FLORAL BIOLOGY OF IMPORTANT COMMERCIAL FLOWER CROPS

Flower biology of rose

Floral biology of rose:

Classification of rose
Kingdom Division Class Order Family Subfamily Genus Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Rosales Rosaceae Rosoideae Rosa

Family: Rosaceae / Rose family

It has about 100 genera and 2000 species. Floral diagram:-

FLORAL FORMULA + , Q , K(5) , C( ) , Ax , G1/ (2-5) or x

Flower characters of rosaceae family:

Flower :Usually, Complete, bisexual, actinomorphic, perigynous, pentamerous. And consists of following important parts.

1. CALYX Usually, Sometime epicalyx may also be present, of variable number, 5 sepals are present, Gamosepalous, green, pubescent. 2. COROLLA Usually, 5 petals or multiple of 5 petals, polypetalous, aestivation, imbricate, shape-rosaceous, full of colour.

3. ANDROCEIUM Usually, Nomerous stamen,ditheous, anther, enerted, extrose, dorsi fixed. 4. GYNOECIUM Usually, Monocarpillary or multiple capillary with formation of a single compound pistil. Ovary perigynous, unilocular two or more ovules are present, placentation axile when the carpels are many and syncarpous.

Rose flower structure

A Short Discussion of Flower Structure

The stem which connects the flower to the rest of the plant is the pedicel. If there is a cluster of flowers, the entire cluster is supported by a peduncle. Pedicels always subtend individual flowers; peduncles subtend entire inflorescences. The end of the pedicel, where the stem stops and the flower begins, is the receptacle. In most non-rose flowers, the other parts of the flower are attached directly to the receptacle. However, in roses, there is a bowl-shaped hypanthium, which is a combination of the receptacle and the bases of the sepals, petals, and stamens, all fused together into a single unit. The hypanthium ultimately grows to become a rose hip. Attached to the hypanthium are four groups (whorls) of parts. The outer two are non-reproductive; the inner two are reproductive.

 The outermost whorl is the calyx. It is made up of five green, leaf-like flaps, each of which is a sepal. The sepals covers the floral bud until shortly it opens. The second whorl is the corolla. The corolla is made up of five large, colorful flaps, the petals. These, of course are the most showy portion of the flower. The calyx and corolla are the nonreproductive whorls; the two of them together are referred to as the perianth. Inside the perianth is the third whorl, the androecium , made up of many stamens. This is the male portion of the flower. Each stamen consists of a long, thin stalk - the filament, and a larger, usually yellow top portion - the anther. Pollen is produced inside the anther, which cracks open to release the pollen when the flower is fully open.

 At the center of the flower is the gynoecium, the female portion of the flower, consisting of many pistils. Each pistil has three parts - a knob-like stigma, onto which pollen is placed during pollination, a long, thin stalk called the style, and a large, bulbous ovary at the base, which contains a single ovule. After pollination and fertilization, the ovule grows to become a seed. A rose would normally have many (an infinite number!) of pistils. The pistils are attached inside the hypanthium, to its floor and inner walls.

Pollination in rose
The chief pollinators of rose flowers are bees belonging to different genus. Metallic green flower bees (Augochlora), honey bees (Apis) and large bumble bees (Bombus) play an important role in rose pollination. These pollinators are unspecialized and also pollinate many other species which have actinomorphic flowers and offer copious pollen as a reward for flower visitation.

Varietal improvement in rose

 Rose breeding has received highest importance in India, and as a result about 545 rose varieties were evolved during the last 55 years.  There are three types of commercially grown roses. These are Hybrid Tea, Floribundas and Spray roses.  Only hybrid tea and floribundas are grown under green house for export purpose.

Hybrid tea roses: These are having a long stem that varies from 50-120 cm. and big size blooms from 3.02-3.5 cm. These flowers are bigger and more often tender than the floribunda type under ideal conditions. This type is expected to yield about 140-180 stems per sq.m. But under Indian conditions the average yield obtained by many units is 100-130 stems per sq.mtr. These flowers are liked mainly in USA, Japan and other European countries. They fetch higher price than Floribundas.

Floribunda: It produces flowers with stem length of 35-60 cm. And bud size from 2.0-2.5 cm. They yield much higher than hybrid teas producing as many as 300 flowers per sq. m. Per year but the average yield obtained under India conditions is around 130-150 stems per sq. m. These types of flowers are much popular with the Dutch and German Consumers. These flowers fetch around 30-40% less price than the hybrid tea. According to the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, ICAR, Government of India, in 1999-2000, rose varieties Dr. B. P. Pal, Blue Delight, Anurag, Ashirwad, Ico, Ambassador, Blue Ocean and Aditya were promising at the national level; Ashirwad, Anurag and Siddhartha for exhibition purpose; Black Delight, Blue Ocean and Aditya for garden display and Ico, Ambassador and Kanchi for cut and loose flowers at Hyderabad.

Floral biology of marigold

Marigolds are hardy, annual plants . Broadly, there are two genuses Marigolds viz., Tagetes and Celandula. Tagetes includes African Marigolds and French Marigolds.

Classification of marigold
Kingdom Division Class Order Family Genus Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Asterales Asteraceae Tagetes

Family:- Asteraceae (Marigold and Chrysanthemum family)

Flowers: in this family flowers can be perfect or imperfect and the plants are usually monoecious. There are two basic kinds of flowers in this family. These are disk and ray flowers. DISK flowers- actinomorphic(radially symmetric), tubular corolla RAY flowers zygomorphic(bilaterally symmetric), ligulate corolla Calyx = pappus, bracts = chaff Stamens with free filaments attached to base of corolla, but anthers connate into a tube around style Carpels 2, syncarpous; ovary inferior, 1-locular with 1 basal ovule Inflorescence: Heads surrounded by phyllaries; heads arranged in secondary cymes or racemes A BIG family, most advanced dicot family

Flower structure in asteraceae family

 A Marigold flower is always characterized by a tightly grouped set of true flowers all arising from the same receptacle and are generally not particularly colorful. Technically, this group of inflorescences is referred to as the capitulum, or more simply, the flower head. These true flowers, are surrounded by ray florets, the most colorful part of the Marigold flower.

Single or multiple rows of ray florets may surround the capitulum. The most showy and full Marigold flowers are comprised of many rows of ray florets .

 Flower size ranges from 4 to 12 cm in the Tagetes genus. In rare cases, a Marigold flower may be referred to as apetalous meaning it is lacking the colorful ray florets that would commonly surround the capitulum. Both male and female reproductive organs are present in the Marigold- the stamen and pistil, respectively. Ovaries of the Marigold flower are inferior. That is, they are located below the point at which the ray florets are connected to the ovary. A Marigolds seed is referred to as an Achene. The seed does not contain endosperm.

Pollination in marigold
In marigold pollination takes place by means of insects. This type of pollination is known as entomophily. In the following picture honey bee (main pollinating agent) is visiting marigold flower.

Artificial pollination in marigold flower:The pollen is produced in the central disk florets. We can remove the entire pollen bearing disk floret and use it as a kind of brush to rub pollen on the stigmas of the ray florets (petals) of the female parent. Then attach some kind of little marker to the female flower so that later we can easily harvest the seeds from it. This following diagram shows the location of the ray florets and the disk florets in the marigold flower.

Crop improvement in marigold

In marigold, a F1 hybrid triploid has been developed at the NBRI, Lucknow, by using male-sterile African diploid marigold (Tagetes erecta) and male-fertile French tetraploid (T. patula). The F1 hybrids are dwarf, highly floriferous and free flowering with uniform golden-yellow heads that bear nearly one-and-a half times more flowers by weight per unit area. At the IARI, New Delhi, a F1 hybrid of French marigold obtained from crosses between Petite Orange x Rusty Red and Naughty Marrieta x Pygmy showed increase in the weight and number of flowers respectively than that of parents. In African marigold, F1 hybrids between Hawaii x Cupid Orange and Alaska x Spungold were superior to parents.

 French Marigolds (Tagetes patula): Marigold cultivars in this group grow 5 inches to 18 inches high. Flower colors are red, orange and yellow. Red and orange bicolor patterns are also found. Flowers are smaller, (2 inches across). French Marigolds are ideal for edging flowerbeds and in mass plantings. They also do well in containers and window boxes. Signet Marigolds (T. signata 'pumila'): The signet Marigolds produce compact plants with finely divided, lacy foliage and clusters of small, single flowers. They have yellow to orange colored, edible flowers.The flowers of signet marigolds have a spicy tarragon flavor. The foliage has a pleasant lemon fragrance. Signet Marigolds are excellent plants for edging beds and in window boxes. Mule Marigolds: These marigolds are the sterile hybrids of tall African and dwarf French marigolds, hence known as mule Marigolds. Most triploid cultivars grow from 12 to 18 inches high. Though they have the combined qualities of their parents, their rate of germination is low.

Floral biology of chrysanthemum

Chrysanthemum floral biology

Chrysanthemum comes from Greek 'Chrys' meaning golden (the color of the original flowers), and 'anthemon', meaning flower. This name was given to it by Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish naturalist also known as the father of modern taxonomy.
Kingdom Division Class Order Family Genus Species Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Asterales Asteraceae chrysanthemum morifolii

Pollination in chrysanthemum
Pollination consists of transferring ripe pollen from the anthers of one cultivar to the stigma of another. Pollination in chrysanthemum takes place by means of insects. In following picture insect is visiting chrysanthemum flowers and hence serve as a good mean of pollination.

butterfly and honey bee as pollinating agents in chrysanthemum

Pollination process in chrysanthemum

Pollination consists of transferring ripe pollen from the anthers of one cultivar to the stigma of another. This can be done using a soft brush (camel hair brushes are favoured by some breeders). The petals of the recipient bloom are first closely trimed to make the stigma accessible. The recipient bloom should be prepared and made ready to recieve the pollen. If the recipient is a double type then the ray florets should be reduced gradually over a period of days until the tip of the pistil is seen. The stigma should then grow and elongate beyond the point to which the ray florets were cut back, pollination is then relatively straight forward.

 If the recipient flower is a single or anemone type then treatment is slightly different. The entire centre of the bloom should be cut down so that all anthers are removed leaving only the ray florets for hybridisation. When the tips of the stigma are curled back then this is the time to apply the pollen. Pollination can be carried out in situ with the recipient bloom still on the plant and the pollen donor carefully carried to the recipient, alternatively both recipient and donor can be carried indoors and pollination carried out there. In each case it is a good idea to have labels ready to record details of the crossing and attach securely to the stem of the recipent. If pollen is produced before the recipient bloom is in the required condition then it is possible to collect and store pollen provided the container is kept dry. Pollen collected in this way may remain usable for some weeks after.

Chrysanthemum crop improvement

 Chrysanthemum is recognized as a potent flower crop in India. It is used as a cut flower for interior decoration and as a loose flowers for making garlands, wreaths and for religious offerings.  Work on evolving new chrysanthemum varieties has been under way mainly at the NBRI, Lucknow, and the IIHR, Bangalore.  The aim of breeding chrysanthemum has been to evolve exhibition, cut flower and garland types.  A new approach has also been adopted to breed varieties, which naturally bloom in different months without light and temperature control.  At the IIHR, Bangalore. Emphasis had been on breeding high-yielding cultivars for garland and pot-culture and 5 new cultivars have been developed.  The PAU, Ludhiana, and TNAU, Coimbatore, each has evolved 4 cultivars. Apart from institutional efforts, some amateur and professional growers have also developed a good number of chrysanthemum cultivars.

Chrysanthemum crop improvement

According to DARE in 1999-2000, at Lucknow, a new small-flowered, red, Anemone type, mini chrysanthemum variety, Diana, was released. A desirable natural mutant was isolated and multiplied in Nilima and a promising hybrid 87-17-1 was identified for future release at Hessaraghatta. New varieties, Mutant No. 9 (for cut flower and loose flowers) and Hybrid No. 10, Hybrid No. 11, Hybrid No. 12, Hybrid No. 13, Sunil, Indira, Sonaly, Tara, Selection 5 and Shyamal (for loose flowers) were suitable for commercial flower production. Shyamal, Baggi, IIHR Sel. 5 and Indira were promising at Pune, whereas Basanti, Sharadmala, Baggi, Red Gold, Co 1, IIHR 13 and Vasantika at Hyderabad. Indira, IIHR Sel 6, Meera and Red Gold performed well in respect of flower yield at Udaipur.

Floral biology of gladiolus

Gladiolus Classification
The genus Gladiolus comprises 260 species, 250 of which are native to subSaharan Africa, mostly South Africa. About 10 species are native to Eurasia. The impressive flower spikes of Gladioli come in a wide array of beautiful colors.
Kingdom Division Class Order Family Genus Plantae Magnoliophyta Liliopsida Asparagales Iridaceae Gladiolus

Gladiolus Flower
"Gladius" is the Latin word for sword. The gladiolus was named for its sword-shaped leaves and is sometimes referred to as "sword lily." A member of the Iridaceae family, gladioli are grown for their showy flowers. Native to Africa, the Middle East and Mediterranean countries, horticulturists have developed gladioli over the centuries into the colorful garden plants enjoyed today.

Gladiolus- floral characterstics

In Gladiolus, each flower is subtended by 2 green bracts. These are not the sepals. The sepals and petals are similar in color and texture--i.e., there are no solid green sepals. These are slightly zygomorphic flowers with 3 sepals and 3 petals. The sepals are free (not united), and so are the petals , but there is often some fusion of petals to sepals. Gladiolus has 3 stamens adnate to the corolla and one style with 3 branches. The ovary is inferior, with 3 carpels. Placentation is axile and the fruit will be a capsule.

Gladiolus floral diagram and formula

stigma Pollen germination Pollen tube style filament anthers

tepals ovary

ovules

bract receptacles stalk

Gladiolus flower structure

The gladiolus flower spikes (from 1 4 feet tall) are one-sided and large, with secund, bisexual flowers. Flower colors may be green, white, mauve, yellow, red, orange, purple or pink, with stripes or blotches of another color. Each of its flower is subtended by 2 leathery, green bracts. The petals and sepals are almost identical in appearance, and are termed tepals.

Two of them are united at their base into a tube-shaped structure. The largest is its dorsal tepal, arching over the three stamens. The outer three tepals are narrower. The perianth of gladiolus is funnel-shaped, with its stamens attached to its base. The style has 3 filiform, spoon-shaped branches, each expanding towards the apex. Some gladioli have scented flowers.

Gladioli flower parts

The gladiolus flower has three stamens, which are the male parts of the reproductive system. A stamen has a slender stalk called a filament. At the top of the filament are the anthers, the parts that hold the pollen.

There is a single female part, or pistil, in a gladiolus flower. The pistil is comprised of the ovary that is slightly bulbous at the base. Out of the ovary stands the long part of the pistil called the style. On top of the style in a gladiolus are three stigmas. The stigmas are the sticky parts of the pistil where the pollen is delivered for fertilization.

 Gladiolus has a dry type of stigma. Compatible pollen grains alight and germinate on the receptive surface of the papillae, penetrate the cuticle and grow towards the style through a sub-cuticular pollen-tube guide of mucilage. This is secreted from epidermal cells of the stylodium and style canal. The cuticle, which covers the pollen tube guide mucilage, is continuous through the style canal to the ovary.

Close up view of gladiolus and its parts

Pollination in gladiolus
In gladiolus flower is pollinated by means of birds. This type of pollination is known as ornithophily. In the following picture humming bird is visiting gladiolus flower and serves as an effective mean of pollen dispersal.

Crop improvement in gladiolus

The Nanus hybrids are smaller than the Grandiflora. The Primulinus hybrids have blooms that hang freely rather than stiffly up the stalk.

Gladiolus crop improvement



 

Gladiolus is one of the most important bulbous flowering crops grown commercially for cut-flower trade in India. The main emphasis on gladiolus improvement has been on the development of varieties having attractive colour and large size of florets mainly for cut-flower, long spikes, more number of well spaced and largesized florets, good corm multiplication ability and field resistance to diseases, particularly Fusarium wilt. The success of G. psittacinus hybrid at the NBRI inspired research in evolving different coloured varieties suitable for growing in the plains and resulted in the release of 11 cultivars. Notable among these are Jwala, Priyadarshini and Gazal, all of which are open-pollinated selections. Further, through systematic hybridization involving gladiolus Friendship (2n = 60) with G. tristis (2n = 30), 8 new triploid (2n = 45) cultivars were evolved.

Cont.
According to DARE, Gladiolus Shagun and Shringarika were released by Delhi centre. Hybrids Amal and Tambri performed well at Vellanikkara. Gladiolus Snow White, Suchitra, Punjab Morning, Jester, Aldrion, Golden, Wave and Thrombolina were promising at Hyderabad. The many cultivars are classified into 3 major groups: they are Nanus, Primulinus and Grandiflorus. Hybrids and cultivars in the group of Nanus bloom in early summer with two/three 22 to 35 cm spikes per corm, the spike each bearing 3 to 5 open flowers at a time. Those in the group of Primulinus bloom in midsummer with a single very slender 30 to 60 cm stem per corm, the stem bears 20 buds with up to 7 open at a time.

 Cultivars and hybrids from the Grandiflorus group bloom from late spring through autumn with as many as 28 buds on (usually) a single spike of usually 35 to 90 cm tall, dozen of flowers may be open at a time. Gladioli of the Grandiflorus group are classified further by flower size and color in an elaborate trinomial system, with first digit indicating size, the second indicating color and the third intensity of color. The largest Grandiflorus cultivars can get up to 1.7 metre tall, while some miniatures do not reach 90 cm in height.

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