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(20b)
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(22a)
(22b)
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I = 1/T
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U U 6= I,
W W 6= I,
U W = I> ,
W U = <I,
U H | i = (U H W ) (U W )1 (U | i) =
= H > Q | > i,
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= h< | P <H,
j [R\WWW WT TWT]WW]j]WW]W <k

H > = U H W ,
Q = (U W )1 ,
| > i = U | i,
H > > | > i = H > Q | > i = E > > | > i,
(29a)
(29b)
(29c)
(29d)
(30a)
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> i = p>
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I>
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A B
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{W } {W } 6= I, {U} {W } = {I> },
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(31a)
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3+ K (h | H ) | i h | (H |v( i) s+ JF #'" 8J#p3q( 3+ K 1 "S C$
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5
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X 4+ 2
[h | U (U U )1 U H U ] U| i =
= h | U [(U H U ) (U U )1 U| i] =
= (h T H ) | i = h | (H T | i),
| i = U | i, T = (U U )1 = T ,
H = T 1 HT
6= H.
(1.14)
}
L+3#2Su.. S3@.+w1 +|3' s
Ff 2 (
F N E\ u4 B 5
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3+ Fn ( 33#+3 ( \ !p3 #.
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%

+32 p p3+
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p3+ K

[t=0]

(
(
U U
= 15
t = 0
[t=15min]

>

4# F 2 ( 3 > ! RH F
J |J# ( 3.% +D+3
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J F 2 (
J F i2 ( ( R o &#
Et=K15S
E ] = 15,
U U [t = 0] = I, U U [t = 15
(1.15a)
U H| i = (U HU )(U U )1 (U | i) =
= H 0 T | i = U E | i = E (U | i) = E | i,
H 0 = U HU ,
H 0 | i |t=0 = 2
(1.15b)
T = (U U )1 ,
| i |t=0 , T = 1 |t=0 ,
(1.15c)
# (U U )| i | =
H 0 | i |t=15 = 2
t=15
(1.15d)
#
| i |t=15 .
= 30

X + I #3+ ( #

2 # W .+ -$+
5
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$K +sJ: 3p iSC$*3@.+ ,$* +$vR #2 + 3 3
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J 4

U (A,B)U = U (A A)U = (U AU )
[(U U 1 )(U PU )(U U )1 ](U BU )
(U BU )[(U U 1 )(U QU )(U U )1 ]
(1.16)
(U AU ) = A0 P0 B0 B0 Q0 A0 =
= A0 <0 B0 B0 >0 A0 .
/: 2@ I w %+ J +JdFfi .$+ 3 31" 5 s#E &*#+s
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+p #2.
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h
h

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(
zu =JxI7 s =*<8q=<7Jt=t<vw< (
P0 = (U U 1 ) (U Q U ) (U U )1 6= P,
(1.17a)
Q0 = (U U 1 ) (U Q U ) (U U )1 6= Q.
(1.17b)
+ #N

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s ={<8 s t<xI<=J8 s ={]1x zu =JxI7x sO PQSR)q@ J#3i
(
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=zE=A 1x zu =JxI7Jt<<q8<t*x~I1<,{Bz,8wC=J8 s ={0JxwCt<w7Jt.{-<t#9dx~I<zE=
x#uzE=<8x~.ut#9)t"w"xuv8:9;xI7JtJw8Gu <xIyKzHtJw8'zHtJw=J8 s xIywC s w JxIy;w't sKs t s xwnw.
w78w|=<7Jt=t<vw<xwD7xL7I8'z,8'<=8:9=<=qEx#uv8'y78 s wx <,{0=0z,8wC=J8 s ={UJx
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s+ \ R jCREH] # +J+ J0S |p SF 4+
J 4
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&
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A = [A, H, H ] RMH X + 2SK F#X sJJ+ Fd.
$d &

H
3 &+ 0+ AF E,$U*+ p [ m E\ .
U

U$0 3+ 5
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5
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3" 2 3f+ 2 3 H $+
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sJ 5 4 3pFS 4+s .
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@: # 3@!

J 3 [ p F |2.
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A ? B B ? A
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h h ( h
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> QMK+ 2 3 (A, B) =
h ? jp
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+O
h
+ ( J u 3#G ( #
[A, B] + {A, B} = (A B B A) + (A B + B A)
8 F X" s #E F + 2 h/J3]\ R > j,
( Bj 3 5 + p SF 4+ } [ FDO > Q p
J +,$3.h
3h q T =1S2 #W' = IR #&K 8
hh
5
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s =8<8 #xI'ut xI7Jt<<xw=]v8 x 8'zE
B L /
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+ &Z [ "+ 5
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A(t) = U A(0) U = eiHT t A(0) eitT H ,
i
F
dA
= [A,H]
dt
:G^S:
HA
= AT H HT A,
= AH
T = T > 0,
U U 6= I,
(1.18a)
(1.18b)
(1.18c)
!# 3 FF +M&* 3 + +U\^JKA+[ j 1

J (
ED p FnE-O `Q
T
j
A(t) = etTi ( H/ r )( / p j ) A(0) etTi ( / r )( H/ r j ) ,
(1.19a)
drk
H(t, r, p) d pk
H(t, r, p)
,
= Tik (t, r, p)
,
= Tki (t, r, p)
dt
pi
dt
ri
(1.19b)
= rAi Tji pH Hri Tji pA ,
(1.19c)
dA
= [a,H]
dt
F +E 2 (

& 4B-+33 .d O `Q n$ B2NF +3 (
J F K E\L!# 5
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BE
BA
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u u # +3 fL
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o E+sJ# ( +f +|\ h R h ejv # f p ( <8n<=vwCt<xw.= \ h R h e j 4u 5
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3 3 F &D++ R ( # #
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[ p s J2. 5
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33 &E0 |
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d
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o +sF & & ( + & +*\ h R h eju 3 #' p ( 3 wC s w v<xIy3x~ tJw=z,xw=
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|

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T (t, . . .)
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+ ( J 55
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L
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H H
= H T H H T H 0.
= H H
dt
(1.20)
2 (
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f tz s <wx= f x#u =JxI7Jt<<,{Xx~ tJw=zE,{]'=w8'z_%u =<8'y<zE=]=-<8Gu =
<8'y<zE=uvx s tIu <zE=Z=*<8Guvx s tIu <zE=xw8'<=tIu <zE==*<8'xw8'<=tIu <zE=7<
wC8'<<=zE=B'=utzE=
( J ( N +U\ h R h ej,0\ h R h gj/ F4 @F f4 S1F 84
J " A3"E
s 5
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4
i
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A(t) = U A(0)U = eiHQt A(0)eitPH ,
i dA
dt = (A,B)
:G^S
P = Q ,
(1.21a)
= A<BB>A =
= APH H QA =
(1.21b)
= (AT B BT A) + (AW B + BW A) =
P 6= Q,
= [A,B] + {A,B},
P = Q ,
U U 6= I,
(1.21c)
F
3 F@u +!p3 ! +E 3 + +V\^JZA 5
+[fPj = T
J+W,
Q =
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n po p}g~ U (U U )1 U (t, r) =
= H n po p}g~ T (t, r) =
e2
1
k
2m pk T p + r I
(1.29a)
T (t, r) = E (t, r),
pk T (t, r) = iTki i (t, r).
(1.29b)
,# A*\ R > gjA3

|

|3' i2.E &#3"
+ 2
z+ E
E f2 h
J E ( ze2/r O h ? ( QSR 3+ 33j f+ + E+ 5
\k
#D 0 4 ( w3
5 KC$ (
3Ij" \ 7 _4/
+ #?
4u
+ +E+ )+ 3 _\ R > gjCR / +Apw+ 3
K3+ 3 . &*E }1 = (e, e) h FfG*+ 3 5
HM
e2 e2
1
k
T (t, r) =
p T p + I z
2m k
r
r
e2
e2
1
pk T pk T + z T (t, r) =
2m
r
r
= E (t, r), pk T (t, r) = iTki i (t, r).
(1.30)
4V+ #XE

J8 2 3#: ] + 7SK+3#2Su..Y|!
J 3 + 5
K .pEE X3 4$ E N 1+ 3=3 K2 [ R,+3
+ @2 ( ,$* 2E . # & T Ap8BO h ? Q)4+ pD + # &/s2% 2E .I,$ 5
[ $ s p$d3 N s
: &3+ u4 E 2F Jd 3 + = f x8:9=<=8'y <=z,t.u
J +sJE2. F WNJ

I = eh | i / 1 h | i / + . . . ,
T = e+h | i / 1 + h | i / + . . . ,
(1.31)
1
J ++ 3 33\ h R ? jHE I#i4/N2. i

1
e2
pk T pk T (z 1)
2m
r
e2
z h | i( / ) (t, r) = E .
r
(1.32)
Pe
6,78:9;8'<=8
+ p Z2 ## D23

&-KC$
( Z+ p p ( #
# .
#S 4K

(L = 0)
Z 5
(r) Aer/R ,
(1.33)
1 er/R
,
r
(1.34)
F !# K\^+4u2 JjH # I 3

!# /3 % 23 +Rlp p q+3#:
3/A3 .
L # . R2 # i2+ 3 &W\S`R h R > h j #+R)ec 5
O `#Q #S 4K

F B 9L.
p+4u2 |
J #.R \& ( & ( #h+ 3
\ h R PJj, #S 4| 4 < tIuw8'<xI7 s xIz +p, xw8'<=tIu
V0
er/R
,
1 er/R
V0 = e2 h | i.
(1.35)
E #

"+ =3 12 E K + p p E2 p+3F +
J L+ 5
3 3"E .#i4/N2. iiJ
F
!
er/R
e2
I 2 d 2 d
r
r
(z 1) V0
(r) = E (r),
2m dr dr
r
1 er/R
(1.36)
!# i2 +E+ KA N2 !

+ R
l#: 3, 3 F # + 3 %2 # q2qO `#Q l2@N`R h R Ap,$"+ C I$
$ p
&* [ p D #S 4K 4 Ns
F
J | [ 8
m
l o
= V0
er/R
R
.
0
r
1 er/R
(1.37)
L N+ # .$*K p$3 2. &K
! 1
i
+K
er/R
1 2d 2d
r
r
V
2 m dr dr
1 er/R
+ \ h R aj/E .#4/
(r) = E (r),
V = V0 R + (z 1) e2 ,
(1.38a)
(1.38b)
i 4Fp+3#: 3 F + ( E> E0- ##FJ#m 3

+ V\^ RHO ` Q
#+Rec 5 eej
(r) = 2 F1 (2 +1+n, 1 , 2 +1, er/R )er/R
1 er/R
,
r
= ( 2 n2 )/2n > 0, 2 = m V R2 /h2 > n2 ,

2
h 2
m V R2 1
E =
n , n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
4 m R2
n
h 2
(1.39a)
(1.39b)
(1.39c)
Pg
F"E # J*

J #.F h 3 L #R
/J3bO `#QH :
( \ +3#:#3+ 3 b\ h R gj#3 p+ &-E
^
\

J

+

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3

#
1

J
p

#

+

s

+
5
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)l m
0 = (e+
F V j 3 X + K #+

F
k1 = h /2 m R c0 ,
c0
!# i
+ C #.Ni
sLR F
k2 = m V R2 /h,
V = 2 k1 k22 h c0 /R,
(1.40)
p p! 3#+F N# # I 0 = (e+, e)l m D # .K\ 3 p
J + F

3 L$p
J F [ pj
,
= 2 k1 [1 (k2 1)2 /4] h c0 /R =

= 2 k1 (1 2 ) h c0 /R.
(1.41)
n=1
(1.42)
2 31 &K! 3 +F 0 \ h ` ! j F N2+JJ F N+ ps*\ R 1013 Hj

F % +33 F p+3 K i2D\
@
jFf" F"2 ( \^ RO `#Q #+ReP ?
1016
+ 3 0\S`R R jnj
h
k1 = 0.34,
= 4.27 102 ,
(1.43a)
k2 = 1 + 8.54 102 > 1.
(1.43b)
T Ap80O h ? Q; :B+3#: 3:+ 3 \ h R gj3 Z

s3 +
$D +Z 3 d 5
+ K#+
k = F R/h c ,
k = KR/ ,
(1.44)
F !# i2 5 ! 3 +F / +1E*2 !

+ D0\îp2+ &|KC$
.j
F |! 3 +F K
s3 +
&K + N # . F#G*+ 5
3
E { n ::G^' = 2k1 [1 (k2 1)2 /4]h c0 /R k2 Tc / ,
(1.45)
F !#
4F
| E3 + F + R

J ( \ ,$d+K + U4B U+ E 3+ ]U+ 4 UO h ? QSR/ 2 3
!
J 3 +K .p ,
$ ,?
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#
= 4280 K, = 11.6 , Tc = 1.180 K,
(1.46)
F #i2
(
8 ( `/ j
o K
2
3
k1 = 94,
k2 = 1.6 103 < 1.
E F#*O|uxz Q
k1 = 1.3z1/2 104 , k2 = 1.0 z1/2 ,
(1.47)
(1.48)
F! 1k
p # z = 2(7 )/3 ++s
#Gk |EA z = 4.66 3
/ j (Tc = 910K) A
J A z = 4.33 3 / j (Tc = 200K) RJ4F:@
2
3 6.96
2
3 6.5
6,78:9;8'<=8
`?
+ 3 +3

2MF#A F
&ZKC$
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2
3
#+Rc +R;\S`R h `jnj
Tc = 367.3 z e13.6/z ,
F#']\O
h ? Q
(1.49)
L!# 2.K ( I i F F#GK!

J 3 +K IpE?E-\^ RlER h R > h 9
h R > jC R 3 +q\F D3
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K
9;8'yw7=0= f f t| 7x#u <xI7xIIx388 s w.=U<tLzHtIu ,{Zt wx#<={-7u"w-7 8':9)t|J=
w'38'<=8'zd7K'=<Guv8w.<,{0 x8:9=<8'<={ s uvxI<xI7 s x8187 f t=z,xG9;8'yw7=8%xIGuvxIt8w
wxJ=7xn9=vw s 8 f u w.=J N8'z37 f t=z,xG9;8'yw7=J=vw'8'<=<8 f t7='=z,x=z,8 8w
u = s uvxI<x.7 s x8LJ=vw'8'<=8|=u =dxwwCtIu s =7Jt<=8 R }
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5

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s xXxn9<t9;xIx#u <=vw8Gu <tI'=w8'zHt p+ F X wx#u s xXxG9<=z r <8I8w.=J8 s = z
3 0 = (e+, e)l m %s+ Fn%
3
xI7<8'z
d8J +s* 2.,$ ( #[ d
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2E I C+J#,$D 3 &Z.
% 8
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0\ .& 3 #[
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<=Ktw=J=i<8Gu =<8'y<,{<8Gux s tIu <,{ <8''tzE=u wxI<xI7,{i7 f t=z,xG9;8'yw7={ s ty<8
<8 wCt~.=u <v=D8:9=<w78'<<MzE=wCt~I=u <zE= xwx#<=zE=K7u"w'=<Guv8w
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V0 = h ,
(1.50)
F !# qK N\ +33 j 1xI<xI<<tI3twxw't R %! 3 +F pE .#q4/f F\
3 +3
(1.51)
D
9
^
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zu =JxI7Jt<x ~8 f 7 s xIyi<8 x~ {xn9=z,xw=7wCt s xIy*tw=8 ,='x#u f xI7Jt<=8'zD8#tIu <xIIx
F
ETot = 2 E 2 k1 k2 h c0 /R(e1/NV 1),
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w78wp7L1x.<xI<<xIyw8 x ==
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=<7Jt=t<vw<xIIxxI=#t<=
( K E2E .m #
d
( s 7Jt<vwxI7JtIUz,8n{t<= s tD<8Lx~8 '8I=7Jt8wKI8 xIz,8wC=J8 s x83=u =
9 Ix8"x.=#t<=8uvxw<xw=Lt 'zHtJwC=7Jt8'zE,{0tw= s xIz,8quvxw<xw=*7Jt s JzHt 5
* +E+s #'* p2 3 NP $|
J E 3 & x'<xI7<xIyZ8:9=<=8
( h
J 5
J F *NK #+
J &

+

#

+

#

R 5
I = q .(1, 1, 1, 1)
= q .(1, 1, 1, 1)
3 I = q .(1, 1, 1, 1) I = .(A, B,C, D) F\U #2 >3 b + 2
J #
q4 & 2
J &K 3+ &K s
AR +E+

: 5
(

(
D
D
[s3 Zs
A33+ FnF #L F i$ + p 32 #s s_3+ 2.[3 D = n2 \F n
2
J E&ds x r 1q==8'<vwBJ8GuvxIzuv8'<='78w't %
p &b
+ # c /n 4FD+ 4
+ 2 GX
J + #B #.s
K c R }
]E . DJ#0 4 = f xwxI==
n4 = 1
x f 7x#u"w3<8'x8:9;w.78'<<I8 xIz,8wC= f t=Vuvx s tIu 0 <xIy-7Jt=t== s x xw=X'78w't*7
f t7='=z,xw=ixw8:9q7 s xwx xIyNxI<t'JxwCt<8w \^ ( +F #p3,
R KO h QkjCR
I =
uv8'z,8'<vw= f xIzHtJw8'zHtJw= s =
a

3 [p E ( 1s 7Jt<vwxI7JtIpz,8n{t<= s t<8/'x x~I<tq7x'JxI= f 7xn9=vw s xI<vw't s w.
<q8A<8'xw8'<=tIu <8H7 f t=z,xn9;8'yw7= RJH KS#1K # 2 5 2.q F ( FnEJ.
KS##+s
+s H = p2/2 m +V (r, p) R }
|#3 FGEJ. *E .#N + 5
2 ]
J ]2.E &# 0+ # ID E Fp [ p V R,Hq4
2K 3 3/: + &L#s+
+ p p #d
q + 2 #|3 [ pw
2.E &#* +K K #E &*1
&KKC$
& + 2SK F#3 42. 5
s JJ+ F H

K &K! 3 +F 14 pEK#s+
+EZ #ER
S M!# "E . + " 8:9=<w78'< <x= f 78#w< z07x'JxI= f 78:9;8'<=8'z0<8Gu =<8'y<,{
<8Guvx s tIu <,{K=K<8'xw8'<=tIu <,{*7 f t=z,xn9;8'yw7=yUJ88 f xG9<vw=8"x'<xI7<xIyD8:9=<=
R o &# + 2 3 3+ #232 [s-
I = 1 I = (t, r, p, , . . .)
42. 3 [ p &*$+
+ N i 13+ @ :( 3/#
2 # F W+ F X + 2 + p ( [ #
&|+ d
q4 &L +R
H pJ3q#++s
#N #"2 [3 3[ + p & Eb!# &3E F +
=<7Jt=t<vw<x8p7x'JxI= f 78:9;8'<=8<8Gu =<8'y<,{<8Guvx s tIu <,{-=B<8'xw8'<=tIu </{-7 f t=
z,xn9;8'yw7=ydx =9)t8'zE,{UJ='u~x s xIz88 s w= =X7x#u <xI7,{]t s 8wxI7 r uv8 s wCxI<xI7-7
7JtIuv8'<vw<,{'7 f {8q7x'JxI= f 78:9;8'<=8x#u <xw_xwnww.78wp7 s 7Jt<vwxI7xIyL{=zE== R
( # # p!# &3E F + 3 #.u %2.p ( %
2. ( /: @
2.
+ 2 3 + 2SK F# J=<==tIu <x%<xI7z,xn9;8Gu z,x#uv8 s uJ<,{ZwC s
w# s xwx tIDx f 7x u8wN7x'JxI= f 78:9;8'<=8%z,x#uv8 s uJ<,{Z{tt s w8=w.= s Nwx<xw
9;x3 8:9z,xIIxix 9 s t \ u1Gj L3+ Z

Z
5 $E (
DE -L3 F4 : b 5
+3 #d
> > \l@2 h R > jCR
w 4+ b 3 DJ3q#++ssfX3 4$
p S E' ]/: 2@ .d
E # 4 4F: ,( &[
&"$E:3 p
J (
$ ( +

5
3 +
3= +E+ w
+E J #KL3 [ p w 12.E &
#
( +w" I$ 'K31 2E . # &K#+ F F K
&L$E3 &R 5
l2| 4 Z3 4$ E CB 4 F4 : ] 1
& [ 3 4$ E #
4 F4 : 3S &3A A (
&L#s+
+ d
&i$E3#. GL ( J
\ 3# 3 Z E \F # *!# u 3 #'*
J 3 *+ Id
#Z2 A 5

(
A
R
\ 8J#: + @2 iA2.
J +s 4 SNw NA A (
3 5

J +w1u 3fGK3 4$J EE*+| @: #u * & I I = 1/T > 0
R
= A T B
A B AB
7897897
<>=@?MUGDJVXWEYZD[DG=@?MLJ?\WGQ
!# , 4 ( ,$H &#

/$ ( S a = n F = R(n, +, )
#
J EJ
F,=$ F(a,

S+,
)
Ji
+
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(
a = c F = C(c, +, )
a = q F = Q(q, +, )
3 +wL E /J3O h Q1\^ R
d33#2. E
x#uzE= F = F(
a,

)
+,
3BO PQkj u 3 fG] 4 +! K
2F Ew = ] x=utzE=
F a F I F4 : b3 %+ p 3# F 4d a=w a = ] Ix nzEz,xIy a+ b = (a + b) I
= ] xIJxI= ] 78:9;8'<=8'z a b = a T b = (a b) IRH F
"J# J( F ( 3 #G3S

J A0
J ( 4 SqsJd2E
sJ # N [ 5
F iY#+4FJ F 2.
J R L 3 F F u 3 #GK2 3 &R
uv8'z,8'<vw= ] x :I8'<x=K =8vzHtJw8'zHtJw= s =*=K={|= ] nx 9tIu <f8
aP
S | 3 + [ F AFfGX+ # & 4+ 2 + 2 = ] x w8'8'</= ] x
tw<x8 v= ] x s 7Jt#9tJw<y s x 8'<= ] xIz,xG9u |IR )R)O h Q
a
...
a = (an ) I,
an = a
a/ b = (a/b)
I = (a/b) I,
1
a 2
a 2 = a I,
a 2 = a 2 I,
|a| = |a| I.
(2.4a)
(2.4b)
(2.4c)
(2.4c)
4 @q0E K U% +32 ( S|u 3 #' ( t~wCt s w<q8t s
'=xIzE=uvxI7,{Kx#uv8'yK<8"x~. ] tJw8Gu <x3wC8 ~"wixw8:9=<=J=<=zHtJw|wC=7=tIu <x8
] <tJ8'<=8
s t sUr wx|J8:9x#ut'tIuvx'Bi~I=~.uv8'y s ={07I8'z,8'<,wCt s-s t s w8p38t s '=xIzE
+1
7x#u <89;xI s t1wDJxI= ] 7x u <x8 ] <tJ8'<=8Z8:9=<=qJ=]uvxI7==wx-xI<xDx#uvx =
w8Gu <xx.J8:9;8Guv8'<x
o &#
4 +]2 &# @,$ ( S 3+ ,$W2 ( p XO h Q

\F
9+ 2 &#
E I #D4/D I
n Z= n3+ I n ( \ A+[3 & 3 + + ( BIR )R I 4 i2 @ EE & 5
D2 + 2 3 n m = (n m) I ( 8 C'D ( L d
m = (n + m) I
n +

J A ( i 3 f'*Y3 ?
&#
,$ ES R
E +J UG$ . #XK#d8 ( \Ed2 ( ( E n d +KS#
w 3+J . 2S ( ! |&
#.p $UDE F + o FnUO PQSR o U F + 5
( ,$X[3 &X+3#u &X+ 4 4Fu#i #. ( B2.K# H( JxwxwCt
= 8Gu ] t7='=vwxw%J=<vwxIy-8:9=<= +K + ( \ 4 #. GD+ #
J F
2 [ iKS#i2 ( 3 I = 3 R
4/U 4+ 2 + p[ wVJ +d
3

2 2 = 4 KSf
E
J ] 4 ( &A #HI
JB
&b$E ] 3DKSfXA 5
A (
J F | E332 A A
Z3 2. &Z%3 &D2 $E4 #2p2 ( p
3+ & [%+ 2 R o &#
3 I = 3 EUKS 22
R
= 12
2.J
( 3 K # ( p 4 ( 3
i$E3 " % 4 ( ,$ ( 5
I$vRIl#p+3 + $E" <xI7,{i=ut.{ A . f +3
5
& fq #p Z # + 2 /
&
[3#& RH q3 ,+ # qA A

5
I
(3
& p+ s
+
#$2 i 8: 9 =+<E+w78' <<x 2, $ # + & J !4 3# &0=<-7Jt3=t<v3w &<xII,x $ 3 +
2p , $-
(

3 [ p /$i2.E &#&i 2
F #p$N+NF\84
J B3 3+
+/ ,$

# p #,$*!
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78978^
<>=@?MLGNJ?BV_`NJYMFJV_aOBYZD[DG=@?BbA\?BcA@_`NGDGD
}
$ + p U2 # K #+ (
8\^JWS u K#+ (
3.j+ #+ # S =

pEN
J + .E r pK#+
& m +3 X pN &# 5
S(r, m, R)
,$ S
R \8 F/ 4 S # 2S
E F 1+ #+ C
$E E( KSR X=R(n,
3+ C$K
+,
+ )
/
JJ( i+ #+ ( # E = E(r, , R) "
J + .E
K#+
J & = { } = q .(1, 1, 1) D &[3 &
r = {rk } = {x, y, z}, k = 1, 2, 3

R 3 ( S R Rij 42. Z+3 4F #B US F
I = (I ij ) = q .(1, 1, 1)
#+ (
F D\^JKS u K #+ (
F Jj+ #+ #R
K
uv8'z,8'<vw= ] Ix zHtJw8'zHtJw= s =
a`
x 8'7 s u =9;xI70JxwCt< w.7Jt E = E(

3 +wH w/J3pM+ 4
r, , R)
O h Qp\^ R.
K33K+ ( #O h Qkj u 3f'XK#+ (
Eb+ #+ #EW
= ] x s xx 9=<tJwCtzE= r = r I = {rk } I = ] xIz,8wC= s xIy = I, = { } = {T k }
i
ij
kj
+p W 3+ b R
SP]
rk = ri
i j
rj =
r2 = rk
T (i j I)
T (r j I)
=
= (ri I)
= (ri i j r j ) I R.
(2.5)
B !
2. %O|uxz Q I( E $+ 3#S,
J E0 4 ( F q+ #+ # E
F E E u 3#G%2 3#&R @p #
J EP
JJ &
FS K #+Z+3p2 .
X 4+ 2 ( 4 s#K#+
sK13 F + ( &

[ p &K2. E # = (t, r, p, , , . . .) RK# ( 2 LC+
5
+L

#w\8 DS% 2E Iw%K#+
" &Z% F F+ &
J
+A F K #( +
s $ .U(
E #.F fG1
J
J EREK #.
;( Z2( 5
[ 1 #.F#Gi.d/AN:3 i2 + #+ #"#%u: F "1$N FM2 R
SP] x8'7 s u =9;xI7JtI8 xIz,8wC= O Q!# %SF K
#+32 J
J H$+ #+ # 3[

h
+ 2+ 4 ( 3+ #2L2 A A

sR . %
d
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]

] E } +# 1
J + w |+ 2 w |>s+ F 3K#s+ K
+A &0SF K #+] @ J F sf
J
J &USF K #+]2 5 2.K F ( D 5
3Su 3#GUJ
3#+sK V 2SJf'] # Z4 S3 4F: &
2 J
J &|SF K #+-O h vh #Q ( J 2 5 2p &32. E #K2 K #+
K
#+? N2 5

p H$|
J
+ I R }
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J &|SF K

r
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4F: &| #u 3#
G:
*
2.A 13#1++ 4 pI$KO R #Q 2 J
J SF K #+ 2
3 #* E4 (
J 4 3 3i 4 ( 7
& h J
Jh &BB+A &BSF K #+0 5
+ #+ # ,$W
J + .I$
J +w| 3 +0+ 2@ ( FfGW4 + 8:9=<=
3 1K
#+

K!# F #GZ 4 ( R
4 F12
J % 4 3 3"KS#L## d3 KFS K#+
J
F i
+A &"SF K #+p( f+ #+ # 5 3+ K
J +w ,SF K #+ (
p 4 3 fG
= ] xIzE=< s xI7 s I8 xIz,8wC= O h )h #Q ( 3+ L
* 2E Ii #Z E4 (
F
4 3 Z 3 [ p &Z* 4F: &* +&D # %+3#: 3 d
+ &3 &
3+ 3
J +,$N3 +,$i+ u4
+ Mu J F4 /JW +3b 5
K
#* + . >? 5 F N
R
iK#p"J8N@ : # 3#s+ F $2 SF K #+&
$
. %
d

= ] x'=zEuv8 s w=)J8 s tI3I8 xIz,8wC=
J + ' 3 i2
i4Fu#p2S 5
8J#:&]F R } .pp #3 E_3 E .d
+ A+Z@2 DS !#
(SF K *#Z
+
*

K!# i p
X Jd
( J 4+ 2K +E F + R
*E+K 4 2 ( )( *Si ( _ H
J & .
3

r H
IR )R; 3+ _ |2 + #+ # p U2 E S N ( _ 4 #2 H

.
31

r H LIR )R +3 N 4 ( ,$|+ #+ #I$K pZ 4 ( E* ER
K # v( 32 + 2 3 r %+ 2 &Z ( & A #L 4 ( Z ( 5
rA
R L EC
K
@ + S2 K ( r
T A r A
= (r I)
!# B 4 (
J + .
2. 2 + #+ # K pW2 R,H
aa
+3 I 3 F +JdF#GU+ # \ > R`j *
J + 2 3 r
u 3#G # ( R
F4 u X.
"3+ Fn ( 3 +
*.
3%

rk
+ 2 GZ2 5
rk
+ #+ # X\k #U+3 4FJf2 K#+

j 0 U+3 b

b F +
d.
3D

J i k + 2 G]Z2 p m+ #+ # -\kh

#D3+ F4 Jf
(
i j ri r j
Tk r
4 ( &KK #+
jCR
/ JK .pZ 3 *2
JJ &1FS K#+"u 3fG x~x~IN8'<<q8Jx
wCt<w78'< <q818:9=<= R o &# J
J / [ = q .(1, 1, 1) + 5
2 1 4 #2+ 2K + & +K [W S2
Ew !3 N
Id
&N2M3+ C$
+ 5
,$D S & +K + I = q .(1 , 1 , 1 ) R !# Z2 [ | .
3+ iKS F NE I #N4/+ N?
F p & +K

2 2
(2.6)
I = q .(n21 , n22 , n23 ), T = q .(n2
1 , n2 , n3 ), nk > 0.
H D 2 F # D2 + #+ #D + S2 K F f3
Z+3L ,>
$ 5
[ n2 ( (
d
3
E( .
3[ u4 :|F + + @2 (
3
k
+ 2@ ( ,$K S &R
} \F S2 E f+ #+ # E + #p+3 1J
( i3+ K ( 3+ #2q+ 5
2 3 } + 3
+ E(
F #h
|F 5
t ) E(r, , R)
!# + S2 K
t, R
3 & I L 3+ & K + h
& [3+ K + s :S
K &K+ #+ # 5 3+ K %

& [3

(2.7)
IdMegf = IhjiXkglnm Ifjoqp m = { q .(n21 , n22 , n23 )} {n24 }.
2.J
( 3 J K . M] 3#p + &N$Ei p 8 C'
J 5
[3 [+ #+ # 5 +3 K 2F A = ] xIJxwCtI<.w7xIzA7I8'z,8'<8Cz = ] x s xx v
9=<tJwCtzE= r = {rk } I = ] xI7I8'z,8'<8'z t = t I 3+ - MEd B ##F J#$
t
2 $vR
l#p+3 3D ,$ [d J -3+ F4
# ##F J':F ]+ #p+3
b+ # .d = ] x t wx#<=( 8
J + ZZ EF p 3+ p 2.[\ > R ajNE . #
4/N2. *O hh Q)

(r1z r2z )2
(r1x r2x )2 (r1y r2y )
+
+
D=
n21
n22
n23
"
#1/2
I.
(2.8)
}
EJ p + Z$EE I#|4/K # ( +3#2
+/w # 3
4 4 ( &L$ER 3#+FJ ( +3 !# E K E .#i4/+ J3q#+ 5
+ i2.K ( 3 ( p2 + #+ # + n$ 2\8J#p$L# 3 3&L 4
J
J &KK
#+
*K 2. &K1 [@O|Suxz Q
= n2 ,
I I = n2 I,
(2.9)
F n 93 sF &H &#

&N + LC+ +%
J + h
JJ q+ # .3/ # 5
#G*+ O|uxz Q

r2 = (ri i j r j ) I [ri (n2 i j ) r j ] (n2 I) =
= (ri i j r j ) I = r2 .
(2.10)
ac
4F +AK2 + #+ #* Iu 3#G0

J F\K + K#+ n + #p+3#'P 3 3
I - +3 &pA+[ R }
+F+
f2 .$Ep 5
/: @ s J &
+/ & #I 3 * ( 4
JJ &KFS K#+R
L J K
p SF K #+ (
]+ ]2 $E3u 5

#G
o ]2 [ [ ]2 = + ,
[
(2.11)
F 33+ FnF f'U .d
#
R @ 4 _Z2K 3 13
>[U+0/:
@
2. m2.I
J I3 =II+ I=I # +P ( Z2K 3
4Fu8J x~ tJw< +sF1
?+sF@R
K # ( = :[ q .q +K I = q .(1, 1, 1) I = q .(n2, n2, n2)
MK #+
M AF #G% + & +K = q .(1, 1, 1) = q .(n2, n1 22, n23 ) R
!# d8 ( F + J Z + AF#G 33 + (
& 1 +E+2 3 5
+A K ( Ll@2 > R > R > r2 = ri r2 = (x2 + y2 + z2) I r2 =
ij
R
i
j
2
2
2
2
2
2
r i j r I = (x /n1 + y /n2 + z /n3 ) I

A3Z2 A A
b3+ F4 #U2 ,( 0 ( r2 = ri r j I =

/

F#b+ JsJ +s
J FX i j 3#'

2
2
2
2
2
2
(x /n1 + y /n2 + z /n3 ) I

2 + #+ # !# Z
U 2u A = ] x 18t K! 3 J +AK( 8 ( F #'

|+iS Jx8 s w=JxI7Jt<== L 4 ( w N RH K+ n$J *2 5 23 F
.
FJ#N
(
dK 8 3 .i : 1R k Jn82kL i +3 &K*

*+ # ##]\
[ i =<7J8'<xIz :
> R hh j
1k 1/n2k
=uvxI7q8 ] <tJ8'<=*x#ux 8'y*= ] x 18xwCt"wLt7<zE= 1 R
l #
J + #p+3 3/: + ,d
$ J
J ,$p2 &
SF

K
+ & [SF K

#+

J

J F b 45 K +s J 2 [s I =
45

FS"K#+

J
J F i2 5
I = q .(n21 , n22 , n23 , n24 ) n > 0

Kq# +.(1,1,1,1)

s
1, 1, c2) = q .(1/n2, 1/n2, 1/n2, c2/n2) @F Z F 5
F K
J s =|q '7.(1,
8wxI7xIyB= ] 0x s xI< x2 + y2 + z2 1 c2 2 t 2 = 30 0x2/n4 2 + y2/n2 + z2/n2
R F\%#. GK ( J + 02 312 1 E?2
p 3 F
c20 t 2 /n24 = 0
$+
+ |
+ #- F #.KL2. E #- L$+
+ K 3+ c = c /n \^ RAO h Q 3
0 4
#.pH$* &jCR
E +JK + # F 2
3"3$E
8" #*/: +
,$|3+ #S2 F.. + #+ F f'* A( : p
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p B # .# W
J + # # # J
4#+
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J + # c /n 2.'s /J L &#L+ #+ #33
+ &Z D+ #+ #+ 5
3#G |KS#0 s4L
J + #i : &*E +3 +sF@Jm
+ #i +3#

J + ## J
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[N3+ #
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p # .# L
J + #U #. 3 E .d
# \ 4/* &
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ss +38
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ae
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3 +3 E .
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3!# p+ +3 ( N pU2S p U 4u R
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BN$
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drk = Iik d ri ,
(2.12a)
drk = Tki d ri ,
(2.12b)
Ik ri ) = T i / ri =
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1 EK &#E
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t
t = Tt t = Tt / t.
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78:9;8'<=8'z = ] xI<x zE=JxI7 s xIy H
i I =
h ||
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i = 1,
h ||
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3 +wi w sF >/J30 h ge > FGRHO Qf\^S # + 3
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L= ] xG9;8'yw7=vw8Gu <MzE= : #N 3KSf#+s

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k 1.
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p6=n
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k > 1.
(2.26b)
c>
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r, , R),
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r2 = (x2 /n21 + y2 /n22 ) I R.
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2 +,$-
J +
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3
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(2.32b)
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i &#A
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1
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F + KK F4 : F ++s #G
N| 4 SN3 3+ ,$- ,$+
..I$-|!# &
u4 #Rf\^ R +K + # 3+ # ( s
J + 4 F dO aQJA ( A ( s
sE F + 5
3_O aQkj
|

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FpE 8u ' &#31 + p
N 2.+ JE
F > H>, < <H, X > !# !\ K + &i 4 +/F#:&i [ &
p SF 4+
+ A+F E &pFS 4+" L [ >(L)] 3 &# + 0
> (L)
3

?
&#* R

<X < (L)

N

H> = <H = H >(L) = < (L) = (L) ~I=7x'JxI= ] 78:9;8'<= 4E 8F + &
#+s
+ {< (L), >(L)} {<H, H>} E F@J4/p! 1
p d
xn9<xwx
xI<<=zDJ8:9;wCt7uv8'<=z Jp+ # J8:9;wCt7uv8'<=z 3 p
+
J # (L) p H

!# %$ + p p2 # |O aQSR#

J

3Eb
J +/ J +F p L4E 8u +
#s+
+ 1 +N"u 3 #Gi3 #+ p & 3 N+ #p+3 /$i3+ p 2.[&
J R
2 0FS A A
D4B U3+ 3 . O Q, * + # F D u4
( t~5 wCt s w<q5 8t s '=xIzE~.=z/xn9uJ<xIy*wC s w h v =U JC <8x~. ] tw8Gu <xNwC8 ~
"wGMwx~IzE<x#8'<= > = < ~./u =Xx~I1<zE=/wCt s0s t s]r w=-zE<x 8'<=0z,xICwZ~Iw
wCt s 8Ex~x~IN8'<<zE=Iu =%~IUxI<=pxw't7JtIu ='t xI=tJw=7<zE= R o s+ F E"\ E 4 5
#+
D
J A (
Z#s+
+d
&#Z + U > > A(0) u 3 #' Jt7z
z,xn9u <zWt xI=tJw=7<z-9;8'yw7=8'z 4 #21 F + ( |3+ p 2.[|+ 2 >
&#K
( 5 4FuR
+ K 2.
J N [ # L KS#iK #: 3 Y
A(0) < A(0) = U > T A(0)
K +J
&X + 3 &b
F
<
<
!#
J +
$ + p ] +3- A(0)
F\<D3UZ= A(0)
F@F +T d! U+E TU=AT+[ \^Jd 3 55
+ +jH &|
+ 2K + # ( N|+ A+F E 13+ #.u 3R + |
|3 &

u

3

#Gp F\ # s#E & 4 4F:# & &p+ &:[3 &

+F E &Zp SF 4+R
I = T 1
3 |S C$K 2E .,$|! K

+

A

>
<
A >I=I< A=A
2 (
U3+ p 2.[]
J "d\ > R Pg'j F #AGU F Z+ Id
3 2S ( 5
e>
XN+3B8 b+ 2@

A(w) = U > > A(0) < w
<
} > A(0) < {eiw X } =
> T w
<
iwT X },
}A(0)
{e
X = X , T = T ,
(2.52)
i dA/dw = i [A(dw) A(0)]/dw = A T X X T A.
(2.53)
A > B = A P B, A = P1 , I > > A = A > I> = A,
(2.54b)
<
(2.54c)
2 +3 4FJf% F\ 3 iA A (

J &L 2 (
J &3 F\ # +3 5
J #+s
[ 7 8'y +|"| N ##*
&[3 & I |2 + 2 3
J
( ( Z0 K #+
s0UF J4 +
= A T B
A > B = A R` h jCR
*3+ 3 .d
w *B+ 4 -O QM2. _2S w
8'<xwxI==w8 x == = 3 #+w
3+ @2 ( ,$D+ 4 .I$
+w pEm B p |/: + nh $ |2+ #p+( 3 &
8#tIu = ] t== 4#+
F 34E 8u K"0\ > R Pgj/ DK 3 I8'<xt xI=tJw=7<xIIxzE<x
8'<=K=Z8:9=<= \^J I8'<xIJxI= ] 78:9;8'< = I8'<x8:9=<= 3 |
+
#j
I = Q1 ,
 = P1 = (<I)
(2.54d)
F
!# B$ + p - +3 ! SB8 4+ Ew 3 ! +E A+[J
P 6= Q
3 + +U 4u: 8 ( FD+3p2 w ( +3#2 &#
!3 EK#+ ( w
A+[ &b*+ 2K + # Ub+ A+F E D + 2 3D"R S
F 3+ F4 #G ( 4 P + Q P( Q 4BZ3 F@u +ME 3 * $+ 3 K$J + p
+3 F +J%| +&K"|* + ## R
J + 2 *|FS [\ > R`PJjE$+
+2Ssf3 8J#/s4 S1 F4 /J
3+ p 2.[3_4#+
,$
J \ > R Pgj 3 +w
p3+ 3 .d
#s J3+ 4 I$0O ` )h Q;

2F JS F I8'<xI' tzE= = ^\Et<vw=uu =
A(t) = U > > A(0) < <A =
iXw } > A(0) < { eiwX } =
= {e>
<
= {eiXPw } A(0) {eiwQX } =
= (I > + iX w + . . .) > A(0) < ( = (<U) ,
= (<X) = <X = X,
P> = P = (<Q) = Q ,
(2.55b)
I> = P1 = (<I) = (Q1 ) ,
(2.55c)
i [A(dw) A(0)]/dw = (A, B) =

= A < X X > A = APX X QA =
= (A T B B T A)+
+(A W B + B W A) =
= [A,B] + {A,B},
(2.56)
X>
M #2.Ap & + 3 &31

+3 # #3FS [ $+
#+2
E & I8'<xtIu I8C
~ tzE= = ^\Et<vw=uu = O|uxz Q
F P = T + W,
<tIuv8'7x
Q = W T
XE 2 p I8'<x rCs 'xI<8'<= =JxI7Jt<=8L<tJt7x
iXw = I > + i X w/1! + (i X w) > (i X w)/2! + . . . =

e>
(2.57a)
= (i X w)/2! + . . . =

eiwX
<
(2.57b)
= {eiXPw } I > ,
= R Pgj)+3 4F #p$
F L @:

Dp3 &: @J#F
#*! 1
N 3N
D 5
# + 3 & +KR o &# @ EE I 7@:M + 2 "#+s
+s*\ > R``j
4E 8u &#FJ# *4 2 + #+ #I$ < > p]3
J +E]4
E {<F, F >} \
J +w 4uF8J N 5 +3 d. jCR#{ H,
JH <}H 3 +N3# + p 55
L F# 'B > R }
D+3# 2Su .. w8 x#=BJ8:9;w't7uv8'<== ] xI' = ^\Et<vw=uu =
=z,8 8wUn(N8 w.78'<<H

~I=z,xG9uJ< wC s w#J s xwx tId<8Kz,x#8w0~IwW'78:9;8'<t s
xn9<xwx xI<<=zW= ] xIJ8:9;wCt7uv8'<=z
L8
# K
# ( \^3 [ j;pFS 4+ fA+ 2 3 B) = AP

3 K &N! q[K\ > Ràju 3#GN = 9;xIw=z,xIytIu I8 ~ (A,
+
xIy

p
5
BBQA
2. K +

A A
J T R T R T 4 + O cIQ\^ RI.
O ÌQkjCR 4F: 3 5
[ Np SF 4+ /4#+
MEN! K .E
\^ +K +3 F@F +
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D+ 2 3 aba b 2c,. .F.#G%" 5 s#E &
J F 5
2. Z%3 & EK #+ ( Bp SF 4+ U
J + Z +J3 % %! K
X+ 2 3
u 3#'*pFS 4+ &|"R
( i +U # &: 4&" 2H |
2E .,$" 5 s #E,[a,$%p b]USF =4+abu 3ba# G%p SF 4+ nn5 A+[
L 4 ( [ X+ 2 3 A B A (B C) = (A B) C R
A B C, . . .

&
#

@
pFS 4+" L

J #+s+ _ ( *

- 2.wiE0 5
o
EK #+ ( ! fp SF 4+ 2 /2 #M-+ 2 3" [A, B] = A B B A R
[ Np SF 4+ A ,+ 2 3 W\ > Ràju 3 #G%" 5 A s #E &f
4 S% 4F: W E v( 3 2. %"3 &D EK#+ ( p+ 2 3%u 3#'
" 5 2 (
[A, B] = (A, B) (B, A) = [A, B] = A T B B T A R
A
eP
K# J( " = 9;xIw=zEq8ftIu I8 ~ HJxI= ] 78:9;8'<=8Cz (A, B) J787q8/778:9;8'<<q8
7Zt~xw8( *35-N'.# Ixn9)tH7u"wX<t=~x uv8 8Kx~I%=zE=X= ] = ] 78 w<,{dtIu I8 ~ s t s xI<=
xI<=zHt"w|7zHtJw8'zHtJw= s 8q<tN 8'Ixn9<%<=yi9;8'< {tt s w8= ] "wD~I=u =<8'y<zXJx
= ] 78:9;8'<=8'z, s xwx x8"xn9E=<8wuv8'7xIzZ=DJt7xIz39=wC=~vw= 7<Mz ] t s xI<tzd= ] t
s xI<tzzE<x 8'<=i<t% s tIuJ I o &#
p SF 4+Wf+ 2 3 (A, B)
J 5
( & P Q SM2 #w
(p FfSF "4+

(
#3
&3
8 ( & [ 2.w "Ep #@F 4+ "p +SF 4+,d$i12 L|
+ 2
3
pFS 4+ "|* + @3 + EK#+ ( w ppFS 4+ pFS 4+ } [ 5 F||( IR )R
qK #b3+ #F #/J+ N +J U > = (<U) \^J I> = (<I) j/ S C
$ + 5
$ J
( 4 ( & 2 (
&FS (
& + R o &# @
F
J J# <t N8'<=8 s t ] t<<xIIx xIJ8'<=pxn9t ] z,8'7Jt8w<t N8'<=8,t s '=
xIz = + ( s :S

#+ (
]3 \F #I K ( pl@2
h RcR o 1 A1 4+ E F MJ13 4+ E F /$+
+ M/: + ,$"#+s
5
F + & i@2 Z3+ .&

+ 3 $b\ > R``j Jx.= ] 78:9;8'<=8

+

2 >d 3Z3 3+ 03+ K 0+ 2 3)( < + 2 1> 3 5
2.p U3+ K H = p2/2m + V (r) + 2 s J! 3 +F 3 w = t 5
+ 2 *3+ R E ( 7 8%= ] 78 w<8xw8G<=tIu _=<7Jt=t<vw<xw<x'=
w8Gu <x3x~ tN8'<=*7I8'z,8'<=
J ( *!
+ (
& AF & F + .[ &Z
s+ F 3 [ p
R , ## 7 8= ] 78 w<q8f'tzE=u wxI<=t<wCt s 8=<7Jt=t<
wxw<x'=vw8'u <x*x~ tN8'<=B7I8'z,8'<= H(t) H(t) R 2.
J ( 3i K# )( K
!# Z+ # Z 3 + + %
+ 3 + # 4+ u : "3+ K
3+ F4 #D3
J K2K 3 0 + u B3+ K L.
N 3 + [-! +E F
+d R
F q ( J ( 4 ( p3+ p 2.[N
J D"|\ > R Pgj &#
1+ 5
" @ p 4+ u : 33+ K R
# J3q#+ [L3+ I
+ 2 Esu p = m v = m dr/dt(
J +& ( J K 3#p2
3J( +
4+ u : B3+ K p(t) = p R F L ( J ( ?
+ 3 -J &2 4 +FG0\ > R` ? j
+ 3 4+ u :#*3+ K
#
i d p(t)/d(t) = p(t) H H p(t) =
= i d p/dt = (p H H p).
(2.58)

( J ( K
J F\ T 32. K K+3 K 2 (
-+32.[

J "u 3#GB ( * 4+ E &-+-+3 p2.[ w = t = t I 5
- 5
( S '+ 3 | #Ff'|+ EK # @ N 4+ t u: L+3 K

KJ3q#++s
#'*8 ( F W1Esu
t t
i d p (t)/d(t) =
= p (t) T H H T p (t) =
(2.59)
= i d p/dt = (p T H H T p).
L8
#2.K#
+3X2 (
J F ! K . T b2.Gs: F
"

(
W+3 K 3 + F b d + +3#L#
T = T (t, . . .) 6=
e`
F#1 +33 4+ E &

J V3 2.E
sJ
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5
5
(

FnEJ. .$+ 3#R)GH.3|#22. +E W "]$/+
J 3+ \
T #
i dH/dt = H T H H T H 0
+3
J K J 8
A
3 K2.E
s J 5 2 + ,$D # d%sJ5 +3 3&D! + 3 & + 5
K + 3 K K#s+
+2 #@2 2 + ,$K i #p &*S &0O > QSR

3 [" ( J .( qSA+3B83,+ 0 q 4+ u: %+3 5
Z +3 f' 3+ #p+3 + 3 pSF &R o &# @ 3 * F L % 5
K
s u 23\ > RàjHEKS

T (t, . . .)
i d p (t)/d(t) =
= p (t) P H H Q p (t) =
(2.60)
= i d p/dt = (p Q H H P p),
|K I8'<xwxI==Xw8 x =y =B<8 x~ tJw=zEq,w't s-s t s xI8t=]x~ tN8'<=B7I8'z,8'<=
,z 8'<8w3z,8 wCtzE=t ] u =<q83xI8tJwx P = Q/wx|J=7xn9=vw s t ] u ==@t7<8'<=y
9vui97=8'<=|788:9-7x%7I8'z,8'<=K=K<t ] t#9B7x%7I8'z,8'<=
K # ( d

2. IK/: 13 4+ E #KS#K # i+ xwnww.7== $+ 5
3 ! 3 +F i dH/dt = H P H H Q H 6= 0 ( | 42. Y3 SC$ 5
+/,$ 3
J S +/$* # .
$K

L$E (
3%3+
[R
+ w 1/: 3+ #S2 uI F p 2+ssfi/ # |F\ &L3[ |!C F
+ @2 E # p2 # &3A A

J + Nu 3 #G#s+
+ p3 4+ 5
E & #13 4+ E &:3 SC$4
J 3 ( " 2E .,$p 4+ E,$ [ p
KFGEJ. R
X 4+ 2 E
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u4 p F #: &*3+ p 5
E 2E . #.E3
( # /$B ( ,$B &B3 4+ E,$D$E 5
2 R
(
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J H + w#"4Fdu#8JN2 S F (
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(

(
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J + 4 #2

$ 5 4 *2 #,$0 J
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A@FJ?BACEDGFGDGHJIDbA@FJ?MLGNJ?MDG=@OBACPA@FGDRQ
/ JK .pA*! K .EZFS A A

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j 3+ .d
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h
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3 d 33 +3* +3 K
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> j 3+ . 3'F $| ##Fs#p$ +J ( ,$ 4 4F: ,$|+ 2 5
&,SF + 2
F\ 9
J +
J +
2 G
3 S C%
$ A>B =&DA3 Q3+ 0B 33+ K Q FS + 2 A P > B

J +,$ I> R`PJj
j 3+ . 3" &# I> = P1 = (<I) = (Q1) R
K # /( ] \ 3 S3+ .d
3Zu 3 #G3 4$ E 3 b2 4 #p
#+ (

$*3 F # & ,$Kil2@ h RcR
ea
3 +"3
J
J 12.K ( & pFS# [R E-2ql2@ > R >
2 [u 3f'h &# E . K +3 E 9=tIx
(<tI K
u <zE= A+[ E* I = q .(n2, n2, n2 , n2) F n2, n2, n2 $+
+2 1x z
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
(F #E[,U$

0# [ R + Jp,$0!3 J n24 $+
+2S
# uvxw<xw + A+ 5
lp2( .[FS -[ I> <I 2S E/$+J . $ F#G1 &# 5
E <8:9=tIx.<tIu <zE=K=L<8 '=zEz,8wC=)<zE=KzHtJwC=tzE= d
#NKS#pE

5
%
( n2, n2, n2, n2 ( 3 I u 1 3
+ &3 #&DK 3+ p d
[ F(t, r, p, ,1. . .)2 33 4 F pR }
]E J8J#p$F\.$ \
3 F p
[iJp " $J 3 N + 2 i3 #p$i3
[ p ,$Z JB3 p (
$+ 3 $vR + 2 33 4+ E # 'tt< 5
w=J 8w F3 EK#+ &|++ &|FS [ p +3 3

L+
++ % + 2 3 ( 4 3 ( F #'?
#F p @ : #u 3 ( 3+ #=2 [si +R
LF Z3
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J + R }
N$ + p p2 # + 2 F$ 3"
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1$E%q F4 : &

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RH + n$
2 2. F
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B5 ( K Dd
N3+ #S2 u..F ;( *- 3 + [ 2 < 3 \|K 3 E .%F #'- 2
+ jCR
q@ J#3# +J ( E I & 5
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3+ #S2 u.. R
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SF A A
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+ 1
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2 > 3 2 < 3
3+ #S2 uI.R }
L #3 \F F 1 4+ u : 3
|SF +K3+ F4 #3+
.d
3 F 2=F $3 +J J
J : E . + JL p # '78:9;8'<= 5
zE<x#38'<= s xn9<xIz|= ] 97J{K7=9;xI7 ( iK3+ FGF #GZ: p 3 &: R
}
E J +J 3#E I + p
J K .p U3+ #S2 F
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d K ( X+ 3S 55
+J ( + 2 3 > +AF #'
3 + 2 h D3 3+ -
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A@FJ?MUGDJVXWEYZDbA@FJ?MLJ?\WGQ
# F = F(a, +, ) !# U 4 ( * &#

/$ R
EJ
J ,$ C J
+ ,$ Q ( @ a Lp3 &[3 & 0 u.J
&[3 &
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d+ 2 3 a b R 8'<xIx#uA9;8'yw7qp=8*<tJt7x F> =
I = 1
a+b

3

+
w* wi/J3mO h Qf h ggF'R u 3f'X
[ EX
F> (a> , +> , > )
! K
.E >
#A/A I8'<x=utzE= F\ !# q!\ K
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>
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F 4
w /S E 3 + [E: +J ( EN + V # x 9;xJ8'<<tI
ec
I8'<xnzEzHtN<tJt7xx 9;xJ8'<<x8I8'<xIJxI= ] 7 8:9;8'<=8<tJt7x |IR )R

a> +> b> = (a + b) I > ,
(2.61a)
a> > b> = a> > b> = a> Q b> = (a b) I > ,
(2.61b)
I8'<xt#99=vw=7<xIyU8:9=<=8'y*9;8'yw7qi8'y-<tJt7x 0> = 0 zu w=u = s tJw.=7<xIyBI8'<x

8:9=<=8'y9;8'yw7N8'yZ<tJt7x I > R
O Q u 3fGK
J [ E|FS 5
8'<xIx#u9;8'yw7qp=8<tIuv8'7x <
F = <F(<a, <+, <) h
( E <a = <I a S Eb 3 + [E +J ( Ed p
J ( WFS 5
SF + 2 8 < < <
@ E
<< < <
<
<
IR )R t#9a9=v+w=7b<=xIyDII8'<(a
x8:9+=b)
<= 8'y9;8'yw7qi8'y<tIauv<8'7x b<=0 =a0 Q zu b=w=Iu = s (atJw=7b)<xIy
I8'<x8:9=<=8'y9;8'yw7qi8'yZ<tIuv8'7x } U ##F J#E4!\ K E
43[ E 4 3 + [EdWIR )R &#F J#E p Ub + U+ \
R
I> = (<I)
F
?
H

2. )( K
d
iSF &#F J#S + F> J
p <F 2 E + 3 +F p K F R !# F# F F> F <F
.$+ 3 f3
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{F, F} {<F, F> }
1
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E .d
.
N

E . N + N p F f # a > b = a b=b>a
a b = a P b 6= a < b = a Q b.
(2.62a)
(2.62b)
q
+/3 \ p+ 4 pO h Q 2.
J ( F#'L% ( t s '=xIzEbx u
xC{t<"wv8 u =D7 8%xI8t==*x 9;xJ8'<m<tIuv8'7xN=xw9;8Gu <x<tJt7x RH+ F
B+ i + 2 33 4+ E # ( 3+ #2SF A A
sB 2 3#G
3J8* \ 3 F | &#
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1
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A (
3p#+s
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A@FJ?MLGNJ?BV_`NJYMFJV_aOBYZD[bA@FJ?BcA@_`NGDGGD
# S = S(r, g, R) !# 1 4 ( n5 K + ,LC+ (

J MJpS u K#+ (
+ 5
#+ # K/
p &D
+ & r = {rk }, k = 1, 2, . . . , n FN3 F@u+ & &# 5
&X] EK#+ ( &XK#+
J & g = g(r, . . .) + r2 = (rt g r) I
\^F t 4 2 ( F #3 3+ .jH 3+ p| 4 ( ] P &#
/$ ( S
R
R = R(a, +, )
+w

iSF + #+#?
&#F J#33 + S> = S>(r>, G>, R>) 3 +w
n5
w h/J3b-+ 4 I$O h > Mh #Q u 3 fGW
+EW+ #+ #E
ee

pE I8'<x s xx 9=<tJwCtzE=Z9;8'yw7qp=zE=U<tIJt7x r> = r I > FS K#+
&
I8'<xI=<7Jt=t<vw<zE=Z<tJt7x
G> = Q g I > = (g> ) I > , g> = Q g
(r> )2> = (r> )t > (G> ) > r> = [rt (g> ) r] I > R> ,
(2.63)
J +w 3 Z F # 4/3FS

p + E &#FJ#E + 5
K#+s
+ & n I > B! K .E-FS & R> R)K#
d ( KFS + 5
#+ #L&#pup3%3$Z %FS % K# 3 Z F\ # F
K@F [s #&#F s#/s + I >= Q1 F Q F#GWSB8 4+ E &
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& 3 #AK
#+ ( & n n A+[3 &R

O|uxz Q
5 K +w I8'<xIJxwCt<w.7JtJ9;8'yw7Iq%=v8f<tIuv8'7x < < [<r,E<%+,<F)
3 fnGDSF + #+#ED p BSF ED 3S ED S3 = + S(
+JJ ( E 5
p L F4 : & n n5 K + &LSF [3 & &CF s#:&K p } q4FS

+ E|IR )R
3+ EZ p Z4FS {<R, R>} + I > = (<I) R
F

H

2. )( ZSF + #+ &#F J#3L + S> 3 #2 E
&#F J#3f p < \^ !#
4FS + #+# {<S, S>} j
p 12 E +
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o &#
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% $+ 3 f' +F
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p &Z2 E + 2bK #d
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p + 5
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rt grI rt grQQ1 (rt g> r)I >

P1 P(rt grI) <I(r <grt ).
(2.64)
H X +dF#W $+ 3 3- F + .\ > R hh j
B 3 FS + 5
#+ #R
8'<xII8 xIz,8wC== O #QAu 3f'0FS K#+EUFS + #+ R _ K pU
l@2 > R > v( K2 h Hh B 4 ( ,$FS K#+&-3#+ p .

( 2 5
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JJ FLK+A FLFS K#+R
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ix = =<tIu <zE=]t s '=xIzHtzE= @ ( 3+ s : 333 EK #+ ( /$0K #+
3 +w " 2 3 #i F SF K #+ (

J % 4+ u :#3"
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l E +]
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+ ?
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3 K 4 $ &K3 3+ D| 2.p Z N3+ K
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l E +V 3 + I8'<x8'7 s u =9;xI7I8 xIz,8wC= R ]

[3 [d#+s
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s
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3 A EK
#+ ( R /: @
2. . = 3+ #q+ n$J JM2H3 42. 5
F p3+ .d
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[3 &

R \D
J E+3p2 K # K 4 ( & v( 5
I = q .(1,1,. . .,1)
3+ #2f 4 F4 :#s J [s
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A@FJ?@CEDJt>t>A@NJA@FGHGDJYuWEvMFJ?BA>DJVUGDJVXWEA@FGDJA
8'<xn9=1188'<=tIu <x8=I=uv8'<=8<tJt7x NSF + #+#

p R> 3 +w/ !/J3O h #Q u 3#G 4+ d 3 D 4 (5
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+2S
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++ p ?3 ?
+F : Z 4 2 ( &E .d
31 + I > j
drk d > rk = (I > )ki dri ,
(2.65a)
drk d > rk = Pki dri ,
(2.65b)
/ rk > / > rk = Pki / ri ,
(2.65c)
/ rk > / > rk = (I > )ki / ri ,
(2.65d)
F"S1 3 + [ +J ( + KFw" &#

> ri / > > r j = ji I> ,
> ri / > > r j = ij I> ,
zp
(2.66)
]
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BiFS [3 & &#FJ# &U p R ;,=I8'<xn9=1188'<=tIu <x8N=I=C5
uv8'<=8 &#F #L {<S, S>} p {<R, R>} +? I > = (<I) R
F
iJ# FS 3p + i 3#2. E % 3 F p i $+
H
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# !# D 4 ( F J4 + Z+ #+ # Di # IE | i, | i, . . . s 5
+3 UH
+ 2 3 h | | i p3 C = C(c, +, )
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| > i, | > i, . . .
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h > | > | > i = h > | Q | > i I > C> (c> , +> , > ),
h > | > | > i = I> ,
(2.67a)
(2.67b)
+3 " pZFS

J EJ
b &#FJ#b +
1 F4 : &KSF [3 & I> = Q1 R
C> (c> , +> , > )
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+d
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~8)wxI7xqJxwCt<w7x #"4#s+
+ {<H, H>} p 4 {<C, C>} +\
+d
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+ Dd4 5 SF F#J 4 + + #+ #>

p U2 E +
+F p + #+ #F R o &# +F p MF J4 + "+ 2 5
3 8J#p 4+ H2
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4 ( ,$3F J 4 + ,$L+ #+ #*\^F P Q 3 3+ # +AF f'L3 #2. 5
EE* i3 +3 K &* F ++ j
h | | i h | | i P P1
h | P | i P1 = h | < | i | i I > .
J /:@
2. &# p 8C'N p F D &p+ #
\ > R aPJj=( 3 ]F J( 4 + D+ #+ #RL8 #B2.K# A( D wL+ #
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3 3+3 4FJfi+3+ F N
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3 ! +E &%[3 &R
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'8 <x#u =<8'y<q8NxI8tJwx q9;8'yw7q%=v8%<tJt7x #| 3 + + A B RR R SF 5

4 +F#: &KpFS 4+ &#FJ':&| + > u u# +3#p3V 3FS 5
gh
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3 & # = #=3 & #N > p > 4 HdHKS#1K # 1H3
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<tJt7x%=K<tIuv8'7x
U > > U > = U > > U = I > ,

<
<
<
<
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# Uu4 F +JX
F ,( >
3ZSF ! +E #d H> KS#]J X > =

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/: @
2. *HI A
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3 K3
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=<KJ=Dxwnw.w7==B xC{t<8'<= o &# @ S =s+ F 3%K #
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+K &#FJ#p +
JK p 3+ #2%+ #F "+ J *O Q
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8@
P1/2 (<U).
(2.70)
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4 + X+ #+ # 4/i iNFS (
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&
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+ 4 "O h Q;\^ R.
\ 8J#p3f+ 4 O h > Q 2 #wqS F i

I8'<xw8 x =
= ^\Et<vw=uu = j1O PQSR
l E +B 4 s JX +3W"B +J K +42 D! +E ,$
3 + + X = {X }( + K #+ E w = {w } ( +p N5 &D 4 +F #: &B [ 5
&*pFS 4+ & k = (L) pFS 4+ &L" L k [ (L)] F# Fs#pE]\^ 2Ej
3+ 4+ 2 E""%F s+ G fK #+ (
D+ #+ # S(r, , F) K
p E
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g>
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1 F A4E 8u + A 3
4 ( &| +K"| N4FS + C+ #I$K pZ4FS E |
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j <=78#tIu <I8'<xx~8)w7Jtq"@tIu I8 ~ 9;8'yw7q"<tJt7x >(L) N 5
h
K + &pp SF 4+-" L K +JJ ( D42 X > X = {X }, k = 1, 2, . . . , N FS 5
[3 & I> = Q1 SF [ B+ 2 3 X > X =k X QX p4
J 3 ( 5
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K
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;,=J s IxtS6,=vww't
I > = Q1 , Xk , Xi > X j (i j),

Xi > X j > Xk (i j k), . . . ,
(2.71)
pFS !
J 3 [+ 3 W\ > R`cj <=78#tIu <bI8'<xt xI=tJw=7<tIu I8 ~ .9;8'y
w7q1 <tIuv8'7x < (L) |FS [3& <I = P1 XFS + 2 -3 X < X =
i 4
J 3 ( K +FS 42 $+
+2S
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Xi P X j
7xIyDw8 x 8'z,xIy0qt< s t8C1;,=J s IxtS6,=vww't
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= Xi P X j X j Q Xi .
(2.73)
r>0 = (U > ) > r> = (U > ) Q > r I > = V r I> ,

U > = V I> ,
(2.74a)
%FS !
J 3[+ 3 \ p\ > R`cj ~I=I8'<xx~8)w7JtqtINtIu I8 ~ t u 3#Gp4 5
#+s
+ & {< , >} +3 &B ##FJ#$4FS + #+ #I$DD4 5
FS $K+ I> = (<I) R
> j 8'<xtIu I8 ~ t = ^ \Et<vw=uu = #4FS# 3 & 4FS p SF 4+ q +3 N
p {<F, F>} " 5 s #Eb+ 2 3
{< , > }
j t \^ 2 j I8'<xIJ8 x~ t ] xI7Jt<=y = ^\Et<vw=uu = #W4 5 4 + {<G, G>}
4FS +3 4+ 2 &K {<S, S>} p {<F, F>} 1FS F[E )
<r 0
W,
= <r < (<U) = 
+ #ZFS [0BFS 3 & # N+3pG2. >5
S> S> <S <S < <G
[E >
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 (i w X)
U = exp< (i w X)
U > (w> ) > U > (w>0 ) = U > (w> + w>0 ),

U > (w> ) > U > (w> ) = U > (0> ) = I > ,
(2.75)
|" 5 s#E &ZpFS 4+ &0\ > Ràj,N

+3 # #*FS [ {<I, I>} R
E2%l2@ > R > ( i N4#+
+ 3 4 ( + 2 31"
+ 2 3" 5 /J3 [A,B] = AB
BA
= A T B B
[A, B] = A B B A
=8zHtJw8'zHtJw= s t
g
pFf ( J |3J8* F#

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= 9;xIw=z,x8KJxI= ] 78:9;8'<=8
.9;xI7uv8 w7x 8w%t s '=xIzHtz = s xI:9)txIJ(A,
8:9;8GB)uv8'<=x"A<t <{B<, B>>} <At#9= {A<F, PF>}B<8 'Bz,xwCQ3<At
7<x8xwnww.7=81t<vw='=zEz,8w#=<xw.=
o &#
dSF 4 +F #p SF 4+ < + > 2 E +
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#2 ( #31SF + 2 A B = A Q B 2K +3 5
LN ##*1SF [3& I > = Q1 R
2% 4 S",$KA #HI (
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#G] J #3 + F B p 2. !# xI7t#9;8'<=8i<tZt~wCt s w<xIz
xI7<8q( I8'<xI' = ^ \Et<vw=uu =x = =<tIu <zE=*' tzE=*J8 x~ t ] xI7Jt<=y =
K # v( LSF 3 + + +F p &Dp SF 4+"Z3p AF fGSF 5
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3 @F u+,$*3 ! +E ,$*SF [

{I> } = {I1> , I2> , . . .} = {1/Q1 , 1/Q2 , . . .},
(2.76a)
gP
= {}B = {A Q1 B, A Q2 B, . . .},
(2.77a)
A{<}B = {A P1 B, A P2 B, . . .},
(2.77b)
1 ##Fs#p E& +JJ ( E Jt7zE=K=|uv8'7zE=K =8 zE<x#38'<=zE=
3 K
+,$ F 3 +3 [ >
u 3f'K
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{I } {<I}
[ ER
/:@ s!LF 3 +3 [0F 3 ++ 2 ] + 2SK FfD FZ@ 5
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J + "$+
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utzE=B=- =8x#uzE= =8Jxw#t<w.7JtzE=0=- = 8.8xIz,8wCv=zE= =8tIu I8 ~ tzE=0=

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q
J &p3+ #S2 u.. q2 3, 3 ++ 22
q%2. + &

(
[ +K +
R

2 < 3 2 > 3 275.65
|

K

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+ @2 ( w M3+ #S2 u..
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31.37
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3
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zE<x#38'<=8/JxI= ] 7xn9=vwq<t~x ] <tJJ8'<=y +K + 2 < 3 {5.23, 72.45, 0.67, . . .} 6= 2 >
R
3 {1.24, 45.43, 137.42, . . .}
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k
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ri
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F(t, . . .) 6= F(t, . . .),
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[A,B] =
A j
B B j
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Ti (t, r, p, . . .)
Ti (t, r, p, . . .)
,
rj
p j ri
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I6 =
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d pk /dt
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I33
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b = {rk , pk },
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(3.60a)
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(3.62b)
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(3.62c)
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(3.80a)
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(3.85a)
(3.85b)
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(3.85c)
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(3.86a)

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(3.87c)
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(3.90b)
(3.90c)
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(3.93b)
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(3.94a)
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(3.94b)
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2
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m
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p
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1,
|I|
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3#4J #N2 !

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=
(4.25b)

4

+
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I = 1/T = U U > 0,
(5.2)
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lim
r1
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(5.3b)
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U (H| i) = (U HU )(U U )1 (U | i) =
i = U (E | i) =
= H T | i = H |
= [E (U U )](U U )1 (U | i) = E T | i =
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U n U = n (U U ) = n I,
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(5.6a)
2 = (
(5.6b)
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Y
1 = [cos ( , 2s) + sin (( , 2p)] + ( 0 , 1s),
(5.7a)
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(5.7b)
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w-+K#'Bh#-#+#)B,G>#--EF#-}-K#',}>Kx` L + cR` Y DL cR:a#O a
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= log10 [
],
(5.8)
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-><nZ8<V76)B-#+wm-'C>>YG#<M"!#1"]"#,##!#"!.,Z8243[><#6K#><VUBh#-*<',""!#->< R O
9Y#<Gk#->1"#@#'UB>?#"6)Z8%--*0m-'C!#>%"E>s<M>-><nZ8<M*>?#6K#><VUBh#-*s',"QD
"!#->KAfn,@B>}KZ O_a#O
lT#"$B5>-K#'6)}>> , mEF"#'B,6)}>>?%!##'K.#C6#'F8BE#KGYC',IJ>%!"E8#,#"6'#>K(!D
#QB->fn,@B>}* O_a&\^"<O5>C!Z8'* O_a> O dS6,E.()*.,!UGV%K#?<M>-><VUBh#-|6B-
m-'C>KA#QB!0"@,E#,E
E
(M) ' 3.808M,
(6.18)
Ropt (M) ' 0.517/M.
(6.19)
>#6K#><VUBh#-#J',""!#->S#QB!s"min
@,E.,E
/0-#>8B!#hGB%K#s6'>
<M*><M<
M = 2me
KO ,O , R (M) = 0.258399 KO ,O ,
Emin (M) = 7.617041
(6.20)
opt
%K#s##"6'#>K()#)B>Ks()-%->KYGB6)Z8%--*S',@#,#s`ba
cqG
KO ,O , R = 0.2592 KO ,O ,
Emin = 7.61509174
(6.21)
opt
"T(,<M%#QBh#-#+##%-#"!#h#2SO
*#G."NBQ,--*+ '*-C$()>-*<7>sPZ8%'-EF5"#)B>K#"$0E##<nZ#G.%K#S#C',->%!--
>K())WK><M>%"E. <MBQBh#'QWT#Q5<M)BEKZ,B*&#)B#'gX,-K#>8B>8Di>8 UB>JB+"!##>K.QBhD
-H6'><M-><VKG;E.,E>6'QB6),C$UB#"hG;E#,E]6!'##56'>@B>K/[->,O "-##-* ,--*5>
'!(ZBhU).*6 E > R "#@#',-*fn,@B>} O O
min
opt

#
fn,@B>} O k "-##-* ,--*5>'!(ZBhU).*6H#"-##-#<nZm-'C!#>%"E8#<nZ"#"!#8D

->2 E ><M!/syk8B'-#<nZ',""!#->2 R O
H2+
H2+
YG J
&*YG!
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2
y
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G M O Ka me
2
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rc
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2
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&* !
Du
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2M
'z;rzh
'm4s;'#K
;'olh"O
##'K{5--L6#-KK#-GXE#,Ew6)B%'E-KZF#L|.,# G%K#|>K()#mNBEK#'#->KZK<tB)/6')B/S#h"!ZF35"!.##.#hA#-0UB'#--#C!AC#'>K()#-K)KGp>-%,G"NB>&m!##CA-@,Z,B!Gp<M*
><MQB>@#*-,'KZF{5->S6'>-}>6[(,6'!0lJ)ZB>YO
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0
B
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Hg
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6#"NBQZ8243[+L',@#,#]` uKc '*-CN()>-L6'><M->8.,'>,}>#--*+7<M!#M>K#}]E

K> ())WK><M>%"E8#+7<M)BQB>x%!#*'QW&#Q|<V)BEKZB*t#)B#')AX,-K#>8B>8D>8UB>R\ O # dQG
#s"!#hG
h 2 2
e2
h 2 2
er12 /rc
+
1
2 V0
2m1
2m2
1 er12 /rc r12
(6.22)
e2
e2
e2 e2
e2
+
| i = E| i,
r1a r2a r1b r2b R
@#!(#C',->%->KYG,%K#T>K()#m$BEK#'#->KZK<?><M!J6#"!#--*+'()<M'[#E8)B)B-#CJ5'<M>YO
L%,"!#-#"!#>YGK}QBh#2 '*-C$()>-S@#*BS#6'QBQB>K#h5#"- ##-#4m-'C!.>%")EF#"#"!#D
->g>[B>-KZ",K()>s<MBEKZB?
* y 6'>@B>K/[->>H#'-UD 66-C+<M' %'!(C$)Z#""#D
"EF#mE',->'#.,->EKZB#-##"EF#2C6,#-}>UKG V GYmE8"6#--}>Bh#-#smE',->'#.,->
g
EKZB#-##"EF#C06,#-}>UKG
Aer12 /rc
,
Ve =
r12
(6.23)
5 )B; # ;rpUFF"(z!u'QKMkF UANp$xFn)Vk$$

!;z8.8NpkN
##

0
-1
Emin, a.u.
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
0
0.5
M>",O O_a k>-><VUBh#-6)B-m-'C>K

mNBEK#'#->KZK<V M O
1
Mass M, a.u.
Emin (M)
1.5
">"!#<M*
y
E.,EHITZ8-E}>K<V,""*R>K()D
,EK/[]#'>C>-UBh#-*+uW,U#-##"E>+6,#-}>U V <MBQB>i\ O # dQO E8#-%#QBh#-*+

&
,-UB>K(!#"$HB##)Bh#-5"NBU/0-*<|>H-<MU/[![@#*X#hh[',""<M,#'-(!B"h[#5#"QW-#@D
W.B><M*WB!U8W;O;T>K)#Q<G#"'h#!(S(,>-K#'"#.,--*<um!##+6'##'EF#+A-###+>K()D
WK><M>%"EF#+<MBQB>R<M)BEKZB*#)B#'KG6'Q,C$,!#"z#@#'#>K#h#"$RER#'>C>-UBh#-#+
',@#,# '*-C$()>-A` uKcqO
PZ,B#-##"!E>+]>#@#<M--*+>-K#C'UB*@#*B>]#*X%>"$B-*#Bh#EFs Gs#H#'<n
E.,E V > V '*-CN()>-6)Z8%>8,-UB>K#>%"E>?'!(Z,Bh#*#Bh#VEFe xwEKZBD
-##"E>8WA>-Kg#C'UhB#GY>K(!D(s,#"!ZF#".#>KA6#"NBQB->8W6,#-}>UB#'(!B/->+A#>6
8C-@.)Z#'8\ "!#t!#*u'E!#zdQO
QYi U#Fg Mi )B.Np$Y
X #
Zg
9Y,E8B2%->"#)B>K#"z0Es##<nZ#G8%K# F)B; BU
X .n Z M!0n ## U,i )O
8 #s8 kU' !8rp~ Q ~ i!U
~ BU;U
F !;z8. 8NpkN.T N> )8Sp~ k z#s zs ,U KYF2 1 F i)K
iK !Yf
[
#\ Fk F)B; NN
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"-##-*4,--*T>'!(Z,Bh#*6[#"-##-#<nZ0m-'C!#>%")EF#<nZ"#"!#->2 E g
min
><M!/syk8B'-#<nZH',""!#U->2 R "!#@#',-*sfn,@B>} O O
opt
9Y,<M!#><G%K#.,'>,}>#--#<6)WF)BA` uKc '*-CN()>-7>"!6Bh,()#.U
;zK#MKm'
.,'>,}>2UB'#--#C5C#'>K()#-K) r >H6'>@B>K/--*+#@#<M--*+>-K#C'UGK%K#[6'>#QB
E6'>@B>K()>K#QBh#-#<nZ6)B@##'KZm-c'C>>A>',""!#->KYGBE.,E6#E.(,-sf=,@B>} O O
B#@.,,#EYGM?',@#,#&` uKcg#*%>"$B-#"I ()*>K()#mN BEK#'#->Z8<VKGEF,##'*+v#E.(*D
.,!#"$x6#'.8BE.,xa B . ?"$Z8% V <M)BQB>YO B-,EFG"NBQZ#!1,#<M!#>K#hG=%K#
m!#,H'!(ZBh- "#,##!#"!.,Z#!#'>C!>-UBh#-e #+<M)BQB>]X,-K#>8B>8Di>8UB>kGEF,##'
@.()>'KZ#!#"zA-5W,U#-##"EF#<v6,#-}>UB V O
T-K#'"-*<'!(ZBh.#<!#"zR#hG%K#|R>K()@#!/S,->KR',"$W.)B><M#"!#>EKZBD
-##"EF#C&>-K#C'U? k$; )Yn Q; p!0~ k##zzs )
Y Fkn n BFF~ K G;"#C$Vh,"-HZ8',#-->2\ O #dQOY#HZ."NB##>[@,rc*B>"6)Bh,()#.,-
Dr<M)BQB>YGKWF,m!#0>-J-#@WF)B><Ms"NWF<M m!##+<MBQB>YO
Ve
PJ,EZ86#<n-KZF#5',-,G '*-C$()>-]` - G c6'QB6)B/0>8GF%K#S>K()#mNBEK#'#->KZ8<7>"QD
#,
Ropt, a.u.
4
3
2
1
0
0.5
1
Mass M, a.u.
M>",O O k 6K#><VUBh,-#A<M!/syk8B'-,'""!#U->
<V,""*>K()#m$BEK#'#->KZK<V M O
1.5
Ropt (M)
">"!#<M*
y
E.,ELITZ8-E}>K
6*X#*.,! #,()',"!,->B>-*L#-UB'#--#CTC#'>K()#-K)KG.>['!(ZBhU).,G,B.mNBEK#'#-
#E.()*X.,24#"z]-[B#"!##%-@#)Bh,{5#<u',""!#->>YOV#6'>#)B>K-,"SE6'#@B<M5#*D
%>"NB->K )JJzi ) UU[Ukz~ 0' K' ,N;$i !k; 8 O
~Jw#}-E>R6#'.8BE.7#QB>%>-*m!##CL#'<M->w/0>K()->YGX>"6)Bh,()#.U,"hL#@#*%-
IJ#'<nZx'UB>.,EK#>#-#C Dr',"6UKG,ExE.Ex6B-*X+76,#-}>U V (r) ><M!,Z
/[JIJ#'<nZ#G%K#s>',""<V#'>.,<M*+A(!B"hGB"J#%-hs">8Bh#-*<v6#->K/[-><v6'> r < r
>HEKZ,B#-##"E><|,,)UBE>.,-><L6'> r > r G8C$B r "#,##!#"!.,Z.!s<V,EF"><nZ8<nZH6,#max
-8D
max
max
}>UKO
1E.()>E8,"">%"E.L<M)BQBh1!#"$LC'KZ8@#*X<6'>@B>K/[-><GnELE.,E|AB+8D
"!##>K#QBh#-#"!.>YGBm$BEK#'#-*-J6#E>8,24s<M)BEKZ,B*TOBB##CGKB.,"><M6K#,#>%")E>8W
'!/0><VAB+"!#,Z82x)B-##'<M--GM"-E8,##'*X<',"6'QBQB->)<>L#'K#-#"!#h#2SGV>
@#)BT6',#>8Bh#-*<L@#*B[@#*w#@#'#>K#h#"zE%,"!#,# 6',}""#s',"!6U\e#"!#hGK,Z8--QD
B>' #.,->J"E#,()h0UB'#--*+C#'>K()#-KFdQG[-JE#'<M->/0>K()->>K()#m$BEK#'#->KZK<VKO
B-,E8G="#C$,"-16'QB6B/[->2<VUB*W|'()<M'#1>K()#mNBEK#'#->Z8<V?6]"',#-QD
->2:"'()<M',<M>&<MBEKZB*TGp<M*<M/[<>K(Z8%#hAm$B<M-K,'-*+x6'#}""0',"6U,D
BQBh#-Gn>|>"6)Bh,()#.#h?6#-KK#>#'<M->7/0>K()->YOM=!(ZBh.*',"%!## '*-C$()>-
6'QB"!,B-*fn,@B>} O O
R.,'>,}>#--#<v6)W.BSM>K#}KGC$,#-#+A6'#@B<M#+!#"$],-UB>K#>%"EF#5#*D
%>"NB->,E7-()*.,<M*W !;z8#FM L iz$kU;U OMX,'>,}>#--7<M)BEKZ,'-
m-'C>KYGEF,##'#+5<M*&(,>-K#'")#.-*JG#*'/5,!#"$5g#'<M>-UW5m!#>8W5>-K#C'UB#O##>
>-K#C'UB*#,(->E.,246'>>"6)Bh,()#.,->>-E8##'*W#)B-##*WITZ8-E}>+YG#@#*%-[#D
B#')B#6)B#@#-*W#)B-##*WITZ8-E}>+A#"-##-#C"#"!#->KYGBE.,E@#"E8#-%-,S'(!B/[QD
->g,"><M6K#,#>%")EF#C '!{5->KYG#Z8',#-->>si'QB>-C)'SB,Z.W,##<M-*Ws<M)BEKZO
.,#->8B!6)WF)M>K#}(,E8B2%,!#"$A##QB->>6,',<M!#'#s#)B-#,Z82ITZ8-E8D
}>2>A.,'>,}>>A>8W"##<M"!#-0" 6,',<M!#'#<u'(!BQB->K R B#"!#>K/[->K<M>-><nZ.D
<V[6)B-#+<M)BEKZ,'-#+m-'C>>YGEF,##'#'EK,Z.!."zAE#,E'!(ZBh.>'KZ823[Am-'C>K
#"-##-#C"#"!#U->KYO

!;z8.8NpkN
#

fn,@B>} O kKp!(ZBhU#*#*%>"NB->+ '*-CN()>-` uKc;#'<M->H/0>K()->H>K()#mNBEK.'#->8D

Z8<VKG#C$B E , #-#">K#QBh#-0E>-!#>%")E#0m-'C>Ksm$BEK#'#-#G.-T@#Bh,{5#<?',""Q#U->>YG
G">"!#<V ,#"%!s}-K#'s<V,"",O
rr
max
bG6
(
9G j
O 2.6 1018
8O 1.6 1017
a O 2.2 1016
a
6
O 10
O 5.1
O_a 3.1 10+25
a
O
O #
O a
O # a
D0
WW
>K(Z8%,<M#<v"NZ8%,,G '*-CN()>-7` - G c>"6)Bh,(Z.!sB.6,'<VQ#'KG > GC$B

w
W.B>Kss,B#')B#6)B#@#-KZ82j#)B-#,Z82jITZ8-E}>2j#"-##-#Cs"#"!#->K
(r) =
>
3 r
e ,
(6.24)
!#"z<M'#+<M!/syk8B'-#C5',""!#->KYOB#>6,',<M!#'*uB)/0-*u.,'h#>8D
'#.#h#"$YG FBi)kF vK, ;~ GV?#EF#-%#QBh#-#<#*'/[->><M)BEKZ'-#+
m-'C>>A6#"$BJ#*%>"NB->+",K(,--*W"T-><<MB!EKZ,'-*WA>-K#C'UB#O
Ce, a.u.
-0.001
-0.002
-0.003
-0.004
-0.005
-0.006
0
3
r, a.u.
M >",O O kMPZB#-##"E>+L>-K#C'B C0 E.,E|ITZ8-E}>K Gn6'> = 1/37 GMCNB = R G R

<M!/syk8B'-#J',"!"!#U->,G = 2 r e> r HUB'#--*+C#'>K()#-KUO
c
c
B-,E8G;<M)BQBh%!#*'!W]#Q@
y X,-K#>8B>8Di>KUB>?6'QB6),C$,!B#6)B->K#QBhD
-*+7W#U#-##"E>+6,#-}>Uu,(,>2<MB!+"!##>K<VQ/Z7mNBEK#'#-<V>YGVEF,##'*+")B'8D
/0>KB.6,',<M!#' V > r GC$B V H#@,35>+A<M-/0>K#QBh0> r EF#''Q}>#--*+6,'UD
<M!#'[B>-*TG,W,,',EK#'0>K(ZK24c 3[>+HUB0 ',--*+sC#'>K()#-KUOFlT#m!##<nc Z#GB/0-*|.,'h#>'#.#h#"z
%!#*'S6,',<M!#'h k G G V > r O
#QB->W,U#-##"E8#C0?6,c#-}>U?6'>#)B>K?E|<MB>IJ>E#,}>>L-EF,## '*WL<MBQD
EKZ'-*Wu>-K#C'UB#GX?><M--GEKZB#-##"EF#Cx>v#@#<M--#Cx>-K#C'UKO "!UBh#-*
-0.03
Ce,, a.u.
-0.04
-0.05
-0.06
-0.07
-0.08
-0.09
0
2
3
rc, a.u.
M >",O O kpPZ,B#-##"E>+x>-K#C'U C0 E#,ExITZ8-E}>K

(!B"hs6'QB"!,B-*'C!Z,'>K()#.,-e-* ()-%->KYO
rc
Gp6'>
= 1.67
OY~J
rc > 0.2
KO EYO

<M)BEKZ,'-*>-K#C'UB*#"!,24#"$L#<M>L/[E#,EL>|1"NZ8%,#@#*%-#+|<M)BQB>y Gn"
W.#',{5H>K()#"!#-*<M>1,-UB>K#>%"E><V>]'!(ZBh,<M>YO @#*%-GBEKZB#-##"E>+]>-K#!C'B2UG
EF,##'*+<M/[!5@#*X#h[#*%>"NB-5@#>"IJ'>%!"E>8WEF##'.B>-)UW;G'!{[,!#"$<M-#C BC%
%<#@#<M--*+>-K#C'UGEF,##'*+A#*%>"N!#"zAs@#>"IJ'>%!"E>8WAEF##'#B>-UW;O
*%>"$B->K&EKZB#-##"EF#CA>-K#C!'BUW#U#-##"EF#CA6,#-}>U V #E.()*.UD
24#"$SB##)Bh#--!#'>#>UBh#-*<M>` uKcqO ><M--G,>"6)Bh,(Z.<M*W[@#>"IJ'>%h"E>8W[EF##'8D
B>-UW;G46'#}""X#*%>"NB->KYG6U24#"$S-"E8)Bh#EF"6}>UBh#-*W5IZ8-E}>+YG),E>8W
E.,E&6)B>8B#C$,'>IJ<M>%"E#7ITZ8-E}>KYGp'><V,-#.()!)UDrITZ8-E}>KYGB>C$,<M<VITZ8-E}>Kx>
ITZ8-E}>K '%AD\ xW!#G#pBdQO
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=
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2
4
8(1 )

!;z8.8NpkN
#

4 3
2 2
(15 + 14 + 4 ) + (8 + 11 + 6 + 8e
) ,
3
4
(6.25)
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R.M. Santilli - Foundations of Hadronic Chemistry

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