Maintenance Managers’ Guide

Power Quality

The Maintenance Managers’ Guide

to PFC Capacitor Banks
PQ analyser
at point 1
HV-LV Transformer Main circuit-breaker

Capacitors banks Three phase

circuit-breaker load

PQ analyser
at point 1

Capacitors
Power Quality
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Leonardo Energy wish to thank Eduwatt and the Copper Development Association UK for their valuable
technical contribution to this guide.
While this Guide has been prepared with care, ECI and other contributors provide no warranty with regard
to the content and shall not be liable for any direct, incidental or consequential damages that may result
from the use of the information or the data contained.

1. Why are capacitor banks installed?

The primary function of a capacitor bank is to control the displacement power factor (DPF), because in an ideal system
the voltage and current should be in phase. This is only true of a purely resistive load and most industrial loads have
an inductive component that causes the current waveform to lag the voltage waveform, which is where capacitors
play their primary role.
DPF is expressed as the cosine of the angle between the system voltage and the load current; ideally it should be unity
[the cosine of zero] but it is not that straightforward as a leading DPF, where the current is ahead of the voltage, must
be avoided; consequently the DPF correction systems are designed to keep the DPF close to unity, but always lagging
– typically, the target is around 0.95 lagging.
The following text box describes the difference between „Power Factor” and „Displacement Power Factor”.

What is the difference between ‘Power factor’ and ‘Displacement power factor’?
‘Power factor’ is the ratio of useful power delivered to the load to the apparent power consumed from the supply. Useful
power, measured in kW, is the product of the supply voltage and the real current (i.e the component that is in phase with
the voltage) consumed by the load, while apparent power, measured in kVA, is simply the product of supply voltage and
current magnitude.
‘Displacement power factor’ is the same, but only the fundamental frequency is considered in calculating the current
magnitude.
PQ analysers differentiate between DPF (or Cos ϕ0) and PF and, before there were so many non-linear loads producing
harmonic currents, the two were effectively the same so it was unnecessary to differentiate between them unlike today,
when harmonic currents are universally present.
Capacitors can correct the DPF – the fundamental component – compensating the reactive component. Harmonic filters
can reduce the non-fundamental components.

DPF is important because the reactive component of the current – the part that is responsible for the lag – although
it does no useful work, still has to be transported through the electricity network. The reactive current does not
contribute to delivered energy, but it does contribute to losses, thus reducing the capacity of the increasingly
expensive electricity supply network resource. If nothing is done then the end customer has to pay for the cost of this
additional use of capacity in the form of a reactive power additional charge. Consequently, installing DPF correction
measures often makes economic sense.

Usually, DPF correction takes the form of a central bank of capacitors and a controller that monitors the load power
factor, adjusting the total capacitance as the load changes.

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A A

A
The effect is illustrated in these two diagrams. On the left there is no DPF correction and the green current curve
clearly lags the red voltage curve; on the right a degree of DPF correction has been added, reducing the displacement.
The DPF has been improved from 0.59 to 0.81 and the magnitude of the load current has been reduced by 40%.
The user will see a reduction in reactive demand charge. Since reactive current does not provide energy, there is no
change in the charge for energy.
So capacitor banks are worthwhile in simple terms by saving the end-user unnecessary additional costs.

2. What kind of PQ problems do capacitors experience?

Capacitors are vulnerable to high voltages and currents in an electrical power system.
As electronic equipment presence increases most modern loads are non-linear (i.e. they contain some sort of switching
control in their power supplies) and produce harmonic currents. Usually, most odd harmonics are present up to at least
the 15th harmonic. Problems arise when the frequency of the stray inductance in the installation forms a resonant circuit
with the DPF capacitance at or near one of the harmonic frequencies. If this happens, the capacitor will experience high
voltages and currents that will inevitably destroy it unless it is disconnected by a protective circuit breaker – leaving the
DPF uncorrected. [LPQI Application Note 3.1.2 http://www.leonardo-energy.org/drupal/apguide.]

3. How are capacitors problems identified?

If resonance is occurring, the harmonic current at some frequencies will be much higher when the capacitors are
connected than when they are not. By taking measurements of the harmonic spectrum with the capacitors in and out
of circuit, together with a measurement of the capacitor current when connected, the presence of resonance will be
clearly seen.
Taking the measurements is not difficult, however, as it requires working in an area of the installation where the short
circuit current capacity is very high, it can be very dangerous. Staff working in areas such as this must be adequately
trained, take proper precautions and ensure that the work is carried out in accordance with a procedure determined
by a specific risk assessment.

3a. Choice of the instrument

Power quality analysers easily measure harmonic currents and voltages and typically display the spectrum of the
voltage and current waveforms up to the 50th harmonic. Many different models of harmonic analyser are available,
ranging from small ‘handheld’ instruments (ideal for quick diagnostic tests) through portable loggers (ideal for
collecting data over a period of a few days or weeks) to permanently installed monitoring systems which are ideal for
implementing preventative maintenance programmes. Some ‘handheld’ instruments measure only a single phase but
most allow measurement of voltage and current on three phases together with neutral current. Current measurement
is made using current clamps.

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3b. Where to measure

This figure shows the single line diagram of a typical
PQ analyser installation. Measurements of the harmonic current
at point 1
spectrum taken at Point 1, first with the capacitor
HV-LV Transformer Main circuit-breaker
bank breaker open and then with it closed, will give
a good indication of whether or not there is a resonant
Capacitors banks Three phase
load
condition. Measurement at Point 2 (with the capacitor
circuit-breaker
PQ analyser bank breaker closed) will confirm the diagnosis. The
at point 1 power factor should be measured at Point 1 under
Capacitors both conditions to determine whether the degree
of correction is correct.

Where the installation has a fixed DPF correction, this is a simple procedure. Using a switched bank is more complicated
as it is necessary to take measurements at every possible capacitance step because in each case the resonant
frequency will be different. Here, one approach would be to carry out the measurements under typical operating
conditions – e.g. during working and non-working hours – and then use a logging PQ analyser to carry out long-term
measurements at Point 2 over a period of one week or one month.

4. Analysing the measurements

This measurement at Point 1, with the capacitor bank circuit breaker closed ie the normal operational configuration,
is shown below. The total harmonic distortion (THD) of both voltage and current, seen in the top right, is extremely
high and clearly wrong at ~6% and ~22% respectively. The voltage and current histograms reveal that the 5th and
11th harmonics are responsible. The high level of harmonics and the fact that the 11th harmonic current is higher than
the 5th suggest there is a resonance problem.
In this configuration the DPF correction should be active, so a DPF measurement of above 0.92 lagging would
be expected. A lower value, or a leading value, would indicate that the DPF control system is not working correctly.

Current - Voltage w aveforms (V-A) ThD Phase to Neutral Voltage (%) Thd Currents (%)
1500
6,40 23,00
1000 U1
6,20 22,00
I1 6,00
500 21,00
U2 5,80
0 20,00
I2 5,60
0 0,005 0,01 0,015 0,02 19,00
-500 5,40
U3
-1000 5,20 18,00
I3
5,00 17,00
-1500
time (s) Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Voltage and current waveforms Voltage distortion rates Current distortion rates

Spectrum analysis Phase to Neutral Volatge (V) Spectrum analysis Currents (A)

250 700
600 I1
200
U1 500
150 400 I2
U2
300 I3
100 U3
200
50 100
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850

Spectrum analysis of voltage and current waveforms

The measurements taken with the capacitor bank circuit breaker open are shown below. They reflect the natural
behaviour of the load. The THD of both voltage and current, seen in the top right, is now much lower and more
reasonable – ~2.5% and ~7% respectively. Since the level of distortion is significantly higher when the capacitors are
present, it is likely that resonance is present.

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Current - Voltage waveforms (V-A) ThD Phase to Neutral Voltage (%) Thd Currents (%)
1500
2,70 7,15
1000 U1
2,65 7,10
I1
500 2,60 7,05
U2
0 2,55 7,00
I2
0 0,005 0,01 0,015 0,02 2,50 6,95
-500 U3
2,45 6,90
-1000 I3
2,40 6,85
-1500
time (s) Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Voltage and current waveforms Voltage distortion rates Current distortion rates

Spectrum analysis Phase to Neutral Volatge (V) Spectrum analysis Currents (A)
250 800

200 600
150 U1 I1
U2 400 I2
100
U3 200 I3
50
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850

Spectrum analysis of voltage and current waveforms

The measurement at Point 2, below, confirms the diagnosis.

Current - Voltage waveforms (V-A) ThD Phase to Neutral Voltage (%) Thd Currents (%)
600
6,30 60,00
400 U1 6,20 59,00
I1 6,10 58,00
200
U2 6,00 57,00
0 5,90 56,00
I2
0 0,005 0,01 0,015 0,02 5,80 55,00
-200 U3 5,70 54,00
-400 I3 5,60 53,00
5,50 52,00
-600
time (s) Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3

Voltage and current waveforms Voltage distortion rates Current distortion rates

Spectrum analysis Phase to Neutral Volatge (V) Spectrum analysis Currents (A)

250 250
200 200 I1
U1
150 150 I2
U2
100 U3 100 I3
50 50
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Spectrum analysis of voltage and current waveforms

The combination of DPF capacitance and circuit inductance, shown in the figure below, results in a resonant frequency
near to the 11th harmonic’s, causing its amplification up to a similar magnitude to the fundamental, for which the
capacitors and their protection devices were designed.

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Transformer Line impedance

Capacitors banks
Load

Line impedance

11th
Transformer harmonic
Capacitors banks
impedance current
source

Single phase diagram of the electrical distribution and the equivalent circuit

Actions and Summary

Observing the DPF during the measurements described will indicate whether its correction system is effective.
Where the DPF correction is fixed, too low a DPF or a leading DPF indicate respectively under or over compensation.
Over compensation must be dealt with immediately since it can lead to over-voltages in the installation. Under
compensation should be investigated to see if it makes financial sense to carry out an upgrade. If the DPF value varies
significantly with the load, variable compensation should be considered.
Where a DPF controller is installed, then the measured DPF values should all be close to the nominal target value.
If not, there may be a fault in the system – such as a failed capacitor – or the total reactive current capacity may not
be sufficient.
If the measurements reveal any evidence of resonance, quick action is required. The solution is simple; add
an inductor in series with each capacitor element, often referred to as ‘detuning’. The combination is still capacitive
at the fundamental frequency – so it still acts to improve DPF – but at harmonic frequencies it is inductive and
resonance cannot occur. Most modern capacitor banks are detuned by design [see LPQI Application Note 3.3.1
http://www.leonardo-energy.org/drupal/apguide.]
A detuned capacitor can be designed to act as a filter for harmonic currents, correct DPF and reduce harmonic current
emissions onto the network to help meet local regulations (such as G5/4 in the UK).
In summary, Capacitor Banks are another straightforward way to ensure that electrical power systems work effectively
and cost efficiently. Installing and using them is a small price to pay for the immediate and long term benefits their
use provides.

This publication is subject to copyright and a disclaimer. Please refer to the Leonardo ENERGY website.