Describe and evaluate research on circadian rhythms, with reference to endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers.

Circadian rhythms are those that last about 24 hours. Best known circadian rhythms are the sleep-wake cycle and the body temperature cycle. The circadian rhythm of the sleep wake cycle is controlled by endogenous pacemakers, which are essentially internal biology clocks and also by external environmental cues, called exogenous zeitgebers e.g. light. Siffre investigated the effect of the removal of the exogenous zeitgebers (light) on the circadian rhythm of the sleep wake cycle. He spent 7 months in an underground cave with no natural light. He continued to sleep and eat as normal, but didn t know the time. It was found that his physiology and behaviour remained the same, but his circadian rhythm increased from 24 hours to 25 hours. It can be concluded that circadian rhythms persist despite the removal of exogenous zeitgebers. This is supported by research of Aschoff and Wever (1976) who placed participants in an underground WW2 bunker, in the absence of exogenous zeitgebers. They found the participants still had their 24/25-hour circadian rhythms, which provides evidence for the role of internal endogenous zeitgebers. These studies show that despite the absence of external cues, an endogenous clock exists. However, it did show that external cues are important because the clock was not perfectly accurate as it varied from day to day. Both studies use small sample sizes. In particular, Siffre s study was a case study, which focused on one individual person. Therefore, the results can t be generalised to the wider population, as it doesn t account for individual differences. Another weakness is that Siffre s study only accounts for biological influences on the circadian rhythm and so only represents the nature side of the nature-nurture debate. This provides an unrealistic view of human behaviour because in real life both nature and nurture interact with one another. A strength of Siffre s study is that he used an experimental approach. Siffre controlled the exogenous zeitgebers such as light and this allows causal relationships to be established. Core body temperature is one of the best indicators of circadian rhythm. It is at its lowest at 4:30am (36 c.) and highest around 6pm (38 c.) Core body temperature has been linked to cognitive abilities. Folkard (1977) found that in the learning ability of 12-13yr olds, the group that was read a story in the afternoon (3pm) retained 8% more of the material compared to the morning group (9am). Other examples of research demonstrate an affect on IQ and other cognitive tasks, however, Hord and Thompson (1983) did the experiments in the field and not in a lab and didn t find a correlation between cognitive ability and body temp. There is also a slight dip in temp during lunch time which is experienced by people who both, eat or don t eat. However, this temp dip is a bi-daily rhythm. Hormone production also follows a circadian rhythm. Cortisol is lowest around midnight and peaks around 6am. It is related to stress, but also makes us alert. Melatonin and growth hormone are two other hormones that peak around midnight.

Folkard conducted an experiment in order to establish if external cues could override the internal clock. 12 participants lived in a cave for three weeks, isolated from light, and they agreed to wake up at 7.45am and sleep at 11.45pm every night. Gradually, the clocks were quickened so that in fact only 22 hours had passed when the participants thought 24 hours had passed. It was found that all participants, except one, continued to have a 24-hour circadian rhythm cycle. Therefore, it can be concluded that exogenous zeitgebers only have a limited effect on the circadian rhythm, and only to a certain extent. A strength of this study is that both endogenous pacemakers and exogenous zeitgebers were accounted for, so this is representative of both sides of the nature-nurture debate, thus reflecting real life. This takes a holistic approach to human behaviour, as opposed to being reductionist. However, Folkard used a volunteer sample which may mean that the results could not be generalised to the wider population. This is because certain types of people tend to volunteer to participate in studies; therefore the findings may have low population validity. Flaw in the research methodology is that when studying variables that might affect circadian rhythms, artificial light was not thought to have an affect. Recent research shows that the circadian rhythms can be altered down to 22 hours and up to 28 hours with the use of dim lighting (Czeisler, 1999). Two different types of individual differences exist. Circadian rhythms vary in people from 13-65 hours. Also, people appear to be innately different as to when their circadian rhythms reach their peak. Duffy (2000) describe people as being either morning (6am : 10pm) or evening people (10am : 1am). Morgan investigated the role of endogenous pacemakers, in particular the SCN, in the circadian rhythms of hamsters. Morgan removed the SCN in hamsters and found that their circadian rhythm disappeared. However, when the SCN was replaced by those of foetal hamsters, the circadian rhythm was re-established. Many people may argue that it is unethical to use hamsters. This is because they cannot give fully informed consent to the procedure. In addition, lesions were created in their brain in order to remove the SCN and this would have caused pain and suffering. This is a permanent change and could lead to permanent damage. Moreover, as non-human animals were used, the results may not be easily generalised to humans and their circadian rhythms. Another weakness of this research is that it is typical of the biological approach. The circadian rhythm of the sleep wake cycle is being explained solely in terms of endogenous pacemakers e.g. brain function. This is a weakness because there are often many factors that influence human behaviour. The study can also be criticised for being deterministic. It concludes that the sleep wake cycle is determined by the SCN, which is an endogenous pacemaker. The freedom of choice and free will to choose to sleep whenever the hamsters want is not accounted for. This research has made great contribution to understanding of the human brain and behaviour. Knowing about the role of the SCN can improve understanding of sleep disorders and circadian rhythms, as very little is known. Therefore, the results of the study have real life application.