Lady Mae Dalumpines Pineth Turnino Renz Christian Narida

One of the most noticeable of bodily pressures, bladder pressure varies over quite a large range. It is zero when the bladder is empty and climbs steadily to about 25 mm Hg when the bladder reaches its normal capacity of some 500 cm . The micturition (urination) reflex is triggered by a bladder pressure of about 25 mm Hg. That reflex stimulates the feeling of needing to urinate, and it further triggers muscles contractions around the bladder that can raise bladder pressure to 110 mm Hg, accentuating the sensation.

Coughing, straining, sitting up, tight cloths, simple nervous stress also can increase bladder pressure and trigger the micturition reflex long before the bladder is full. Students studying for exams and authors striving to meet deadlines make many trips to the toilet. Pregnant women experience increased bladder pressure to the weight of the fetus resting on the bladder and find it necessary to urinate frequently. The capacity of their bladders is also less than the normal 500 cm because of the space that the fetus occupies.

Bladder pressure while urinating is normally 15-30 mm Hg, but an obstruction of the urinary tract, such as from a swollen prostate gland, can necessitate pressures as large as 70 mmHg. The larger the resistance of a tube, the larger is the pressure difference needed to cause the same flow rate.

Bladder pressure can be measured by catheterization through the urinary tract or by insertion of a needle through the abdominal wall into the bladder (called direct cystometry). Both techniques transmit bladder pressure through a liquid to a measuring device, commonly a water manometer. Because it is most convenient to use water to transmit the pressure and to fill the manometer, bladder pressures are normally given in centimeters of water. The normal range is from 0 to 30 cm of water, rising to 150 cm of water during the micturition reflex.

The pressure of blood against the inner walls of any blood vessel. Although occur throughout the vascular system it is most commonly refers to pressure in arteries supplied by branches of aorta, thus the arterial pressure or arterial blood pressure.

The pressure of blood on the walls of the arteries, dependent on the energy of the heart action, elasticity of the arterial walls, and volume and viscosity of the blood The maximum or systolic pressure occurs near the end of the stroke output of the left ventricle, and the minimum or diastolic late in ventricular diastole.

Central Venous Pressure (CVP) the venous pressure as measured at the right atrium, done by means of a catheter introduced through the median cubital vein to the superior vena cava. Detrusor Pressure the pressure exerted inwards by the detrusor urinae muscles of the bladder wall. Diastolic Pressure When the ventricle relax ( ventricular diastole), the arterial pressure drops and the lowest pressure that remains in the arteries before the next ventricular contraction .

End-diastolic pressure the pressure in the ventricles at the end of diastole, usually measured in the left ventricle as an approximation of the end-diastolic volume. Intracranial pressure (ICP) pressure of the subarachnoidal fluid. Intravesical Pressure the pressure exerted on the contents of the urinary bladder; the sum of the intraabdominal pressure from outside the bladder and the detrusor pressure.

Maximum Expiratory Pressure (MEP) a measure of the strength of respiratory muscles, obtained by having the patient exhale as strongly as possible against a mouthpiece; the maximum value is near total lung capacity. Maximum Inspiratory Pressure (MIP) a measure of the strength of respiratory muscles, obtained by having the patient inhale as strongly as possible with the mouth against a mouthpiece; the maximum value is near the residual volume. Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) the average pressure within an artery over a complete cycle of one heartbeat.

Mean Circulatory Filling Pressure a measure of the average (arterial and venous) pressure necessary to cause filling of the circulation with blood; it varies with blood volume and is directly proportional to the rate of venous return and thus to cardiac output. Negative Pressure pressure less than that of the atmosphere. Oncotic Pressure the osmotic pressure due to the presence of colloids in solution.

Osmotic Pressure the pressure required to prevent osmosis through a semipermeable membrane between a solution and pure solvent; it is proportional to the osmolality of the solution. Partial Pressure the pressure exerted by each of the constituents of a mixture of gases. Positive Pressure pressure greater than that of the atmosphere.

Pulse Pressure the difference between systolic and diastolic pressures. Systolic Pressure maximum pressure during vetricular contraction. Venous Pressure the pressure of blood in the veins.

The pressure of cerebrospinal fluid in the central nervous system. It usually measures between 100 and 150 mm of H2O or 10 and 15 mm Hg and is measured by a manometer attached to the end of a needle after it has been inserted into the subarachnoid space via lumbar puncture (most commonly).

Pressure exerted against the outer coats by the contents of the eyeball. It is controlled by a watery fluid called aqueous humour, which fills the front part of the eye. This fluid is made in the ciliary body (a ring of tissue behind the coloured part of the eye, which is called the iris). It flows through the pupil and drains away through tiny drainage channels called the trabecular meshwork.

This is situated in the drainage angle between the cornea (the clear window at the front of the eye) and the iris. In a normal eye there is a balance between the production and drainage of this fluid, but in some eyes there is an imbalance. Most cases of glaucoma occur because the flow of fluid out of the eye becomes restricted and the pressure in the eye rises.

Food, drink and waste products moving through the 6 cm long digestive tract or gastrointestinal system are fluid or fluid like in character. Their flow is regulated by pressure and especially by valves and sphincter muscles in the system the esophagus is an exception; its pressure is directly related to thoracic (chest) cavity pressure and is negative. Thoracic cavity pressure is sometimes monitored by measuring pressure in the esophagus and stomach to prevent backflow of stomach fluids, the most common cause of heartburn. During swallowing, muscle action in the esophagus forces fluids into the stomach.

Pressures in GI system are increased by swallowed air or by flatus produced by bacterial action, causing cramps. This is very noticeable in infants, who often swallow air while eating. Blockages in the GI system also causes pressures to increase, even to the point of rupture, due to the buildup of fluids. The stomach is elastic, so pressure in it increases gradually, becoming large only when stomach pressure is low. The pressure is dependent on the capacity of the stomach, which can change with eating habits. The stomach stretches considerably when a person consistently overeats, and a large stomach s relative emptiness triggers the sensation of hunger before the person really needs more food.

 Skeletal pressure depends on

physical activity. It is the force carried by a bone or joint divided by the area, on which it is exerted.

Figure 7.5(a) shows the knee joint surface at the upper end of the lower leg bone (the tibia). Note that the surface of the joint is larger than the cross-sectional area of the bone below. This large area reduces the pressure at the joint and prevents its deterioration.

 In Figure 7.5(b) a cross section of a

finger bone is shown. The bone is flat on the gripping side. The large flat area reduces pressure on the tissues covering the bone when forces are exerted by the hand.

Blood Velocity it is much greater in major arteries (30cm/sec) than in capillaries (about 3 x 10 cm/sec)
 it increases again when the capillaries rejoin to form a vein  changes in average blood velocity occur during branching in the total

Example: the aorta branches into the major arteries, each of which has smaller cross sectional area but whose combined area is larger than the area of the aorta. The total flow rate the major arteries have is the same as in the aorta since all the blood which passes through the aorta must also pass through the major arteries. The average blood velocity increases when the blood passes from the capillary system into the venules and from there into the larger veins. The decrease in velocity going from the aorta to the capillaries is not caused by resistance to flow. Resistance causes pressure to drop but does not affect velocity.

cross-sectional area of the system and other changes are also produced by the heart.

It does not quantitatively describe blood flow very accurately for a number of reasons. 1. Blood is not an ideal fluid, it contains blood cells, which are not fluid in character and whose size is large enough to affect flow in arterioles, capillaries and venules. 2. Vessel walls are not rigid, so flow is affected as they expand and contract with each heartbeat. 3. It is only valid for nonturbulent flow. It is widely applied to blood flow and does not give a good qualitative description of the dependence of flow on radius and viscosity. It is an expression for resistance to laminar flow of an incompressible fluid.