General characteris tics of Bacteria and Mollicutes

Morphology and Ecology Submitted to : Mam Uzma Bashir Submitted by : Mehra Azam 34 Gul-irayna 42 Iqra Asghar 43

General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

THE BACTERIAL CELL

General characteristics of Bacteria and Mollicutes

Bacteria cannot be visualized by naked eye. To understand their size, one needs to revisit various measurement units. The unit of measurement used in bacteriology is the micron () or also called micrometer (m). 1 m = One thousandth of a millimeter. A bacterium shall characteristically have a cell envelope which includes a layered cell wall and external surface adherents. The appendages of cell wall include flagellae -the organs of locomotion and fimbriae which help in adhesion of bacteria. Internally the bacterium has loose arrangement of DNA, i.e. nuclear apparatus surrounded by an amorphous cytoplasm which contains ribosomes. Mesosomes and inclusion granules are other structures present in bacterium.

Bacterial cell
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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

Shape and Size of Bacteria

Bacteria can have any of the following three shapes Spheroidal (cocci), Cylinderical (bacilli or rods) and Spirillar (spirochetes). Cocci are true spheres with diameter ranging between 0.75 to 1.25 m (and average of 1 m). Bacilli varying length from 2-10 times their width. Coccobacilli are very short bacilli. Filaments are long threads of bacilli which have not separated into single cells. Spirochetes are long curved bacteria with as many as 20 coils. Apart from the length and width of the bacilli the shape of the ends often shows features that are of differential value. They may be: Rounded, Square cut or Sharply pointed

Arrangement of Bacterial Cells

Cocci may occur in pairs as in diplococci. Some of the bacilli also have the tendency to cluster together indifferent patterns but in the absence of any consistency in the patterns it is difficult to assign them anycharacteristic arrangement. Some of the commonly seen arrangements of bacteria are:

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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

Bacteria: The Basics

Bacteria are prokaryotic cells, the simplest of microbial cells. In essence, they consist of cell protoplasm contained within a retaining structure or cell envelope.

Basic Characteristics:
Prokaryotic Simplest of all microbial cells Single-celled organisms Distinctive cell walls, or unique cell envelopes, which contain a peptidoglycan layer Tiny; measured in units called micrometers (m)
Introduction to Plant pathogens

General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

Other Characteristics:

Lack a true nucleus; instead, have a region called the nucleoid region' (i.e., DNA) DNA is free floating May have additional DNA which is not associated with this nucleoid region (called a plasmid) Rapid growth and cell division (binary fission) under favorable conditions Mutants that arise from bacteria can become extremely resilient organisms because bacteria can: Grow and reproduce cells quickly Adapt quickly to changing environments Plasmids impart additional resistant characteristics to bacteria via cellto-cell transfer of this extra DNA material Capable of colonizing in almost any environment Extremely diverse and numerous in soils or waters Morphology of bacterial cell The overall form of a basic bacterial cell is that of a complex cell envelope that encloses cell protoplasm. Cell appendages from the envelope protrude into the environment surrounding the cell.

Constituents of bacterial cell components

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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

SURFACE APPENDAGES
Bacteria may or may not possess surface appendages that provide the organism with the ability to be motile or to transfer genetic material or to attach to host tissues. These appendages are outlined below: 1. Flagella: These are the organs of motility. Flagella are composed of flagellins (proteins) that make up the long filament. This filament is connected to a hook and rings that anchor the flagella in the cell wall. In Gram-positive bacteria, there are two rings attached to the cytoplasmic membrane; in Gram-negative cells, an additional two rings are found in the outer membrane. Flagella may be up to 20 m in length. Some bacteria possess a single polar flagellum (monotrichous), others have several polar flagella (lophotrichous), others have several flagella at each end of the cell (amphitrichous), and still others have many flagella covering the entire cell surface (peritrichious). Counterclockwise rotation of the flagella produces motility in a forward motion; clockwise rotation produces a tumbling motion. Flagella may

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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

serve as antigenic determinants (e.g. the H antigens of Gram-negative enteric bacteria).

2. Pili: These surface appendages come in two distinct forms having

distinct purposes. Pili (or fimbrae) may also provide antigenic determinants (e.g. the M protein of S. pyogenes).
1. Sex pili: This form of pilus can be relatively long but is often found

in few numbers, generally 1 to 6, protruding from the cell surface. These structures are involved in conjugation, the transfer of genetic information from one cell to another. These structures can also provide the receptor for certain male-specific bacteriophages.
2. Common pili: This form of pilus is usually relatively short and many

SURFACE LAYERS

(about 200) and can be found covering the cell surface. These structures provide the means for attachment to host cells (e.g. epithelial cells) and often play an important role in colonization (e.g. N. gonorrhoeae).

Bacteria possess several distinct surface layers that can enhance their pathogenicity. These layers are outlined below:
1. Capsules: This type of surface layer is composed primary of high

molecular weight polysaccharides. If the layer is strongly adhered to the cell wall, it is called a capsule; if not, it is called a slime layer. These layers provide resistance to phagocytosis and serve as antigenic determinants. The production of capsules is genetically and phenotypically controlled.
2. Cell wall: The cell wall is the basis for classification of bacteria according

to the Gram stain. Gram-positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan external to the cytoplasmic membrane. In contrast, Gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer of peptidoglycan located between the cytoplasmic membrane and a second membrane called the outer membrane. This region is known as the periplasmic space. Other important constituents of the cell wall include the following:

Peptidoglycan: This is a polymer of alternating N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG). Long strands of this alternating polymer may be linked by L-alanine, D-glutamic acid, L-lysine, D-alanine tetrapeptides to NAM. Gram-positive cells have a much more highly cross-linked peptidoglycan structure than Gram-negative cells. Peptidoglycan is also the "target" of antimicrobial activity. For example, penicillins interfere with the enzymes involved in biosynthesis of peptidoglycan while lysozyme physically cleaves the NAM-NAG bond. Lipoteichoic acids: Lipoteichoic acids (LTA) are found only in Grampositive bacteria. These polysaccharides extend though the
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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

entire peptidoglycan layer and appear on the cell surface. As a consequence, these structures can serve as antigenic determinants.

Lipopolysaccharides: Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are found only in Gram-negative bacteria. These structures are composed of lipid A, which binds the LPS in the outer membrane and is itself the endotoxic portion of the molecule. The polysaccharide moiety appears on the cell surface, serving as an antigenic determinant ("O antigen").

Identification of bacteria The bacterial cells are stained by simple staining methods to study their size, shape and arrangement. Grams Staining Based on their cell wall types, they are categorized into Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. This staining technique was developed by Hans Christian Gram, a Danish physician in the year 1883. This is the most widely used method of bacterial staining and classification.

Characteristics of a Gram-positive bacterium are given below

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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

The cell is made of two layers; the cell membrane and the cell wall (thick layer of peptidoglycan). Thus, making the cell wall thick. The amount of lipid is less in the cell wall, which retains the stain back in the cell.

Characteristics of a Gram-negative bacterium are given below The cell envelop is thin but, made of three layers; the cell wall, a thin layer of peptidoglycan) and cell membrane. Large quantities of lipids are present in the cell, which dissolves in ethanol and washing away the stain.

Acid fast staining Some bacteria need a little harsh methods of treatment for staining. This staining method is based on the lipid content of the cell.

Ecology of Bacteria
-Bacteria contribute in many ways to the ecosystem. While some can be
harmful to living creatures, we would not be alive if it weren't for the bacteria in our intestines that help us break down food. Bacteria like nitrogen fixers contribute significantly to the life cycle of living creatures, and decomposers, along with fungi, help to break down organic material.

-Bacteria were one of the first organisms on the planet. From these

unicellular prokaryotic organisms, eukaryotes evolved and eventually multicellular organisms like us evolved. Bacteria are among the bottom of many food webs.

Bacteria grow in a wide variety of habitats and conditions.

When most people think of bacteria, they think of disease-causing organisms, like the Streptococcus bacteria growing in culture in this picture,
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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

which were isolated from a man with strep throat. While pathogenic bacteria are notorious for such diseases as cholera, tuberculosis, and gonorrhea, such disease-causing species are a comparatively tiny fraction of the bacteria as a whole. Bacteria are so widespread that it is possible only to make the most general statements about their life history and ecology. They may be found on the tops of mountains, the bottom of the deepest oceans, in the guts of animals, and even in the frozen rocks and ice of Antarctica. One feature that has enabled them to spread so far, and last so long is their ability to go dormant for an extended period.

Bacteria have a wide range of envronmental and nutritive requirements.

Most bacteria may be placed into one of three groups based on their response to gaseous oxygen. Aerobic bacteria thrive in the presence of oxygen and require it for their continued growth and existence. Other bacteria are anaerobic, and cannot tolerate gaseous oxygen, such as those bacteria which live in deep underwater sediments, or those which cause bacterial food poisoning. The third group are the facultative anaerobes, which prefer growing in the presence of oxygen, but can continue to grow without it. Bacteria may also be classified both by the mode by which they obtain their energy. Classified by the source of their energy, bacteria fall into two categories: heterotrophs and autotrophs. Heterotrophs derive energy from breaking down complex organic compounds that they must take in from the environment -- this includes saprobic bacteria found in decaying material, as well as those that rely on fermentation or respiration. The other group, the autotrophs, fix carbon dioxide to make their own food source; this may be fueled by light energy (photoautotrophic), or by oxidation of nitrogen, sulfur, or other elements (chemoautotrophic). While chemoautotrophs are uncommon, photoautotrophs are common and quite diverse. They include the cyanobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, purple sulfur bacteria, and purple nonsulfur bacteria. The sulfur bacteria are particularly interesting, since they use hydrogen sulfide as hydrogen donor, instead of water like most other photosynthetic organisms, including cyanobacteria.

Bacteria play important roles in the global ecosystem.

The ecosystem, both on land and in the water, depends heavily upon the activity of bacteria. The cycling of nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur is completed by their ceaseless labor. Organic carbon, in the form of dead and rotting organisms, would quickly deplete the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere if not for the activity of decomposers. This may not sound too bad to you, but realize that without carbon dioxide, there would be no photosynthesis in plants, and no food. When organisms die, the carbon contained in their tissues becomes unavailble
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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

for most other living things. Decomposition is the breakdown of these organisms, and the release of nutrients back into the environment, and is one of the most important roles of the bacteria. The cycling of nitrogen is another important activity of bacteria. Plants rely on nitrogen from the soil for their health and growth, and cannot acquire it from the gaseous nitrogen in the atmosphere. The primary way in which nitrogen becomes available to them is through nitrogen fixation by bacteria such as Rhizobium, and by cyanobacteria such as Anabaena, Nostoc, and Spirulina, shown at right. These bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen into nitrates or nitrites as part of their metabolism, and the resulting products are released into the environment. Some plants, such as liverworts, cycads, and legumes have taken special advantage of this process by modifying their structure to house the basteria in their own tissues. Other denitrifying bacteria metabolize in the reverse direction, turning nitrates into nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide. When colonies of these bacteria occur on croplands, they may deplete the soil nutrients, and make it difficult for crops to grow.

Mollicutes (mycoplasma)

The Mollicutes are a class of bacteria distinguished by the absence of a cell wall. The word "Mollicutes" is derived from the Latin mollis (meaning "soft" or "pliable"), and cutis (meaning "skin"). They are parasites of various animals and plants, living on or in the host's cells. Individuals are very small, typically only 0.20.3 m in size and have a very small genome size. They vary in form, although most have sterols that make the cell membrane somewhat more rigid. Many are able to move about through gliding, but members of the genus Spiroplasma are helical and move by twisting. The best-known genus in Mollicutes is Mycoplasma.

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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

Characteristics
There are over 100 recognized species of the genus Mycoplasma, one
of several genera within the bacterial class Mollicutes. Mollicutes are parasites or commensals of humans, other animals (including insects), and plants; the genus Mycoplasma is by definition restricted to vertebrate hosts. Cholesterol is required for the growth of species of the genus Mycoplasma as well as certain other genera of mollicutes. Their optimum growth temperature is often the temperature of their host if warmbodied (e. g. 37 C in humans) or ambient temperature if the host is unable to regulate its own internal temperature. Analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA sequences as well as gene content strongly suggest that the mollicutes, including the mycoplasmas, are closely related to either the Lactobacillus or the Clostridium branch of the phylogenetic tree (Firmicutes sensu stricto).

Cell morphology
The bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma (trivial name: mycoplasmas) and their close relatives are characterized by lack of a cell wall. Despite this, the cells often present a certain shape, with a characteristic small size, with typically about 10% of the volume of an Escherichia coli cell. These cell shapes presumably contribute to the ability of mycoplasmas to thrive in their respective environments. Most are pseudococcoidal, but there are notable exceptions. Species of the M. fastidiosum cluster are rod-shaped. Species of the M. pneumoniae cluster, including M. pneumoniae, possess a polar extension protruding from the pseudococcoidal cell body. This tip structure, designated an attachment organelle or terminal organelle, is essential for adherence to host cells and for movement along solid surfaces (gliding motility), and is implicated in normal cell division. M. pneumoniae cells are pleomorphic, with an attachment organelle of regular dimensions at one pole and a trailing filament of variable length and uncertain function at the other end, whereas other species in the cluster typically lack the trailing filament. Other species like M. mobile and M. pulmonis have similar structures with similar functions. Mycoplasmas are unusual among bacteria in that most require sterols for the stability of their cytoplasmic membrane. Sterols are acquired from the environment, usually as cholesterol from the animal host. Mycoplasmas generally possess a relatively small genome of 0.58-1.38 megabases, which results in drastically reduced biosynthetic capabilities and explains their dependence on a host. Additionally they use an alternate genetic code where the codon UGA is encoding for the amino acid tryptophan instead of the usual opal stop codon. They have a low GC-content (23-40 mol %).

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General characteristics of bacteria and mollicutes

Ecology
Mycoplasma mycoides are parasites that can be found predominantly in cattle and goat hosts. They rely on their hosts for much of their nutrition mainly due to fact that they have a degraded genome and are not able to perform many basic functions of most bacteria. Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia is spread by inhalation of droplets from an infected, coughing animal. However, relatively close contact is required for transmission to occur.

Introduction to Plant pathogens