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Chapter III
3.1 Introduction
Surface runoff
is the water flow that occurs when soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess water from rain, melt water, or other sources flows over the land.
process by which water is converted from its liquid form to its vapor form and thus transferred from land and water masses to the atmosphere.
Evaporation is the
Evaporation Process
3.3 Evaporimeters
Evaporimeters are water containing pans which are exposed to the atmosphere and loss of water by evaporation from these pans are measured at regular intervals (daily).
Types of Evaporimeters
Class A Evaporation Pan A pan of diameter 1210mm and depth 255mm Depth of water is maintained between 18 and 20cm The pan is made of unpainted GI sheet The pan is placed on a wooden platform of height 15cm above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan Evaporation is measured by measuring the depth of water in a stilling well with a hook gauge.
Types of Evaporimeters
ISI Standard Pan ( Modified Class A Pan) A pan of diameter 1220mm and depth 255mm The pan is made of copper sheet 0.9mm thick, tinned inside and painted white outside The pan is placed on a square wooden platform of width 1225mm and height 100mm above ground level to allow free air circulation below the pan A fixed point gauge indicates the level of water
Types of Evaporimeters
Colorado Sunken Pan 920mm square pan made of unpainted GI sheet, 460mm deep, and buried into the ground within 100mm of the top Main advantage of this pan its aerodynamic and radiation characteristics are similar to that of a lake Disadvantages difficult to detect leaks, expensive to install, extra care is needed to keep the surrounding area free from tall grass, dust, etc.
Types of Evaporimeters
US Geological Survey Floating Pan A square pan of 900mm sides and 450mm deep. Supported by drum floats in the middle of a raft of size 4.25m x 4.87m, it is set afloat in a lake with a view to simulate the characteristics of a large body of water Water level in the pan is maintained at the same level as that in the lake, leaving a rim of 75mm. Diagonal baffles are provided in the pan to reduce surging in the pan due to wave action Disadvantages High cost of installation and maintenance, difficulty in making measurements.
Pan Coefficient, Cp
Pan Coefficient Evaporation Pan are not exactly models of large reservoirs and the following drawbacks:
They differ in the heat storing capacity and heat transfer from the sides and bottom. 2. The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind action over the surface. 3. The heat transfer characteristics of the pan material is different from that of the reservoir. 1. The evaporation observed from a pan has to be corrected to get the evaporation from a lake under similar climatic and exposure conditions. Thus: Lake evaporation = Cp x Pan Evaporation
Pan Coefficient, Cp
Evaporation Station
Arid Zones 1 station for every 30,000 sq.km. Humid Temperate Zones 1 station for every 50,000 sq.km. Cold regions 1 station for every 1,00,000 sq.km.
A typical hydrological station contains the following: Ordinary Rain gauge, Recording Rain gauge, Stevenson Box with maximum and minimum thermometer and dry and wet bulb thermometers, wind anemometer, wind direction indicator, sunshine recorder, thermo hydrograph and pan evaporimeter.
Problem
1. A class A pan was set up adjacent to a lake . The depth of water in the pan at the beginning of a certain week was 195mm. In that week there was a rainfall of 45 mm and 15 mm of water was removed from the pan to keep the water level within the specified depth range. If the depth of the water in the pan at the end of the week was 190mm calculate the pan evaporation. Using a suitable pan coefficient estimate the lake evaporation in that week.
Problem
2. A canal is 80 km long and has average surface width of 15 m. If the evaporation measured in a class A pan is 0.5 cm/day, what is the volume of water evaporated in a month?
Problem
a) A reservoir with a surface of 250 hectares had the following average values of climate parameters during a week : Water Temperature = 20 o C, Relative Humidity = 40%, Wind Velocity at 1.0 m above ground surface = 16 km/h. Estimate the average daily evaporation from the lake by using Meyers Formula. b) An ISI Standard evaporation pan at the site indicated a pan coefficient of 0.80 on the basis of calibration against controlled water budgeting method . If this pan indicated an evaporation of 72 mm in the week under question, i.) estimate the accuracy if Meyer s Method relative to the pan evaporation measurements. ii.) Also, estimate the volume of water evaporated in the lake in that week.
VE = A Epm Cp
VE = volume of water lost in evaporation in a month ( m3) A = average reservoir area during the month (m2) Epm = pan evaporation loss in metres in a month (m) Cp = relevant coefficient.
Mechanical Covers Permanent roofs over the reservoir, temporary roofs and floating roofs such as rafts and light-weight floating particles. Chemical Films Application of Cetyl Alcohol (hexadecanol) and Stearyl alcohol (octadecanol) which forms layers on water surface to prevent water molecules to past them.
3.7 Transpiration
Transpiration
Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as water vapor. The water is taken up by the plant-root system and escapes through the leaves. The important factors affecting transpiration are : - atmospheric vapor pressure, - temperature, - wind, light intensity and characteristics of the plant, such as the root and leaf systems.
3.8 Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration takes place at the land where plants exist; also lose moisture by the evaporation of water from soil and water bodies.
Evapotranspiration Terms:
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) - It is is defined as the amount of evaporation that would occur if a sufficient water source were available. Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) - Actual evapotranspiration is the quantity of water that is actually removed from a surface due to the processes of evaporation and transpiration. Field Capacity - is the maximum quantity of water that the soil can retain against the force of gravity. Any higher moisture input to a soil at field capacity simply drains away. Permanent Wilting Point - is the moisture content of the soil at which the moisture is no longer available in sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.
Measurement of Evapotranspiration
The measurement of Evapotranspiration for a given vegetation type can be carried out in two ways: 1. Lysimeters is a measuring device which can be used to measure the amount of actual evapotranspiration which is released by plants, usually crops or trees. By recording the amount of precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost through the soil, the amount of water lost to evapotranspiration can be calculated.
Measurement of Evapotranspiration
The measurement of Evapotranspiration for a given vegetation type can be carried out in two ways: Field Experimental Plots - The different elements of the water budget (other than ET) in a known interval of time are measured in special experimental plots established in the field. ET is then estimated as: ET = Precipitation + Irrigation Input Runoff Increase in Soil Moisture Storage Groundwater Loss
Evapotranspiration Equations
Evapotranspiration Equations
Evapotranspiration Equations
Surface Closed Ground Corps Bare Water Surface Snow Range of r values 0.15 0.25 0.05 0.45 0.05 0.45 0.95
Saturation Vapour Pressure ew (mm Hg) 4.58 6.54 7.78 9.21 10.87 12.79 15 17.54 20.44 23.76 27.54 31.82 36.68 42.81 48.36 55.32 71.20
A (mm/ C) 0.30 0.45 0.54 0.60 0.71 0.80 0.95 1.05 1.24 1.40 1.61 1.85 2.07 2.35 2.62 2.95 3.66
Table 3.4 Mean Monthly Solar Radiation at Top of Atmosphere, Ha in mm of Evaporation Water/Day
North Latitude Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 12.1 11.6 11.8 11.1 12.1 12.4 12.6 12.7 12.6 12.4 12.9 11.9 11.7 11.5
11.5 12.0 12.6 13.1 13.3 13.2 12.8 12.3 11.7 11.2 10.9 12.0 12.9 13.7 14.1 13.9 13.2 12.4 11.5 10.6 10.2 13.2 14. 4 15.0 14. 7 13.8 12.5 11.2 10.0 9.4
10.7 11.9
8.6
10.1
11.8
9.1
8.1
50o
8.6
10.1
11.8
13.8
15.4
16.4
16.0
14.5
12.7
10.8
9.1
8.1
Problem
Estimate the PET of an area for the season November to February in which wheat is grown. The area is in North India at a latitude of 30o N with mean monthly temperature as below:
The End
Reporter: Macaspac, Jerrol R. Course/Section: BSCE-4D College: Technological University of the Philippines Manila. S.Y. : 2nd Semester 2011 2012 Subject : Hydrology Instructor: Engr. Juanito H. Neric Reference Book: Engineering Hydrology by K. Subramanya.
When it rains over a catchment, not all the precipitation falls directly onto the ground, a part of it may be caught by the vegetation and subsequently evaporated. The volume of water so caught is called interception. Three possible routes of intercepted precipitation: Interception loss- retained by the vegetation as surface storage and returned to the atmosphere by evaporation Throughfall- drip off the plant leaves to ground surface or the surface flow Stemflow- rainwater may run along the leaves and branches and down the stem to reach the ground surface
Coniferous trees have more interception loss than deciduous ones. Dense grasses have nearly same interception losses as full grown trees. Agricultural crops in their growing season also contribute to high interception losses. Interception process has a very significant impact of ecology of the area related to silvicultural aspects. However, in hydrological studies dealing with floods interception loss is rarely significant and is not separately considered.
When the precipitation of a storm reaches the ground, it must fill up all depressions before it can flow over the surface. The volume of water trapped in this depressions is called depression storage.
Depression storage depends on a vast number of factors the chief which are: The type of soil Condition of the surface reflecting the amount and nature of depression Slope of the catchment The antecedent precipitation, as a measure of soil moisture
Is the flow of water into the ground through the soil surface such as rainfall, snowmelt or irrigation into the soil. The infiltration process is a component in the overall unsaturated redistribution process.
4 Moisture Zones
Zone 1: At the top, a thin layer of saturated zone is created. Zone 2: Beneath zone 1, there is a transition zone. Zone 3: Next lower zone is the transmission zone where the downward motion of the moisture takes place. Zone 4: The last zone is the wetting zone. The moisture content in this zone will be at or near field capacity & the moisture content decreases with the depth.
An infiltration model:
The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of a storm and has an exponential decay as the time elapses. The infiltration capacity of an area is dependent on a large number of factors, chief of them are: Characteristics of the soil (texture, porosity and hydraulic conductivity) Condition of the soil surface Vegetative cover Current moisture content Soil temperature
Characteristics of Soil