviations now number in the thousands. Hore are some well-Anown (and perhaps aot so well known) examples: o ADbreviution Sou wow World Wide Web 1 jnformation Jechnology nui. dyperen: markup Janguage oor “shjoelgrented programming HDL. ‘hardware description Janguage Ho npuvoutput » + Brotocsl FTP file _ transfer protocoile transfer program Clippings “Clipped” abbreviations such 6 prof for professor. fis or facsimile. and photo op for photographic opportunity are now in common ‘use. There ar also orthographic abbreviations such as Dr. (doctor). Mr. (onister. Az (Arizona), and MB (megabyte), where the spelling of 4 word has been shortened but its pronunciation is not (necessarily) altered, Blends Now words can also be formed fom existing ones by various Blending processes: for example. motel (from motor hotel, infomercial (Geom information and commercial). eduainment (fom education and entertainment, brunch (Krom breakfast and lunch), cafetoriwn (om afer wn) eudiovuen, Moraaguce (Go. Monica (Lewinsky; sd Watergate), netiquete (rom network etiquette, rashware (fom trash and sofware), and bt (fom binary and dig. nique for creating new words. namely, using specie brand names of Morsiaiogy Heenes. a brand name for Tail tissue. has come to denote facil tisue in goneral, Xerox is the name of the earporation that produces a wel. known photocopying machine, and much to the dismay of the company, the term arnt hae joe ite specific hrand-name conmniston and has come to be used to describe the process of photocopying in general (xeroxed a Feuer). Hence, in casual speech we can commit the grave sin of talking shout buying a Canon xerox machine Proper Nouns Not infequently, @ ait, quality, act, of some behavior associied with a person becomes ydensied with that persons name, Iypically his ar her lst mame for example, Anoker (rm the prosiites who followed the troops of General George Hooker) and guillotine (an instrument of execution named after is inventor. Dr, Joseph Guill) Thossands of such words are now part of E many cases the Word remains and the connection tothe person has been ost Bouowings: Dicer Yet auother way 10 expand our vocabulary is to “borrow” words from olber lanzuases. Soeakers of English aggressively borrow words from other languages. We have kindergarten (German). crotssant (French). aloha (Hawanan}-and sushi Japanese), among many thors We have sven orrawer! worl that woos themenne harrow The Aztee language contributed many words to Spanish, which have now hocome part of English, The following AZee words are Known t© most [English speakers living in the United States 7 avocado guava saguaro cocoa! macho taco chocolate maize tamate coyote rmasquite tequila ‘enchilada Mexico tomato guacamole ocelot ‘And these Artee words wl be familiar 10 many English speakers tving fn tho couthwstorn part of tho United States: o holla ocotilo horeh pozoleChapter 2 jsvalina pulque ‘erate queizal ezeal Teen ‘mole (pronounced MOFiay) Borrowings Indie i ‘expression in one language is translated literally into another language. For example, the borrowed. terms jirewaler ant tron horse are teal translations of Native American words mesning “alechal" an "railroad train.” Other such indirect borrowings (als0 known a caigques or loan ‘ranstations) are Worldview and superman im German Weltanschawing and Uhermencch ‘Changing the Meaning of Words ‘A new meaning can become associated with an existing word, There are numerous ways thie can eam abot “+ The grammatical category of the wor! changes (change in part of pooch, + ‘The vocabulary of one domain is extended to a new domain (met Dhoeieal extesion). + The meaning of a word broadens in scope (broadening), + The meaning of a word narrows in scope (narrowing). * The meaning of a complex. wort involves restricting the more genera ‘compositional meaning ofthe complex wont (somantie ditt) ‘+The meaning of a word changes to the opposite ofits original meaning (reversal) Change in Part of Speech A word can be mexiied by changing is ‘grammatical category. For example, the nouns Houdini, porch, ponviall, ‘and people can be ws as verbs 10 Houdln! one’s way our ayia closet, 10 porch a newspaper, to ponstil her hair, an to people an island. tn this ‘way a new meaning can be associated with and related 10 an existing ‘word. For example, ponytail, the noun, relers to hair that is tied together atthe back of the head, whereas fo ponytail, the verb, refers 16 the pro- ‘es of making a Ponytail. Tn cass involving proper names, the meaning ‘f° new word does not derive from the meaning of the previously existing wor (ic, the Bem. which may not even have a meaning) but is » Morphology Ise om associations with that name Tia Houdini i¢ one example. Ta ‘mesmerize derives from the name "Mesmes Mtaphorial Extension Metaphorical extension is yet another way in ‘which the meaning of an existing word is modified, thus resulting in new uses, When a language does not seem to have just the right expression fo cctan purpanes, spvahers oflen Uke ai exis One aad exer its meaning in a recognizable wav. The language does not gain 2 new word as such, but since a worl is being used in a new way, the language has boon augmented, a though a new word hal been added. ‘TO take one ‘example: it i¢ interesting 49 note that speakers of English have adopted ‘many existing tems from the ealm of ocean navigation 0 use i talking aout space exploration. For instance, we use the word ship 10 refer 10 space vehicles a5 well as to occan-going vessels; we speak of a spaceship docking with another in a yay related 10 the way an ovean-zoing ship ‘docks; we speak of navigation in both types of tansportation; we could speak of spaceship suiting Urvugh space, eve thug mo win ‘wile ans involved we speak of certain objools ws floating in spe and ‘of ships as floating on water; we speak of a captain and a crew for boa kinds of ships; and we ave cared over the names oF ship parts, such a ull, cabin, hatch, and (at least on welevision shows) deck. Tis striking that tems that basically derive fon the historical epoch of wing- powered occan navigation have with great ease been extended into the realm of space navigation. The technology in the two realms is radially differen, yet we apparently perceive enough similarities 10 use already existing terms, in new ways, 10 deseribe the new phenomena. This is ‘an important fact, fOr it shows that technological changes in a society will not noeessaily esnlt in the addition of previously nonexistent words to its language, Indeed, speakers of all human languages show ‘geal creativity and imaginative power in extending the existent lan- _Euago into now ecalms of exporones. Just thnk of how the meanings of existing words have been extended to accommodate the rapidly changing ‘world of high technology: for example, you "sur or “navigate.” the “ Another interesting case is the metaphorical extension of words foes the physical realm of food and digestion into the mental realm of ideas and interpersonal exchange of ideas. For example, consider the following sentencesChapter 2 it uiggers sound caages in the verb se toe @ relate relation dictate dictation rmygstigate vestigation carrslate correlation appreciate appreciation ‘Two changes are taking place. The ‘sound in the ~ate words is pro- ‘nounced as a si-sound in the corresponding -ion words, axl no matter where the nin sess (comps) iy Tawated it Ue -ase words, i aay ‘occurs on the yew ust befor or in the -ion words “The Sufix -able introduces another obvious change whe itis added to ‘8 word, Note that when -able attaches t0 verbs, the resulting words are adjectives (and hence ean modify noses) ° This book is readable. (Compare: This book is blue.) . areadable book (Compare: a blue book) ‘The suiix-able introduces a new element of meaning, soushly “able 10 be XU." where Xs the meaning of the verb. For example, breakable means ronighly “able fo he broken,” mivable means “able to he mover” ‘and s0 on. Thus, at ast dhe changes are associated with this sui © 1. a phonological change (sound change) b, avcategory change (part-of-speech change) © a semantic change (meaning change) Other facts reveal that thee are certain restrictions on the we of be FFor example, ifwe wish to express the idea that man is morta, we cannt Sty Man isdieabie. Ifa caris able w go, we nevertheless cannot say zai is oable: ifTohn and Mary ate able to ery, they are still not eryabla, Ie is ail too tempting to suppose that these cases are somehow exceptions oF that no euig oF principle govems the data in question, But if we compare the column in (7), @ generalization emerges: Verbs taking able Verbs nor taking -able real ie break 0 Momolozy ply sleep mend rest debate weep sit walk ‘The verbs on the If ae sransitive (hey occur with object noun phrases) ‘whereas the verbs on the ght are intransitive (Whey Jo not occur with objects). Tor example a, Pat read the hook. (read + the book = iranstive verb > object) 8, Pat gis, (died ~ intransitive verb wits no following objet) b. Tenry went . John cried. 1 seems to be the ease that -able ltaches only 10 transitive verbs, not to intransitive verbs. Nevertheless, just bused on the ist in (7), there appear to be some counterexamples. What about walkable and r28le? Con, sider the examples in (10) (0) a The dog is walkable bi. The mice is ramnable : 1 will turn out that these are only apparent counterexamples. not rel ‘ones. Note that the verbs walk and run have boxh a transitive and an in- transitive use: an sa Jolin il a ‘John will walk: the dog.Mechanisms bv which new words cam ener laneutce deft column) and be which the meaning of ensing words ea change (igh clan) ew worde Mevning change estes “Change im pa oF eee Acronym formation Broadening hping Semanie ti Blending Reversal Generation Appropriation of proper souas ‘New vocabulary can ao ne ded by followmng ruks that mneorporate spose deivational processes. For the most part, the core of each prs ‘ess isan already existing word, 10 which ether words and allies can be added. English has dozens ofthese rules, and we will discuss a fw ofthe Jn the discussion 10 fol, we will se that compositionality (ihe property whereby the meaning of a whole expression is detemmined by the meaning of 5 parts) only partially holds in derivational morphology. ‘Typically, the new words formed by these proceses have a nuance of meaning that is not predictable fem the meaning of their pars Compounds and Compounding In. English (as in many oser guages) new woes can he formed from alway existing words by a process known as compounding, in which aia! WoRts ae ined together” fo Tom a compound wot 8 ream nan fom compen eu apenas te ave stl cn be joined with the noun roort 10 fam the compound noun sickroom: the “ajetve vel can be joined with the adcetive ov wo erm the eoxnpewnd aicetive redhat. (Por examines of ether tynes of compen fol in English, see table 22) Morpholoss Noun + Noun Adjective — Nous Papmsiton » Nown Verb Noun Ianiond ‘igh ete overdone poeae caunsmoker backboard naersog Svearwon sail mai elt ender searerow ‘Noun — Adan Preposton + Ve syne ovenee ceibhound ovestull She door undef Cenely sin, te pr sph te we cmon i te sa hf fee on to hy ond i eed he ey of cmp Fa ap ene (ier Noe the wk cen ih cso 3. Tei toner he een oer ehh st ese ‘hol compan koe asbathroom towel-rack endl communis: center finance commit. Indeed, the process of compounding seems unlimited in English: stating with ‘word tke sailboat, we can easly construct the compound sailboat rigging, fo which we can in tur ereate sailboat rigging design, sailboat rigging design raining, sailboatrigging design raining institut, anlsoon, ‘You may wonder when compound words are 1 be wniten as single words (ie, long words with no spaces between the individual werd), 1s hyphenated words, and as sequences of words separated by spaces. FFor instance, bathroom, ape-man, and living room are all compounds. Monoovet, the high-es wkd is bringing us exmpoundls writen it f heretofore dosdedly uneemventional wage tw {OF moe) wots ae run together, and the fist leter in the second wor is capitalized (eg. Frame Maker, WordPerfect. net Viz. Group Wiss). "he conventions for ‘writing two-word compounds in English are not consistent, Often. the Fnypen is used when a compound has been newly erated oi not widely used. When a compound has guined a certain currency of permanence, it is ofien spell closed up. without the hyphen. The word Liukéuw‘whem it was fit erated, yas writen black-board, spelling found in {ets ftom the fit part of the twentieth century. The cule in English for spelling muliwonl compen, sich as aninniits center finan com ‘mittee s not 10 write them as a single word. In contrat the conventions for wntng German are much more consistent, Twosword axl mult ‘word compounds ae written as asingle word: Uifallversicherangspice (Cajal! = accident, Vesichering insure; Pick ligation to insure against accents.” CCenain compounnis ave a characteristic sre pattern (accent pat teen) Foe example, in compound nouns consisting of wie wet the main stress (position of heaviest aooent) comes on the lefimost member of the compound, ‘The compound movie staris pronounced MOVIEstar (whee capital eters indicts the location of the heaviest cent), not movie STAR: the compound noun bathroom is pronounced BAT Hraom, 10k barkROOM. The sess pattem can sometimes be a clue 10 whether a eyueiwe of two wow ia compound woun oF not. For esamphe, he Sequence high and chair can be pronounced #/GHtchair. in which case itis a compound noun denoting a special kind of chair that babies sit im; i can be pronounced. Aight 1/R, m whith cae 11S simpy a foun phese consisting ofthe ncn chair mee hy the adjective high denoting some chair that happens «© be high (wot necessarily a baby's high chain, Other tests that can be used 10 disambiguate an active: oun sequsnee involve the sales (Comparative) rand (uperatve) cst and the verb very. Higher chair. highest chair, anda very high chair are ‘compatible only with the phrasai (not compound) interpretation. Although the meaning ofa complex wont such a frees is combins- tion of the meaning of is Parts the meaning of compannds cant always be preted inthis way: that is, eompounds are rarely completely compositional. For example. consider the contrast hetwaon the. com- pounds alligator shoes und horseshoes: alligator shoes we shoes made fiom alligator hide; yet horseshoes are ox shoes made fom horsehide, bout rater are iron shoes" for hoses" hooves. Similarly, a salt ple is a PIC male of sal, but a saliviaker iy mot w slaker uzade of salt The ‘compound Big/oor refers to a mythical ereature with large feet. but the ‘compound bigwig does not refer to a large wig. Nevertheless, certain generalizations can be made about the meanmg of compounds, For ex- as Morpholosy scems 10 be central in the meaning of the whole compound, atest for ceria kins compounds, ‘Compounding is a rich sowree of new words in English. snd many ‘compounds such as letter carrier, hot ub. talk show, flight attendant Sanitation engineer, and channel surfng—aze numbered among recent ‘adkions © the language, Pople ofien ask why the compound maple leahas two plurals: the ‘megular form maple leaves (for the botanical entity) and the regular form ‘Maple Leas Wor whe Foromto Dexkey team), Ihe answer es im the act that properties of the head af compound hecome prnpertios of the ‘whole. Among the properties of the botanical compound maple leaf, with head fey. are the meaning of the word leafand its grammatical teatures. including its iregular behavior in the plural. In contrast. the hockey teara ‘and its members are not leaves. and the word tea"does not contribute its semantic and grammatical propenies to the meaning of the compound Tn other wows, the word feuf is wot the haa of the eompourn, ths ‘compound is said to be “headless.” The default (regular) moephology is ‘thus applicable and speakers use the plural Staple Leafs. Headless com pounds are relatively rare, but many, such as pickpocket ant eutpurse. are common English words. Pislpoeker and cutpurse ean be recognized ae Ieadlless since they do not seer to pockets or purses. ‘The Agenuive Sul -er Agentive nouns ate forme by the word formation mile “Add the slic -or to a verb.” Here is a tiny sample of the nouns this rule derives: % Verb —+ Agentive nowt + -er) (Wo) write writer (to) kill killer (Wo) play player oy win winner Go) open opener ‘The derived noun form means roughly Yone who does 3° or Yan instrument that does X," where X is the meaning of the verb, Suppose lat a new verb emery dhe Engst Hanyu, suc as de verb to ero feevall that xerar was eiginally a tralemark for a photnconying prom 235). Native speakers of English automatically know that this verb can36 24 chap heme ders from eranerry, speakers hive extended the we of 8 thonheme eon by Dessorvc. wing itn varios new lend ch Ne GR i ig ad Bee Em simply abractaspecs of rpbolgieal theory. In zeus speakers Prodvee (ard hearers understand) new work twine procedures cone Spooding to thse uso anys INFLECTIONAL VERSUS DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY In the previous section we used the tenn derivational merptoiogy- Inthe of wont fo cies hs ofen been draw. hotween it Rectional snl devivational morphology. The basis for the & veh sound, fokved immoditcly by the side Av/, Some hnuists writ this initial sound asthe digraph hw! [hf An alveolar ide, American English /J/ i produced with a tongue blade dha i tise toward the alveolar side. Many speakers abu oat the apex into arerofexed position (cured upward and backward). Others ‘pres the tongue tip against the fower gum (below the teeth) and raise the blade of the wongue towant the OL OF the MoU, his sound 1 AO ‘prodicel with ip ounding (a pursing ofthe fips) and retraction ofthe tongue root (ee 5, figure 34). The symbol/3 represents the fit sound in the wor! red We are following IPA conventions in using the “upside-down symbol for ths English phoneme. The “right-sdo-up r” symbol is 1e- serve for tilled r, a sound foun in dialects of Scotish English. ‘Arguments supporing the gle status off ane fou in Kab. 1976 Hi Usf)_o alveopaltal glide. The sound represented by the symbol ‘Ls formed with the body and the bla ofthe tongue arched ina high, front positon, toward the hard palate. The symbol // represents the frst sound in the won yes. The Vowels of American English ‘Whereas consonants are formed by obstructions—either partial oF (ta —in the vocal tact, vowels are produced with a relatively open vocal ‘wact, which functions as a resonating chamber. The different vowels areChapter 3 we wr, vet ha! Figure 36 ‘Yoel eat haps fr given English vowels ont Back High @e Ma 5 Low 2 Figure 37 Tan cine) woe nd vo woe Assets gis formed by the differen shapes of the open, resonating vocal AC. and the Variety of shapes #8 determined by the position of several anatomical sruetres: die position oF tne wngue body and iad, ve relative upening fof the fips. the relative opening of the oral pharynx (soe 13. figure 3.4). and the positon of the jaw (sce figure 36), Although these articulators fare, 0 some extent, anatomically connected, they can be independently ‘There are three major (ypes of vowels in American English: Jax (or shor), tense (ot long), and reduced, As the labels suggest, the lax vowels ty ploduced will svoeslit Tess uuscular tension that dhe be tnd are also somewhat shorter in duration. The reduced vowels could ‘eqully well be called the unsiressed vowels, @ point we relurn to bel. Lax (Shor) Vows ‘The symbols for the English lax vowels are displayed in Hgure 3.7, If we imagine this Figure superimposed on a eross section of the YOEB) tact ult ao that depited in Bigue 34), then the pusitias of the vowels in the chart represent the relative positions of the part of the tongue closest ‘o the roof of the mouth (assume the mouth opening t0 be on the Ket, as a Phonetics Sn figue 24}. We cat saplify wat deseipion of the aati of ‘vowels by limiting our discussion to this relative position of the highest part ofthe tongue daring vowel production [hf la bigh front vowel, The tems hgh and ron desesbe the posi on ofthe tongue in th mouth (Ge figure 3.6. ‘The aynbo i epesens the vowel sound in the words bis /brt{ and wish /waf}. Jel tax mid fron vowel. The tongue body is relasvely forward. a in the production of ji) but iis slighlly lower (ge igure 34). The symbol {et represents the vows! sound in the words gt /ge! and mers re. snot A lx low front VOWEL This owe (andthe symbol or) i alld aah by many linguists, and the symbol Jf represents, in ft, the vows! sound inthe word ask fj. Its produced with «front tongue body and with «towered tongue body and jaw Inf A tm hgh back vowel The vowel sound represented by the syma} Jo) is found in words stch as pur /putl and fot [fu]. As you start to pronounce the vowel /Uf, you can fecl your tongue move back and {pursed and brought eloser together) during the production of his vowel; once, iis aed rowed vowel IA/ A tax mid back vowel, The vowsl sound represented by the symbol Naki. Note thatthe words pur and put, which dilfr in the number of final rs in the English spelling system, actually differ in their vowels, fu versus, especie retracted in the articulation of the vowel /a/ (ee figure 3.6). There are several vateties of alike vowels in English; these vowels constitute one ‘0 the most acult aspects the study of English vowe! sounds. the tlifiety 6 dine in part to the fact thal thors is considera nlata variation in the pronunciation of these vowels. We leave it to your ia- Structot to help you assign the appropriate symbols 10 represent vowels of your own spsech of of the English spoken in your area. The vowel sound represented by the symbol /a/ (script-a) is the low Back vowel shared by most speakers of American English. It is typically found in wots sued ay fod Asad al pot pall [Notice that the symbol representing this vowel looks more Hike an italicized a than Tike a roman-stye "aChapter 3 Jf A tax low back (sounded) vowel, I you pronounce the words ser snd caghe different. you probably have the vowel /2) in your pronin ciation of cau, ‘There is minor lip rounding in the articulation of thie For many (i'not most) speakers of American English the pronuncia- tion of the vowels inthe words father. rth, Anéfraughy will be the same However. you may speak sect (eg. if you are & speaker of some ialects of Weitsh English) in which the vowels inthe thee words may all be lifferen, ‘There are two so-called reduced vowels in English, shown in parentheses in figure 37. ‘The most common reduced vowel is called schwg, a mid ‘back vowel whose symol isan upside-down and reversed & a7, Te As the last vowel sound in the word soft and sounds very much like the lax vowel represented hy the syubol /A/ (some linguists, in Tact, use the same symbol for both of these sounds). Schwa 2 is called a yeduced vowel vowel Note how the accented vowel Jef in the hase word domocrat [gmakiet"reduces” or “corresponds” to the unaccented vowel /a/ in democrat Haémokuel] “reduces” or "corresponds" to the second shwa in democracy (Gomndkagsi in the second syllable of chick [tfikinj. Like /2). the vowel /i/ occurs ‘only in unstressed (unaccented) sllabes in a word. vowels, Most likely, English has only one basic reduced vowel, and the ‘appearance of one or the other is determined by the suerounding phonetic Tense (Long) Vowels and Diphthongs coftense vowes (sve gure 3.8). The tease vowels are all relatively Loager than the Tax vowels, and all tense vowels in Standard English end with lax vowels. For example, spectrographic representations (figure 39) reveal Phonetics High i a Mag ma Tow (eu ama @ Figue 38 eae ae (oy Creed Speetiograms represeising the lo vowel of if) and the tease vowel i f Secs fb). "Thus, the tense vowel represented here is 38 miliscends long than The higher value for in Feed (b) teflets a more advaneed Tongue Postion aChapter 3 that the tense vowel jy in reed 38 5% mulliseconds longer than sie tax vowel jin rid morsover, the sscond resonant frequency (oemant of fil Js higher than that of fy, an acoustic property that corresponds to @ mote advanced tongue position [hI A tense high front vowel. The symbol represents the vowel sound jn words such 2s bead Mid! and gree [Bi Jey) (aliemative IPA transcription Jef; sltemative American transcrip tion /eyf) A tense mid front vowel (with an accompanying high front offgde). This igh font ote 1s represented in the IFA transenption with the gyabo! jij. The vowel i¢ found in words such as day Met) and veigh [Wwe Ja) tense high back (rounded) vowel. This transcription represents ‘the vowel sound in words such as erude BUG and shoe /3us Jou! (alumative IPA uanseription fol; alterative American tanserp tion fow)) A tense mid back (rounded) vowel (with an accompanying high back oflide). Tis high back offside is represented in the TPA ssunseriion wih the sym /u/ This sanseripsion repnesemis she vowel sound in the words boat ‘bout! and te [tov Diphthongs are sinsle vowel sounds that besin in one vowel position and end jz another vowel or glide postion. Stic!" speaking, the vowels {fesf and rou! are aaphtnongs, although they nave Been trachionally cia. ‘isl with the Tong vowels J and fof. "The following three vowels ane ‘unambiguously diphthongs that have substantial tongue movement in Aheie aniculation, Jax} (ltemanve Amenean ansenpoon foy/) A tense md hack {rounded) vowel fwith an accompanying high front office) ‘Tie tran scription represents the vowel sound in words sueh as hoy Jb24/ and Floyd vas av) (allemauve American wansenption faw/) A tense low back ‘vowel (with am accompanying high hack offgide) The trnscrqtion| represents the vowel sound in the words cov fav} and Hlouse [140s In some dialects of American English this diphthong begins with law font vowel and slnuld be tne a 54 i (ich an accompanying high front offi). This transeripion represents the vowel sound in words such as my Jmatf and ohigh /8@K { (atemative American tranecription /nyf) A tence lw hack wel Phontes Bast Guest Disietal Vi Jaf tense low vowel. The vowel sound represented by the symbol /af {prined-ais found—among other places—in the speech of New England, especially in Maine and eastem Massachusetts. One characteristic ex- rreccon of the Reston ara, "Park the ene.” eontaine fn inelanens of the vowel represented by the symbol a To conclude our discussion of vowels, we point out that one of the reasons that speakers of English have some difficulty in pronouncing the vowels of languages such ae Spanish end Waliam ie that most of the tense ong) voueis of English are diphthongs, whereas the corresponding vowels in Spanish and Italian are net. For example, a native speaker of [American English who is leaming Iilian is Hksly to pronounce the word solo “alone” with «wo English 0’, as shown most clearly in the IPA transcription soulou). For this reason, teachers of forign languages ‘fw tll American-Engtishespeaking stems «0 use “pure” vowels ‘that is, ones without velar ofelides—in words such a Italian solo, ‘Consonants and Vowels in Other Languages ‘All spoken human languages have sound aystems made up of consonants and vowels. Nevertheless, languages vary greatly in the number of these sound types. Ignoring dialectal differences, American English has 39 inners (i eonsenas and 1S vowein Hwan is 43 pines 6 consonants and $ vowels): and Georgian, a Caucasian language spoken in the southwestern part of the former Soviet Union, has 90 phonemes (7 consonants ant 2D vowels). A ofthese languages funcuon success numbers of speech sounds ‘Also despite numerical differences, the vowels found in the world’s languages ate often yile sult and aie produved iu sulla yntons of tho mouth, All languages have an Ja/-like vowel, and 1's and v's are found in the majority of languages. The vowels 2, J, and u, being pro- duced at the penphery ot the vocal tact, are the maximally eisunet vowels Consonants are thine to mare enaslingnistic waration ace languages have more consonants than vowels. Nevertheless, languages share @ common core of consonant types. Almost all languages have labial stops Gush ae pand b), dentalfaveolsr stops (a i}, a velar stops (such ask and g), one or more of the nasals (mor n, liquid (ror ty and some Kind of ficative (ypically an slike sound),86 ‘of European and Asian Tanguages are the so-called click sounds found in several African languages. In the production of cick. the tongue makes fs chunuie with dhe suf of the aout ust just at one punt, Lub a we points (both at the velum and at one other point farther forward). The Primary airflow is ereated by making the sealed-offspace larger, creating parwal vacuum, usually By lowerng the tongue and jaw. When the front stoppage is tant and sir rashes ina the partial vaca, » ik sound results, Some click sounds are made by English speakers, and although they are mot part of the English language itself, they are sill sted for communication. The sound that is writen tl! aM? taf He act to be pronounced "tsk, tisk, tsk." The i is a single click sound made with air ushing in between the tip ofthe tongue and the alveolar ridge. in the Afsieas language Xluse, spoken by Nelson Mandela, cesta “click” phonemes are an integral part ofthe consonant system. The click consonant that appears atthe beginning ofthe language name Xhosa—a click with lateral release—is the sound that some people use to signal & horse ta "giddy-np.” Try pronouncing this ltoral cick and following i jmmediately with the sequence -osa. If you can do this, you will come ‘wry close to pronouncing the name ofthis language correctly. The off Sal IPA representation for this soquense fs (Mosal "The Form of the English Plural Rule: Three Hypotheses [Now that we have a set of symbols that pent us ¥o transcribe the con- ‘oman and sewed sounds of Fngtish in precise way. we ean reformulate lable 3.1, more accurately, as able 3.3, Here the plural merpheme can appear as ether Is), a, oF Fiz [Even thowgh we can now represent the dierent pronunciations ofthe plural morpheme. we are sll eft with accounting for the distribution ‘Tale 33 Phoncini tnnssrpion of ieee fms ofthe plural margins ‘Beanple word oe er ‘oes Phone tanscipion of ‘lal morpheme fr chat sword Ws be @ Phonemic transcription of ‘buy fo Phonetics (pater of occurence) ofthe diferent plural forms. What factors govern, for predict, ths distribution? We will pursue this problem by formulating several hypotheses, which we will then lst and revise in light of new ‘A given noun can be associated with only one of the thrse different forms of the plural. Thus, for example, the plural Fd that is associated ‘uch to make bushes cannot be as0ek 2 lth oat or dos, The result ‘of doing so (Pkectizj, Mogiz/) sounds “foreign” w a native speaker of English. Thus, there mast be some principle govering the occurence of the iran pial shies. One account for tie plus disbuion would be to say thatthe form of the plural morpheme to be used with any given noun is unpredictable, and that we must simply Hist, foreach individual noun of the fanguage, whieh form takes. ‘his Would amount Co saying that speakers of English have simply memorized the phonological form of the plural for each individual noun, ‘The distribution ofthe forms of the plural would then be given by sts of statements such as the following: o Hypottess 1 (Listing of words) ‘ket. kets} "ca {ep meps! *map" Usk, baks} “back” (dag, dage} “dow (ken, kenz) “can” {ea ace) "ab ibuf.bofie} “bust {aif fz) “ais” fads giz} “dae” Hypothesis 2s cosntit withthe fut dat tee ate 04h sua i 4 shee, and man for which the shape of the plural ending does seem to ‘ye determined by the word ill, However, hypothesis 1 implies chat for any new word (Raley foun! in OUT hss) We Wil ot Be able 1 pe fit which ofthe thre forme af the pal morpheme wil ake tic is clery false. Speakers of English can spontaneously and with consen sus form the plural for nouns they have never head before and therefore sould not hve memorized. We may never have hoard the noun glen hfe (nee it isa nonsense word), yet we can indeed! prodit thatthe form ofthe plral would be /5/ and ot oF fini ft seems thatvery noun that ends in fA takes the plural form /s/, whether itis nonsense word oF not. Similals- every noun that ends in jg. such as dog, takes the plural fom jj: ae every noun that ends inj. such as bush, takes the plural form Vii. 1s in fact, possible to group the nouns tht take uly /s/ ox only jj oF oly id i tums of tei lst sound, This leads us to a second hypodhesis about the distribution of the dfeent forms of the plural morpheme: o Hypothesis 2 (Listing offinalsounds) ‘The forms of the plural morpheme are diseibuted according to the following specch sound lists 4 The plural mompheme takes the forms} if he noun ends in ip, tk, £0 gy . The plural momheme takes the fem jz ifthe moun ends in fb, m, 1n.g..¥,0,1.W,j/, orany vowel c. The plural morpiteme takes the form fiz/ ifthe noun ends in /s, 2,5 3, shoo dD Notice hat hypothesis 2 now reflect: a native English speakers jude ‘ments conceming the form that the plural will ake for any new word. Accontingly, the task fice by the language learner in earning the dis- tibution of Ue pla forms is eitfrem wince iypaesis 2 da nace hype 1. That i. language Ieamers da not mene the paiclar fom for every noun; rather. it appears that they acquire a rule 10 ‘determine what plural omnis associate! wih a particular noun (i terms ‘of ite final sound, Of course there ar all nouns whoee plurai form he to be memorized, as with the exceptional nouns children, axen, sheep. ‘men, andl so forth. We can say, then, that there are nouns whese plural Follows hypothesis 1 (he exeeptionl nouns), but dhe overwheling tne ity are subject to hypothesis 2. To sae that hyposhesis 2 is still not sulTisent 10 handle all eases of piural formation, we tum to cases in which foreign words are made t0 ‘undergo Cagtish plural formation—in particular, forign words that contain speech sounds not found in Enoish, Some English speakers ‘specially announcers on radio stations that play elasieal music, pro- ‘ounce the name of wae German composer Bach as it is pronounced rman, with 9 final ines velaeFicatve. "This sound, sgmoizad 96 4s, is not part ofthe English phonemic system. Ifthese English speakers ‘we the name Bach (/bax/)in the piural, perhaps in referring w two ge- 8 Phonetics ceratons of Bachs, It kes /f and not fy or fz! (Bachs = foaxs. The ‘problemi that the sound fu dees no appear in th Hist in ypethesis 2 ‘We therefor: need to develop a new hypothesis that reflects the English speaker's ability to assign plurals to words that end in sounds that are foxcign to Dnglis, If we compare words that end in, say. A which take the plural form 4sj) and words that end inv? (whic take the form jj), we can observe ‘nt AP ana 7 represent similar sounas that tr only an a single eae hire—namely AT is voiceless, whereas fF is voiced Further, words with the final consonant /AF (which is voiceless) take the plurals). whereas ‘words with a final je (which is voiced) take the plural J. If we set observation: ifa noun ends with a yoicelss sound, then it will tke the voiceless plural form jj bu i it ends with a voiced sound, then it will ‘ake the voiced plural form jzf. Notice that we now have an aecount for ‘why hypothesis ? groups nouns ending in wove with nouns ending in voiced consonants such as fb, (se hyposbesis 2, part (b): those fina sounds are all voiod, and so it follows automatically that all nouns cdi in woke sounds wil take the paral form jj [Let ws now retin to the noms that ake the pl form Jel. We: note ‘thatthe final consonants of these nouns Us. 2, J, 3, tf. 43) are either alveolarjricanves,alveopalataljricatives,ccalveopalatalayicates o Mspothesis3 (Use ofphonett features} ‘The forms of the plural morpheme are distibuted acconing to the following conditions 4 The plural morpneme wakes whe fom /ia/ Wwe fast sound ine ‘wn 10 which it attaches ig sn alveolar freadive, an alveopaltal fcaive, or an alveopaltal afficate Otherwise: . The plural moephome takes the voied foem je if the last sound in the noun is voiced. «. The plural moxpheme takes the voiceless form ja i the last sound in the noun is voiceless. [English plural formation demonsintes the interaction of wo pans of Fnglish grammar, whors the concept of grammar inclves mosphinlogy ‘axl phonology as well as syntax. English grammar includes 2 moepho- logical part that spies chat plurals are formal by aking a sufi 10Phonetic Va Chapter 3 nonns, and @ phonological part containing rules thst determine the se tual phonetic shape (or shapes) ofthat sulfix. Linguists hypothesize that ‘grammars of all languages contain a morphological component in which tuwaphewes ate ausbined to faa eoplea os Gonpoutnd wouda, be this ‘chapter we have seen that combinations of morphemes are ofien subict to phonological rules that determine the ultimate shape of underlying ‘morphemes. both stems and ames. ‘The phonological form of some aliens is invariant Sorh a eae seems to be the prefix re, which is pronounced (i) regardless ofthe phonolog {cal shape ofthe verb to which iis attached, Other ates may be subject ‘© phonological rules that sposify their phonological shape dopending on their phonological environment. The English plural morpheme is one of| these. Other examples of shape-changing rules are given in the exercises fat the cd ofthis chapter and ia A Linguine Workbook (Patuier aid Demers 2001), fons om & Phonemic ‘Theme So far we have assumed that the sounds repretented by the phonemic transcription system of English are articulated the same way each time they are produced. This assumption ignores an important aspect of the pronunctation of some phonemes, We discuss below several examples of ‘variation in the pronunciation of certain American English consonants. variations that are common to most speakers of American English, “Typos of Adin Fgh Aspiraced t When the sound AW occurs atthe beginning of a syllable. is pronunciation is secompanied by ® pu of sir ealld aspiration. You can chiar the presence of aspiration iF you hold a thin, lexible piss of Paper close to the fot of your mouth when you say the word tin. The Paper will Nutter immediately afer the AV is pronounced. You can also see your ind in fon oF your mouth Ww fet this put OF ae. tn em trast. the pronunciation of the ju's 1? © OF stint unaspirated: PT nouncing these jt's will not cause the pis of paper to fluter. Later we wll discuss the general conditions under which some tinglish phonemes sre aspirated In order to represent more detailed aspects of pronunciation (such as aspiration) linguists use @ system called (close) phonetic transcription. By sonveutivn, phonetic ayo ate eintined in ayuaie Diachets Cy the on Ponce symbols of the more general transcription system we have been Usina— ‘which, whon it sass conditions to he diseussod below. i ealed a pho * te a honeietranerption ti and sine represen respectively (whore a sapescrptd indicts a speed ond ands absence indicates an Unasprated sod). In phonemic tamserption they fe reposted asf un sin We wll deus the difeence betwen Dhonstic and phonemic trnssrinions ar we heve dkcss some of the finer phonic dts of American English speech Unreleased. Vial fin word och ay A's eqoenyanrlesed inthe pronunciation af many speakers of American English: the tongue oaches the alveolar sige But doesnot immediately drop away to "leas the sound, ln contrast. in most American English ses the pronunciation af he final sop Ain words such a ut sin fat tloasad). For most speakors of American English, inthe pronancation of the word it, the ‘icing ends andthe sow slops here the tongue reaches the seat the in aticuating te final. Whore and bow I the alow sopped in this ease? The primacy sop atcslaton Inthe prononcation of fina in words sich sacar inthe lary, rather than inthe region of the alveolar ge, eventhough the tongue ip dos indeed mak contact with the alesis vidoe immediately afer the else ofthe veal cords. Rees that the gloss the space between the vocal cord, anda top created by close athe lots sealed «gona sep, represented a he symbol [7 ‘A glu! stop appears atthe beginning ofeach ofthe two of of the expression oh-oh!, which we can phonetically transcribe as [?a20U} or [ootout]. An unreleased AY tht is produced with plot stop ingne- Giawiy preceding Gwe aiveuiar anicuiaion 3s synivtized ay 73. S* sounds are sometimes fee to ax Presloraized. Ths. the characteris fc pronunciation ofthe word it fr most American English dale is reposted phonctaly as 8 Glonal sop replacement of t In certain words the tendency 10 have a lotiat clonare withthe aricelation off in such an extreme that the glottal stop actually replaces /V. In many speakers’ pronunciation of words such as huzion and kitten, the stop siculai is actually vated wit a the gla, aint the Longue dves ty in fac, move toward the alveolar ridge until the /n/ ofthe final syllable Js articulated. The Al is generally replaced by the glotal stop if the fol lowing syllable contains a syllabic /n/. The term syllabic here Teter 10 reachesChapior 2 the fit that nasa consonans (such 2 J) can Function as sylbes by cra os ne ct yl ena oe some owe at ha ie th ey ng {Nt espera arse St fe oe tomo a nwa ce Fgpet ns eh pte Vey pours asd SKE amd by met spk of Amen tm Bt) rah Issn ro acs Gs wh oe op oa the shor ge Boswe of pay ewan of Sc i fe os Jp ep) tans prt ih is ombg Ty aa a py oe Cx as ma. Avy Clin toa amine wie. rsh sss ss he word mak ch och Tn sy ee a Soy gan pons, ye cl ome th ret ae te mot sh th er Fray sper nf oes ae tek bs er gt cy pom we pls 8 ning nd ois 7S eoiaion oe a> pit op flor hy te opal vce the toss) Clon he te 7 pcvon, skank Soil eae oh Cs oie cere ae tion of /t/ as [1]. Retain er and ve eat a bg sto mans fr tall one Aan ah ramon fhe wo sori. nny ae he ess Und Six spor pus kw see ais: prs te not sc ypc onus kw eh 0 flowing a They ns Frome i “am up, eal nt ations of pene A in Aneta Ere Tee veal cna Sn me sem ae 34 The wri se a hs By ‘fof gm pt he wa pnt ion of the /s/ and the following Paamies mile 34 ‘rcutaiey Phra Coding Feame scion smb ener vont Ra en le iF Unreesed. —() worn era nel vt pesktad Gina sep ie ‘hun fon Pap ist tesucen wrt, when the fret pit (iri) towels ose proms Avena! fg) isl on sme 1 sop Reese, qs che a como ane i ‘Types off in Fnalich ‘The English language has wo types of eee to informally as dark! and gh “Te art whieh Xu wor Soh ack es 8 at's bse Ts a gay 8 ict courelaon ct cast by an accompanying raised. and rected tongue boxy. Because of this Ig ant back (via) tonaue bay. tk? is sect sete was velerzed) Light sa positional variant curing beer font vowels such a (i) and fl. Boffo vowos If is not prodyced with a retreted tongue body—the baby 1S more torearé—and thus the ight variant is produced. An English spealcr eaming Prench, Spanish, or ‘German must eam to pronounce all ofthe in hse languages s light since none of the has dark. The IPA symbols fr fight en dark are and #012), wept “The Relatlonship between Phonetlc and Phoneme Representation We have sen that the phoneme jij has a number of phonetic variants deponding on its position in a word. Keeping this in mind, we can soe that ‘the phonemic symbol is actually a cover svmbot for a range of ferent sounds (o-phiones) that occur in etual spoodh. We ean refer to all ofthe sounds/pnones for whic 18 a cover symbol as Ks alaphones (some-Chapter 3 fis ls call ston variant, Sie ey erin ses ein ‘ments), The positional variants that we transcribe as ft} (0°)! 1h (y anf} are all stances ofthe same phoneme // ICs amportant 4 stress that every positional variant is represented by phone. Indood every ons a lene samaritan, oe ao jones ("fy aljophone ‘of the phoncmre AY whereas {Gj and [5°] ald of the phiineme ‘Criteria for determining whether to oF more phones are members of the same poneme oF fee phonemes are discussed below. Tt clear, then, that we are using two sine systems Of representation foe the sounds of Fnglish (and of human Hannnge in genera!) ant that ferent information 1s encode in cach system. For example, the pho- netic representation system explcily represents information concerning sspiration, reslotatiation, at Mapping, sing notational sss sich ‘as superscripted h and other special symbols summarized in table 34. In ‘contrast, the phonemic representation system is more abstract im nature; it ignores suc feats a aspiration, preloualization, sand Mapping Since we ating two eepresentatin systems fo soins, th qustion Jimmetately arses, Why should this be 50? How can we justify two sy tems for encoding phonolocalifonmation? Why shouk one represen- tation system ignore (or ave unrepresented) anieulatory information encoded by the other system? Why shouldn't we simplify our phonologi- ‘cal theory and use only one representation system for sounds? ‘There are seme fi intitive ways © answer these Questions. and 0 ‘we must sess that we will provide informal answers here rater tan ‘reise definitions. Furthermore. we mst point out that part of our dis cussion will assume certain traditional (or “classical” views om the di tinction between phonemic and phonetic representations. in which. for the sake of exposition, we wil glass overa numberof problems that have arisen in recent work The basic idea behind the distinction between phonetic and phonemic representation systems ean be best ilsiated by consider pairs of ‘words that Fingusts refer 0 as minimal pairs: pairs of words that (1) fave dhe sane number of phonemes, 2) eller ina ingle soul i a coresponting postion in the two words. and 3) dil in meaning. An example isthe pair of words fine and vine. They dlr in mening. but Dhonologeally they cer only m the contrast teteen mal A and = tal Ju. Thus, fan and /vatn constitute minimal pai 95 Phonetics 2 1 Rete Et fii Bo rt) somant of bi. is somatimes rlewad (= UD and sgtines uneles tay re import pois that no mening So aS ‘with the different pronunciations (kx) 4 (ie4't): cxived by native speakers of American English instness of the sme ‘wort ic, Thus, the distintion between the allonhones ft ax tl in woru-final position is not contrastive, and we can say that, for some speakers, Use alloplnnes of if ane in free variation (ce Of pina eeu) in tha poo, ‘The substitution of for AT can crete minimal pit, as we saw in the case ofthe wort ine and vine: the Sounds ij and /¥ are therefore somber: of lune phonsmes. By contrat, the subaision off fe (") does no rete minimal pair: they are therfore members of the same ‘Phoneme. The allopfnans i plemcne ca ano usc wht sell compe- ‘mentary dsrriburion tat, 008 allophone can occur in position Whore the other allophone(s) can never appear, and vice versa. The tem com- plementary disibution s wse because te dsinbubon of one allophone ii cmon of Ge oe he), Per tg he postion following word-initial Js/, the phon hevahecbliaatons Positional variant (t}, and the allophones {t"} fi Peston, Alophoncs ofa single phonon, bene ae aways tbr in five ‘arition or in complementary distribution but in iter ease they ae not eontrastve with one another. To repeat. ii ony when phones funeion conumstvely that ty are member of aierent phonemes "The phoncme i ally mone thin just 8 envce symbol fo a elton Cf sounds (its allophones)—it has a psychological aspect as well. The ‘Phoneme can be vise as the speaker’, intemalized representation of a single spose sound, which, however, can Have diet phonai shapes pong he evo in whch pea. in a “American English, for example, the phones [t*]. a bean a2 "single 204,” the phoneme. ‘Some linguists understand the phoneme somewhat more concretely: sex viw it as a representation ofan ideal aniculatory target. Because af the ef of eee nee pT EHS. FONE onresing son uns of gage nd ‘many languages use the phonemic piniple asthe has of hi alphabet.Chaper 3 ewe pon: en eee inn creie specs os mpage Nea, ngs she on sore spe il sepa re eanne E ltrs end ot ot wt pt fms eon Wen English may be carrying over to speaking another language—the features tht gre tan ba Acre at he sa aa teal te ot ges poe canta Amt Eg pnt Tene eae te pecan tc of ha a nan ngage gee. Spaicn tec a Spa, renin tsp snl Sp on a sca jomune Ronee inate if ey ea saps en rae Moxon he fe phe he penn Dah a es teh Ip eed i he ta egal sp mene eh psi, Tae ‘ow tae ane pce cate a De “Sein eg Roce phe sus ih a nec So ew he ens op ht Pei pec socal ie elt satan Bap ye ie at snr ith gs wh i es Gite Fr esp gue sien a Be ts pono i at hn ga rrated) are peroeived as two completely different consonant sounds, and nc ert mth pu to peg og ve ie Ter cn, Non a PRS ‘means “nail.” Speakers of English tend to hear Hindi feb KE alt Ca of nee, ce ny pce He pine ERAN SL PSS ERO aS fet in: wr eo a ene ae oe pe cra xe ae 3 ng par pee Sin Tat ies pa dain cs pea oe Phonetics language may or may not function phonemically in another language. Aspiration funetions phonemically in voiceless stops in Hind, but i has To take another example. there is no phonemic distinetion between an ‘rsound and an /-sound in Japanese and Korean, In Korean these two sounds are in complementary distribution; they are aliophones ofa singe phoneme ts Tapnnese only a single rcike phoneme aevnre Speakers ‘of American English are baffled by the fit that to a native Japanese speaker the English words red and Led sound like the same word. How cen sounds that sccm so bllerent sound the came? ‘The answer is that «ferences that function phonemically in a language are casy for a native speaker 10 distinguish, In contrast, dfferenees that donot function dis tiwsively iy be hard 19 distinguish. Speakers of Japanese have uwubie distinguishing English /e/ and (if in the same way that speakers of English have trouble distinguishing Hindi Ak/ andl /kby 8 WYO SeDarate phonemes, Th most eases the distinction between phonemic and phonetic repre- sentations wilt not be crucial for our purposes. Generally speaking, we will use phonetic representations, using square brackets ({_)), when dis casing specie details of the pronunciation of a wou ot syllable, amt phonemic representations. using stant lines (7). when discussing ind Vidual consonants and vowels at a more abstract level, as part of [Phonological system, When neither the phonemic nor the phonetic tran sorption is relevant, we will italicize the leter representing the sound inder discussion. 33. SPECIAL Torics Vowels before {1 Amencan Lnglsh (2/48 olen one Of the most dieu LeatURES OF pro fnunciation for speakers of other languages to learn Wis even haat for native speakers themselves, being one of the last sounds that children acquire when they leam American English, Its also one ofthe souees of extreme dialectal varation—for instance, imagine the wond fire being pronounced! by Ted Kennedy (U.S. senator from Massachusetts), a coun- try muse singer such as George Jones, and Tom Brokaw (NBC Evening News anchor, native of the Midwesd. In fact, differs inv dhe pron ciation off are 0 complex that we Kee it 10 your instructor to explore with you the features of (1 in your regionom chapter 3 ‘An interesting aspect ofthe pronunciation of J4j—one that als has a hearing on dilectal vananon. as we will see—Hes in the relationship ‘swoon ff and tho vowel that proces fa a word. Whes bopkning stdents of linguistics transerbe the word fear. they often use the tense some! (fia). They noice thatthe vowel in fear sounds higher than the eh asthe tense vowel i i Bead (bi. Io rea. the vowel inear ies totweon/if and i Ip Fat the vow before i @ positional variast— namely, a raised vanam ofthe vowel phoneme. erasing of whe 6 dhe in the acid aticoation af he Yo can hea tha i he coneet vowel by pronouncing both high vowels in the context sr When you ase ts the word will sound like sear), When you we ji se two words, you sil hear that sear sill sound tke ser, Listening to contains one sslable and seer two—the second syllable of seer boing. an Froolored vowel transcribed as (2. The word seer ig thus written phone- Inically as re fay am ese woe ben the reamed veut ‘sree, i 6 transcribed J. Thus, tthe Hist of tense vowels in igure 3 we must now add the f-olored vowel jy. (As you work through this pragraph, it will help 49 ater the pair of words sear and seer several times. Uliretely you will recognize 2 shythmical liference in these words. The word sear/sty is monosyllabic and has one “beat,” The word scer|Si2] is bisyllabic and has two beats. In section 4.4 we will discuss & Aitference jn the tonal patterns that als accompanies the pronunciation of these two words.) ‘The term rcolored vowel refers to English vocaic sounds that have an Pike quality. The PIKE quality fs « consequence of superimposing the articulatory propertice of the Jf glide onto the articulation of a mid central vowel. It is telling that in British English. which does not have recolored vowels, the vowels that comespond to American English rreolored vowels are mid central vowels. Thus, the word brotker is pro nounced /ba89}. ‘he difference in syllable stractare between the two words sear and seer results trom a property of American English that only a 1s vowel can appear ia the came sable with following fa: an sound alone follows a Tong (or tense) vowel (ie. an rsound is the only following phoneme). hen it mast always oeeur as an rcolored vowel in a second, immediately following syllable. The distributions! properties of tense and Jax vowels and a following r-sound ean be stated even more strongly if Phonics ® sear su: tour puny sites fr Aw fe fav sex ia fz Mit sewer un) Bayer ict? ower fous: lawyer at Figure 310 Vents tat ean appear before an sound: (2) lax, (b) ene fer must be the phoneme (3), gle F sound follow a lax vowel, the and not the rcolored vowel 9. Figure 310 displays words that con- fain the sequence “vowel +/3)."The Tax vowels that donot appear in verte Lilis, Figuie 3.16 ae fas aud ZA/. For ust apeabers of las! does not occur before fs. (AC has actually merged with ft to form the reolored vowel writen as 5) or a. In chapter 4 we will ee why Several symbols. and fori weed tepocent + Hike Sound ‘Ac an example of dialectal varinion involving wowinle efor J, com sider the words marry, merry, and Mary. Speakers in most parts of the ‘United States, especially in the West, pronounee these words the same: JImesil. However, many speakers on the Best Coast, especially those in New York City, pronounce them all dillerenly: many fmf, merry esi, Mary masif, where the first vowel in the lst word isthe tense Jal er, Sve the tense fa does not Geer In most aes Hs Uincussed not available before ff ‘One additional point needs 1o be made about the lax vowels that can appear before jx. Although not all dialets of American English make the /a-[9) distinction in pronouncing or and caught (Jkat}— [kot most, if not all, dialects have the vowel /2/ in monosyllables before fs ‘This is the vowel in a word such as lore oyf.As you pronounee this word, os will perceive that it is monosylable, and this monosyllabic pronan- Ciation is consistent withthe “lax vowel + ¢" priniple discussion shove. The vowel in lore may sound like the tense vowel jay), but it is not ‘The vowel in Jore may sound "higher and more o-ike. but this raising is ue to the inflence of the follosng J Moreover, the vowel in Lore is not as long as the vowel jou. In fact, if you pronounce the sequence / followed by jow, followed by an r-sound, you will pronounce the wordChaser ower ou. 'Ihe anterence netween lore and Jower further underscores the importance of the conditions that govern the occurence of vowele before -phonemes in English In discussing the phonetic properies of English. we have so far focused ‘ur attention on phonetic deals within single words. Now we must note ‘that sm casual spoken forms of American Bngish there are a number of clad, oF reduced, to a shorlr sequence. For example, consider the vatious phonological contractions of forms of the verb to Be, illustrated ln bles 33 end 26. Taking table 35 fast, notce that « sequence of ‘words fom formal writen language such as she is will be pronounced in ‘Table 35 Phare fem of emseons of ve verb an Be wih psn prams in ‘Amica Brg: Bisybicfors ‘Casal poke Formal writes Formal spoken bisgllabie Forms Tam jae (atom ors) se are Bon fi Seis ie ‘ied fees ny Phi tis ee ie) they ae Je ie Table 36 Phonic farm of conictons of the veth to be with personal pronouns in ‘wean Enis. Myc fas ‘Con yuan Casual writen rmonosylaie es Tm {ao fm) youre pon) or ay ates Te hee (i) He ea were (wu) theyre fea careful, oF formal, speceh a8 a sequence of two separate words J (2 whereas i more sacual. rapid speech they ate "merged" into 4 Snsle isylabic(two-sllble) form fi with stress om the frst syllable, in cated by an accent mark, "above the Fist vowel. Notice further that in tion phenomenon that also takes place when the two-word seauence Fam hecomes a single bisyllabic form ftom), where Ja! is reduced to /a! in ‘te unstressed sylane. Kecall thatthe redueed vowels /¥ and fay oceur ‘afkin. In other words, the bisylabi forms (fe) and xamy (or fam refet phonetic palters characteristic of single words, and indea we ean ensider sch bisylabiccontactons as single phonolog ‘To take final example fom lable 38, consider the suvences with the verb are: you are, we ae, they are. Notie that inthe bisa teat forms ofcasual spooch are [3] is rood to [> alone (he vowel Ia} having boon read and worgod ih the (2) audi fat this? Fanci asthe second (Onstessd) syllable. In the forms [> i. and Bro}, notice that he tense vows [ul f, and et age inthe frst aoe es ad ney tans toc SBE arg at tence vowel 7 refs the sylsic pattern discus eater. which fs found quite generally in single words of American English: the two Imembers of the soquence "tense vowel + r-sound” must bein diferent fylabloe. ‘Thorefre, thi spllbie pater fe joet what we find in the ised contractions win, and et) ‘Notice that in very casual speech the bisylisic forms of the con eons ih ale 35 ean Ne eelzed as monoid forms (ble 3. those exirpls we Ae hat cm, am, and ave lt thes weeny and have become reduced to fm, [9 and fa, respectively. Thus, mn is pronounced 88 ronosylabic alm) oF fan, having lost the Schwa (and Aho lie tn tho sso fxn) im /t0m. I te Fras yr 82h wae (iwi, and they're (Bes!inoice that [is now in the same sable 3 the precang vow; however, the vowel is now a lax vowel 1: and sus jean occur wih 1148 pare of se same sylabe, Ine 18 another words the sonra yn, mamely [FI thi om the jo andthe J have merged to crete the Flore! vowel! “The sequence of English speech sounds in & wont isnot arbitrary. Infact. Uhre are set conditions om the order and type of eect sounds thatwe Chapter 3 can appear. At the beginning of a word all consonants except /p/ can appear, Iftwo consonants occur at the beginning, however. the possbil ies are quite limited. Consider the sequences in (4 ® "bi, tk, *Eb. *pb, *BL *Dk None of these combinations can begin an English word, even though they an all be found wor-intermally (€.., napkin). By contrast, all the ¢om- ‘nations jn (3) se pernisible Words ini) exuenees of Figs o br. dry gt Bl. al pr, tr kr, pl [Native speakers of English can instantly ell if combination of sounds Js possible, suggesting that speakers have internalized a set of principles that determine well-formedness, To begin 10 form an idea of what these Principles are, note tha the difemce,hetunen the disallowed seqnenees in () and the allowed sequences in (5) is thatthe former consist of wo stops and the later consist of a stop followed by aff or ff. In English a ‘word inital sequence of to stops not possible, but a sequence of @ stop plus fl or ois possible (with a couple of exceptions). Conditions of this ype are generally refered 10 as the pha tactic constrains (ot honowcncs) of 8 Tanguage [Every language has is own set of conditions on consonant sequencing When a word is borrowed into one language from another, the borrowed word is ofen restructured to conform 10 the sequencing conditions in Hawaiian language, first, the consonants and vowels in Hawaiian that fare closest to the English counterparts are employed, and second, the nglish wounds ate reniveuted Uy evnfoia Iv Hawalla phonviacie et straints. The Enalishareoting Merry Chrismas sounds very different when pronounced by native speaker of Hawaiian. Figure 3.1 displays the alter ions that occur when the En fom 18 converted into Hawai, phat » ott meliksiikamake Figure 3.1 Tawa pikes uf Thalia prtotnes dhe Lapin nptesnhan Aferry Chas 8. Phenscs Barlier we noted that Hawaiian has 8 consonants (mm, Lo Kh. 21 and $ vowels (fa, , i, 6, u/) and that English has 24 consonants and IS vowels, There are therefore fewer consonants and vowels available in Hawaiian to represent the consonants and vawels of Fnglish, The closest sound to English fd is Hawaiian fj. Somewhat surprising i the fact chat ‘the closest consonant to English /5/ is Hawatian fk. The other hig adjust: rent in this Hawatian borrowing isa phonotactic one: Hawatian d permit consonant clusters or sjlale-final obstrvents. As a result, the Hawaiian vowel /a is inserted aller every consonant that 8 not immedi ‘ately fllomeal by a vowel in tbe hosted won, Mel Kalikamatay thus the Hawaiian version of Merny Christmas Taewises 2, George Berard Sha, mndculng the Enghsh sping sytem, clams tat & prsile sping fr sk coud he ahs Why lho lim this? (Hint: The @ in Yemen jamin is proneanced ass.) 2. Gine the English speech sound symbol that comesponds to the flowing Anoulatery desesipons 4 oiceless hilbil stop . veiosd asco ston iced ternal tive veases alveopalacl aie 4d voiceless alveolar cave i lat low from vowel gui J voles velar sop 3. Dosiite each of dhe Kiki spat sound spuinis ening aneuiainy ears: a fof fal bi gi cil hit Olt List jm jo 44 Write the sgech sound gym for the firs in ach of the falling ‘words. Examples: fd, chagrin I 2 prychobegy though hime 8 pnatmonia thought, cybernetics Sam pasting knowledge j.- memory 5, Write the speech sound symbol forthe fast sound in each of the following ‘words Examples: leach sigh 2Chapier 3 a cats © jalge Boe grout sedi gage f¢ Bleached. linn 6, Write the speech wand symbol fcr the vane! in each he flowing words amples: table fe a mood. five cage ge ba eon ht Sas | sal 1. Nove the following pales of words ocd and ag fn sin ana 9) sme © fod Bend Poa! bee ‘You may speak det ef American English in which the vouels in the words cm the righ fe rom those inthe words the let. Deserbe the iflzeecs and devernine wh dhe vowels are deen. (int: Consider toneue movement) 8. Wite dhe flowing weeds in the wansription system sven in ths chap. 2 fe theh) 6 though 2 rough nk 3 gone & hinge 4 Ktor 9. hate Stent oty bts 6 dee ome 1 pe Bsteo 8 wh ele 9 blunt Ste ta age 6 1s tow fonda was) hands 2 bow er soaing tows) fone Sheet ie hich 5 tts aT Siengths 6. yeast : 3. salve 8 Sond 4 dois 9. Sat sive in this chapter. For example, @= i, = Pi = i also eth. Can 108 Phoostics em fe any rencon’t the vente that appear with the phakic 10, Write the following words using the phonetic symbols discussed inthis hapten bg tin 4 pul i beating fe alt jest (casual spe) 11, In some ot te tallowng words (eg. play) the P and de FS are votes Lewily these words and uy to establish the condiions under which J and x lse thet vleing a Apo fy bb archive spat © black apead py i leap fe diem |. real 12. Transrbe the fllowing woedsexibiting vowels before « (See section 3.3; be bbae 8, fr © poor hy mre ewe i sever eer. minor 13, Write the folowing combinations as contractions (monosylables, itpossible), sing the phot embod gion i tie ann aap a twill gL would yen wal. Jou would Phew she wet iwi itwould fc rih 1 we wall hey wil 1 they would 14, Using phonetic spmbols where posible, write a comtactd form there more than one version Tor each ofthese expressions) fr the Tallon sequences, 2 thoush they wee pronounced inthe ae" want?” Example: In Whar do want, wher do 1 =k [wicawat]Chapter 3 ing thngek to spl the word think What assomptions on his part prodced tht spt Further Resting Gener “The sly uf pletins i typlly vided Sa arcana ane par see. Mos inzoductry texts cor both epics for example. Bonen snd Harms TSSUL MacKay 1987. Ltberman and Blume 198, and LaGeroges 1994, Tere ‘ae aso several good books thar conceaate on one ate for example. Johnson 1997 and Picket 1993 cove acca phonetics, and Seal 1999 is goo prc seat invodocion to Laglsh arcutton. ry 199) and Denes and Tuavon 9D [rovide a good overview ofthe physics underlying the acoustic sdy of language For a aseussion et the Inemtionat Hhanene Aiphaber (WA) and cer symbol svsters for wanscribag speach sounds, see Pull and Laduse’ 1996, Kahn 1976 ill an exellent and current session of the af phone ad he ‘ols that eo-ocear witht Consort esters in English ae weed in Clements aint Keser 1980 “mal of Phonetics, Phonlca, Joumal of the Acoust Society of Americ, Journal of Speech and Hearing Scenes Biography Borden. Gand K. Haris, 1980, Speech seme primer. Balimore, Mas Wavers CCtuushy Ni al M. Halle, 1968. The send puters of Engi, New Yaak Harper and Rowe. Cements, G.N., aid S.J. Keyser 2983. CP phanologes generative theory of the syle. Cambridge, Mass; MIT Press. Denes Ps and Pinson 13. The spas shane The pace amd Bolg of spokam language. New York: W. H, Freeman, Farmes. AWK, and R.A. Demers. 2001. A. lngtics workbook, 4th of {Canes Mass. MEP Press Fry, DL 107 The phserofpooch, Cambri Johasoa, K. 1997, Acoust and auditor hones. Cambridge. Mass: Blackwel Kahn, D. 1976. Syllablekased generalizations in English phonology. Dectral dissertation, MIT Phoostios Jovanovich. Lemebers, E1967. Biological dations of language. New York: Wiley. Lieberman, ¥.and S: Blumstein 1988, speech phology and acoustic phot ‘A braduton. New York: Camnbeige Universi Press MacKay, L 1967, Phaneies The science of speech praduction, 2a al Boson Lite Brown Picket, 5 1999. The aaaniesofspeec cimmuneatone Fedmenals spec petepton theory, and wechooegy. Needham Heights, Mass Alyn and Bacon, Patlum, G. K, and W. A, Ladusaw. 1996, Phonetic symbol gud, 2nd ot {ehcage: Univesity ot Cmicago tes Swat, L190, Funkamentals of plan: A pra le for tad Needham Heights, Mass: Aly and Bacon,Phonology: The Study of Sound Structure In the intodueton 10 chaptor 3 we noted thatthe discrete linca scription system that we use 10 write languages is an idealization. There is mxhing in the physical realization of speech (ardeuiation and. the acoustic signal) that coresponds 1 the discret: lncar proper of our ‘writing system. Speech is continuous and the phonetic segments Overlap. ct speakers have litle rouble accepting that speech ean be represented iy a wring systems tna uses scree and Tincarly wrest sym. Such ‘gems eve hoon in ise foe moe than two thecal years since the Grecks, inspired by the Phoenician writing system, developed an Conthography that represented both vowels an consonants as separable ‘nd autonomous wits, The is thot the fundamental sound unite of language are consonants and vowels has persisted since that time, and nly in the twentieth century was it discovered that consonants and ‘vowels ain tum composed Of more hasic units, the soled distinctive features. We vill disouss the evidenee for these features in this chaper. 41 WHAT IS PHONOLOGY? Phonology’ is the subleld of inguisties that stuies the structure and systematic patterning of sounds in human language. The term phonology kay Wa esi Oe sounds of a paricular language and the rules governing the distribution (of these sounds. Ths, we can tlk about the phonology of English, ‘German, oF any omer language. Un ine omer Nand, Tee 1) tat pat ofthe general theoey of human language that i concerned with the ‘universal properties of natural language sound systems (Le. properties reflected in many. if not all, human languages). in this chapter we wil dleseibs a portion of the phonology of English, bat we wil also discussho Chapter 4 Some properties of the more general and universal theory of phonology’ that underlies the sound pattem of all languages, In addition, we will survey some of the phonological rules that are foun in mest dialects of Gal strategy we will ake the allemaion in pronunciation of| the English plural moepheme as an Organizing theme foe several topics in this chapter. For example in regan w0 the plural morpheme. we can sl the following questions: + What is the proper description of the three ferent sounds of the [English plural mopheme shown in table 2.1? ‘+ What are the conditions om the altemnasion thaw acount fa where the differ phonological forms oF the English pal morpheme occur? ‘These two questions lead naturally into the more general topics of this chapter: ‘+ What is the proper description of the various sounds that are found generally m human language? What is the proper general framework fr describing the sound patterns 6f human language? We provided tentative answers 10 the first two questions in chapter 3, but in order «© develop all the answers in sufficient detail, we must investigate fanher properties of the phonology of English as well a of other languages. FEATURE THEORY We will sce in this socom that speech sounds (phones and. phonemes) ‘re mot the smallest unite of phonological system; rather, the spooch sounds themselves are composed of yet smaller features of articulation. We already noted in chapter 3-that generalizaGons (rues) regarling plural fons ane Lest sai in desis phonetic Features such as voicing In formulating the English Plural Rule. we made use of the feaure of swicing 10 state an important generalization about the plural shapes aside rom cases where Noun ens One Othe COMsOMAMS 15.7 J. 3, ‘-d5/ the phonological form of the pal morpheme i¢ determined by ‘2 general assimilation process, whereby the pluraifoem is voiceles if the final phoneme of the noun is voiceless but is voiced if the final phoneme Phooey Of the now 8 voiced The feaee OF voicing. chen. allows us 10 state a generalization that we miss by merely listing phonemes (compare. agai the discussion of hypotheses 2 and 3 of the Phral Rule in chapter 3) ‘The English Plural Rolo exemplifies an important point about deter mining which phonetic features of a language are in fact the significant ‘ones fora theory of phonology. In English the feature of voicing plays too important roks. (2) it plays crucial ole in Uke statement of plio- nological regularities, such as the Plural Rule. and (2 itis minimally

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