VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

Course File
PR 2251 ADVANCE MACHINING PROCESS
Fourth Semester Production Engineering

B.RAJADURAI Asst. Professor Department of Mechanical/ Production Engineering

VELAMMAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Branch Subject Semester Staff

: Production Engineering : PR 2251 ADVANCE MACHINING PROCESS

: IV : B. RAJADURAI

Prepared By B.RAJADURAI

Approved By HOD/PROD

Principal

ADVANCED MACHINING PROCESS UNIT 1 MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING: INTRODUCTION:

Metal cutting or traditional machining processes are also known as conventional machining processes. These processes are commonly carried out in machine shops or tool room for machining cylindrical or flat jobs to a desired shape, size and finish on a rough block of job material with the help of a wedge shaped tool. The cutting tool is constrained to move relative to the job in such a way that a layer of metal is removed in the form of a chip. General metal cutting operations are shown in Fig. 1. These machining processes are performed on metal cutting machines, more commonly termed as machine tools using various types of cutting tools (single or multi-point). A machine tool is a power driven metal cutting machine which assist in managing the needed relative motion between cutting tool and the job that changes the size and shape of the job material. In metal cutting (machining) process, working motion is imparted to the workpiece and cutting tool by the mechanisms of machine tool so that the work and tool travel relative to each other and machine the workpiece material in the form of shavings (or swarf) known as chips.

FIG: 1

FIG :2

The machine tools involve various kinds of machines tools commonly named as lathe, Shaper, planer, slotter, drilling, milling and grinding machines etc. The machining jobs are mainly of two types namely cylindrical and flats or prismatic. Cylindrical jobs are generally machined using lathe, milling, drilling and cylindrical grinding whereas prismatic jobs are machined using shaper, planner, milling, drilling and surface grinding. In metal cutting operation, the position of cutting edge of the cutting tool is important based on which the cutting operation is classified as orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting. Orthogonal cutting (Fig. 3) is also known as two dimensional metal cutting in which the cutting edge is normal to the work piece. In orthogonal cutting no force exists in direction

perpendicular to relative motion between tool and work piece. Oblique cutting is the common type of three dimensional cutting used in various metal cutting operations in which the cutting action is inclined with the job by a certain angle called the inclination angle

. FIG:3 FIG:4

CUTTING TOOL Cutting tools performs the main machining operation. They comprise of single point cutting tool or multipoint cutting tools. It is a body having teeth or cutting edges on it. A single point cutting tool (such as a lathe, shaper and planner and boring tool) has only one cutting edge, whereas a multi-point cutting tool (such as milling cutter, milling cutter, drill, reamer and broach) has a number of teeth or cutting edges on its periphery. Single Point Cutting Tools There are mainly two types of single point tools namely the solid type as shown in Fig.5 and the tipped tool FIG. 6. The solid type single point tool may be made from high speed steel, from a cast alloy. Brazed tools (Fig.7) are generally known as tool bits and are used in tool holders. The tipped type of tool is made from a good shank steel on which is mounted a tip of cutting tool material. Tip may be made of high speed steel or cemented carbide. In addition to this, there are long index-able insert tools and throwaway. The Insert type tool throwaway refers to the cutting tool insert which is mechanically held in the tool holder. The inserts are purchased which are ready for use. When all cutting edges are used, the insert is discarded and not re-sharpened. These tools can be further classified depending upon the operations for which they are used and the type of the shank (straight or bent shank type). Tools may be of the types planning tools, turning tools, facing tool, boring tools, parting and slotting tools etc. Different types of carbide tips are generally used on tipped tool. In general the straight shank type tools are cheaper to manufacture as compared to bent shank type. But bent shank type can be used for turning either longitudinal or cross feed without resetting and for

FIG:5

FIG : 6

FIG:7

A single point cutting tool can be understood by its geometry (Fig.8). Geometry comprises mainly of nose, rake face of the tool, flank, heel and shank etc. The nose is shaped as conical with different angles. The angles are specified in a perfect sequence as American Society of Tool Manufacturer for recognizing them as under.

FIG : 8 Nomenclature Single Point Tool The elements of tool signature or nomenclature single point tool is illustrated in Fig. 9 (i) Back rake angle It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. If the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake angle and if it is upward toward nose, it is positive back rake angle. This angle helps in removing the chips away from the work piece. (ii) Side rake angle It is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined side ways. This angle of tool determines the thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is provided on tool to provide clearance between work piece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of work- piece with end flake of tool. It is the angle between the surface the flank immediately below the point and the line down from the point perpendicular to the base. (iii) End relief angle It is the angle that allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the work- piece. It is defined as the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at right angles to the flank. Some time extra end clearance is also provided on the tool that is also known as end clearance angle. It is the secondary angle directly below the end relief angle (iv) Side relief angle It is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the material. It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool measured at right angles to the side. It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the work piece surface. Some time extra side clearance is also provided on the tool that is also known as side clearance angle. It is the secondary angle directly below the side relief angle.

FIG : 9 (v) End cutting edge angle It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the shank of the tool. It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and work piece. (vi) Side cutting edge angle It is the angle between straight cutting edge on the side of tool and the side of the shank. It is also known as lead angle. It is responsible for turning the chip away from the finished surface. (vii) Nose radius It is the nose point connecting the side cutting edge and end cutting edge. It possesses small radius which is responsible for generating surface finish on the work-piece. Tool Signature Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a standardized abbreviated system is known as tool signature or tool nomenclature. It indicates the angles that a tool utilizes during the cut. It specifies the active angles of the tool normal to the cutting edge. This will always be true as long as the tool shank is mounted at right angles to the work-piece axis. The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting tool can be stated in the following order: Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8 1. Back rake angle (0) 2. Side rake angle (7) 3. End relief angle (6) 4. Side relief angle (8) 5. End cutting edge angle (15) 6. Side cutting edge angle (16) 7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING Metal cutting operation is illustrated in Fig. 10. The work piece is securely clamped in a machine tool vice or clamps or chuck or collet. A wedge shape tool is set to a certain depth of cut and is forced to move in direction as shown in figure. All traditional machining processes require a cutting tool having a basic wedge shape at the cutting edge. The tool will cut or shear off the metal, provided (i) the tool is harder than the metal, (ii) the tool is properly shaped so that its edge can be effective in cutting the metal, (iii) the tool is strong enough to resist cutting pressures but keen enough to sever the metal, and (iv) provided there is movement of tool relative to the material or vice versa, so as to make cutting action possible. Most metal cutting is done by high speed steel tools or carbide tools. In metal cutting, the tool does not slide through metal as a jack knife does through wood, not does the tool split the metal as an axe does a log. Actually, the metal is forced off the workpiece by being compressed, shearing off, and sliding along the face of the cutting tool. The way a cutting tool cuts the metal can be explained as follows. All metals in the solid state have a characteristic crystalline structure, frequently referred to as grain structure. The grain or crystals vary in size from very fine to very coarse, depending upon the type of metal and its heat-treatment. The cutting tool advances again in the work piece. Heavy forces are exerted on the crystals in front of the tool face. These crystals, in turn exert similar pressures on crystals ahead of them, in the direction of the cut or force applied by the cutter. As the tool continues to advance, the material at sheared point is sheared by the cutting edge of the tool or it may be torn loose by the action of the bending chip which is being formed. As the tool advances, maximum stress is exerted along sheared line, which is called the shear plane. This plane is approximately perpendicular to the cutting face of the tool. There exists a shear zone on both sides of the shear plane, when the force of the tool exceeds the strength of the

FIG: 10

Merchant Circle: Merchant's Force Circle is a method for calculating the various forces involved in the cutting process. This will first be explained with vector diagrams, these in turn will be followed by a few formulas. The procedure to construct a merchants force circle diagram (using drafting techniques/instruments) is, 1. 1. Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the centre of the page. The scale should be enough to include both the measured forces. The cutting force (Fc) is drawn horizontally, and the tangential force (Ft) is drawn vertically. (These forces will all be in the lower left hand quadrant) (Note: square graph paper and equal x & y scales are essential) 2. 2. Draw in the resultant (R) of Fc and Ft. 3. 3. Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses vector R. If done correctly, the heads and tails of all 3 vectors will lie on this circle.

4. 4. Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant, taking care to draw the correct rake angle () from the vertical axis. 5. 5. Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the same rake angle) through the circle. This now gives the friction vector (F). 6. 6. A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector, to the head of the resultant vector (R). This gives the normal vector (N). Also add a friction angle () between vectors R and N. As a side note recall that any vector can be broken down into components. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F + N. 7. 7. We next use the chip thickness, compared to the cut depth to find the shear force. To do this, the chip is drawn on before and after cut. Before drawing, select some magnification factor (e.g., 200 times) to multiply both values by. Draw a feed thickness line (t1) parallel to the horizontal axis. Next draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool cutting face. 8. 8. Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the intersection of the two chip lines, stopping at the circle. The result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure the shear force angle between Fs and Fc. 9. 9. Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs to the head of R. 10. 10. Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances (forces) and angles. The resulting diagram is pictured below,

UNIT 2 TOOL MATERIAL, TOOL WEAR & TOOL LIFE

Introduction Selecting the appropriate cutting tool material for a specific application is crucial in achieving efficient operations. Increasing cutting speed to increase productivity is only possible to a limited extent as this shortens the tool life, increasing tool re-grinding / replacement costs and increasing interruptions to production. No single material meets all requirements. The properties needed by cutting tools mean compromise is needed, for example increasing hardness generally results in lower toughness. Types of Material: O3 have been devised and are frequently applied as they make higher metal removal rates possible as they improve the wear and crater resistance of cemented carbides with little loss of strength. Cemented carbides dominate the metal machining market. C TaC, ZrC, VC and Cr3C2 may also be added. Tool Typical Notes material cutting speeds, m/min Carbon Suitable only for soft materials as it starts steel to soften at temperatures of 230o C. Used for woodworking High speed 10 - 60 Very tough, two types, 'M' and 'T' with Steels molybdenum and tungsten respectively as the main alloying element. Used for drills, reamers, taps and small end mills Cast cobalt Not heat treatable, maximum hardness 55 - chromium - 65 Rc occurs near the surface. Can be - tungsten used at somewhat higher speeds than alloys HSS. Only in limited use Cemented 30 - 150 Originally produced in 1920s, these carbides or100 - 250 consisted of tungsten carbide (WC) in a when coated cobalt binder. A useful feature is that they can be tailored to give different combinations of abrasion resistance and toughness by varying the amount of cobalt and the WC grain size. Other additions, such as TiC and TaC are frequently made. Coatings, such as AL2 Cermets 150 - 350 A cermet is a composite of a ceramic material with a metallic binder. For machining titanium carbonitride based materials are used. Other carbides such as Mo2 Ceramics 30 - 310 Second in hardness to diamond. Standard

Polycrystalli 200 - 2000 ne diamond

choice for machining steel with a hardness of 50 Rc or higher Can not be used for machining steels as this causes graphitisation of the diamond. Used mainly for very high speed machining of aluminium silicon alloys, composites and other non - metallic materials

Tool Wear and Tool Life One or more of the following wear modes may occur:

i) flank ii) notch iii) crater iv) edge rounding v) edge chipping vi) edge cracking vii) catastrophic failure

There is no single universally accepted definition of tool life. The life needs to be specified with regard to the process aims. A common way of quantifying the end of a tool life is to put a limit on the maximum acceptable flank wear, VB or VBmax. Typical figures are: HSS tools, roughing HSS tools, finishing Carbide tools Ceramic tools 1.5 mm 0.75 mm 0.7 mm 0.6 mm

Mathematically the tool life can be expressed in the following equation (the Taylor equation):
vc Tn = C

where, VC- CUTTING SPEED TN- TOOL LIFE C & N- CONSTANT The constants n and C may be found for specific workpiece and tool material and feed, f, either by experiment or from published data.

Machinability : Machinability is not a precisely defined term, it is an attempt to account for several factors: tool life, power required for cutting, surface finish obtained, cost of removing material. The most important factor in most situations is usually tool life and machinability ratings are frequently based on this. For many components the strength of the part is not as important as economical machining. Consequently for these applications materials are often selected for ease of machining - good tool life. Factors that affect machinability are: Hardness and ductility. Increasing hardness makes penetration by the tool more difficult, decreasing machinability. Generally lower ductility, which promotes discontinuous chips, is beneficial to machinability. Because the wear of the cutting tool is heavily dependent upon the temperature it reaches, the material properties that govern this are critical: Low workpiece: thermal conductivity, density and specific heat all give higher mean tool temperatures. Increasing the workpiece total cutting energy per unit volume increases the tool temperature. So for similar tool wear rates, titanium can only be cut at about one quarter the speed of steel, which in turn can only be cut at about one tenth of the speed of aluminium. Additions of elements such as lead, phosphorus sulphur and tellurium to steel improves its mach inability, but there are some disadvantages.
Tool Wear

Tool wear leads to tool failure. According to many authors, the failure of cutting tool occurs as premature tool failure (i.e., tool breakage) and progressive tool wear. Figure 2.1 shows some types of failures and wear on cutting tools. Generally, wear of cutting tools depends on tool material and geometry, workpiece materials, cutting parameters (cutting speed, feed rate and depth of cut), cutting fluids and machine-tool characteristics.
Tool Wear Types Normally, tool wear is a gradual process. There are two basics zones of wear in cutting tools: flank wear and crater wear. Flank and crater wear are the most important measured forms of tool wear. Flank wear is most commonly used for wear monitoring. According to the standard ISO 3685:1993 for wear measurements, the major cutting edge is considered to be divided in to four regions, as shown in Figure 2.2: Region C is the curved part of the cutting edge at the tool corner; Region B is the remaining straight part of the cutting edge in zone C; Region A is the quarter of the worn cutting edge length b farthest away

from the tool corner; Region N extends beyond the area of mutual contact between the tool workpiece for approximately 12 mm along the major cutting edge. The wear is of notch type. The width of the flank wear land, VBB, is measured within zone B in the cutting edge plane Ps (Figures 2.2 ) perpendicular to the major cutting edge. The width of the flank wear land is measured from the position of the original major cutting edge. The crater depth, KT, is measured as the maximum distance between the crater bottom and the original face in region B. Tool wear is most commonly measured using a toolmakers microscope (with video imaging
systems and a resolution of less than 0.001 mm) or stylus instrument similar to a profilometer (with ground diamond styluses).

FIG 2.1

FIG 2.2 Mechanisms of Tool Wear The general mechanisms that cause tool wear, summarized in Figure 2.3, are: (1) abrasion, (2) diffusion, (3) oxidation, (4) fatigue and (5) adhesion. The fundaments of there tool wear mechanisms are explained for several authors, for example, Shaw [15] and Trent and Wright [16]. Most of these mechanisms are accelerated at higher cutting speeds and consequently cutting temperatures.

FIG 2.3 Tool Life Tool life is important in machining since considerable time is lost whenever a tool is replaced and reset. Tool life is the time a tool will cut satisfactorily and is expressed as the minutes between changes of the cutting tool. The process of wear and failures of cutting tools increases the surface roughness, and the accuracy of work pieces deteriorates. TYPES OF CHIPS In a metal cutting operation is carried out in machine shop. Chips are separated from the workpiece to impart the required size and shape to the workpiece. The type of chips edge formed is basically a function of the work material and cutting conditions. The chips that are formed during metal cutting operations can be classified into four types: 1. Discontinuous or segmental chips 2. Continuous chips 3. Continuous chips with built-up edge. 4. Non homogenous chips The above three common types of chips are shown in Fig. 20.10 Fig. 2.4 (a) shows continuous chips coming out during machining in machine shop. These types of chips are obtained while machining ductile material such as mild steel and copper. A continuous chip comes from the cutting edge of a cutting tool as a single one piece, and it will remain as one piece unless purposely broken for safety or for convenience in

handling. Formation of very lengthy chip is hazardous to the machining process and the machine operators. It may wrap up on the cutting tool, work piece and interrupt in the cutting operation. Thus, it becomes necessary to deform or break long continuous chips into small pieces. It is done by using chip breakers. Chip breaker can be an integral part of the tool design or a separate device. Fig. 2.4 (b) shows discontinuous chips coming out during machining in machine shop. In this type, the chip is produced in the form of small pieces. These types of chips are obtained while machining brittle material like cast iron, brass and bronze. Fairly good surface finish is obtained and tool life is increased with this type of chips. Fig. 2.4 (c) shows continuous chip with built-up edge. During cutting operation, the temperature rises and as the hot chip passes over s the face of the tool, alloying and welding action may take place due to high pressure, which results in the formation of weak bonds in microstructure and weakened particles might pullout. Owing to high heat and pressure generated, these particles get welded to the cutting tip of the tool and form a false cutting edge. This is known as built-up edge

FIG 2.4 COOLENTS OR CUTTING FLUIDS OR EMULSIONS During any machining or metal cutting process, enough heat is evolved in cutting zone. To remove this heat from cutting zone, soluble oils are used as cutting fluid during machining. Emulsions (also known as soluble oil) cool the work-piece and tool and thus relieved them from overheat. Air circulation is required so as to remove the heat by evaporation. The remaining oil forms a protecting layer over the machined work piece and save it from rust and corrosion. Such coolants decrease adhesion between chip and tool, provides lower friction and wear and a smaller built up edge. They remove chips and hence help in keeping freshly machined surface bright. They also protect the surface from corrosion. They decrease wear and tear of tool and hence increase tool life. They improve machinability and reduce machining forces. Chemical cutting fluids possess a good flushing action and are non-corrosive and nonclogging. Since they are nonclogging, they are widely used for grinding and sawing. The most efficient method of applying cutting fluids is to use a pump, tray and reservoir, to give a slow continuous stream over the cutting action. Chemical cutting fluids are replacing straight and emulsifiable cutting oils for many applications. If chemical concentrates are mixed in correct proportion with deionized water, chemical cutting fluids provide longer life at less cost than oil base cutting fluids. Other coolants and cutting fluids are cutting wax and kerosene. Cutting fluids may also be used on aluminium, aluminium alloys and brass for machining operations of low severity. It may be used as a coolant and for removing chips when machining cast iron. Some commonly used machining materials require following cutting fluids:

Water is a great conductor of heat but has drawbacks as a cutting fluid. It boils easily, promotes rusting of machine parts, and does not lubricate well. Therefore, other ingredients are necessary to create an optimal cutting fluid. Mineral oils, which are petroleum-based, began in the late 19th century. They vary from the thick, dark, sulfur-rich cutting oils used in heavy industry to light, clear oils. Semi-synthetic coolants are an emulsion or microemulsion of water with mineral oil. They began in the 1930s. A typical CNC usually uses emulsified coolant, which consists of a small amount of oil emulsified into a larger amount of water through the use of a detergent. Synthetic coolants originated in the late 1950s and are usually water-based. A hand-held refractometer is used to determine the mix ratio (also called concentration) of water soluble coolants. Numerous other test equipment are used to determine such things as acidity, and amount of conductivity. Others include:

Kerosene, rubbing alcohol, and 3-In-One Oil often give good results when working on aluminium. WD-40 Dielectric fluid is the cutting fluid used in Electrical discharge machines (EDMs). It is usually deionized water or a high-flash-point kerosene. Intense heat is generated by the cutting action of the electrode (or wire) and the fluid is used to stabilise the temperature of the workpiece, along with flushing any eroded particles from the immediate work area. The dielectric fluid is nonconductive. Liquid- (water- or petroleum oil-) cooled water tables are used with the plasma arc cutting (PAC) process.

Pastes or gels

Cutting fluid may also take the form of a paste or gel when used for some applications, in particular hand operations such as drilling and tapping.
Mists

Some cutting fluids are used in mist (aerosol) form, although breathing such a lubricant in mist form is a severe and immediate health hazard.
Functions or Uses of Coolants or Cutting Fluids The important functions of cutting fluids are given as under. (i) Cutting fluid washes away the chips and hence keeps the cutting region free. (ii) It helps in keeping freshly machined surface bright by giving a protective coating against atmospheric, oxygen and thus protects the finished surface from corrosion.

(iii) It decreases wear and tear of cutting tool and hence increases tool life. (iv) It improves machinability and reduces power requirements (v) It prevents expansion of work pieces. (vi) It cools the tool and work piece and remove the generated heat from the cutting zone.

(vii) It decreases adhesion between chip and tool; provide lower friction and wear, and a smaller built-up edge.
UNIT 3 GEAR MANUFACTURE INTRODUCTION: Gears are used extensively for transmission of power. They find application in: Automobiles, gear boxes, oil engines, machine tools, industrial machinery, agricultural machinery, geared motors etc. To meet the strenuous service conditions the gears should have: robust construction, reliable performance, high efficiency, economy and long life. Also, the gears should be fatigue free and free from high stresses to avoid their frequent failures. The gear drives should be free form noise, chatter and should ensure high load carrying capacity at constant velocity ratio. To meet all the above conditions, the gear manufacture has become a highly specialized field. Below, we shall discuss the various materials and manufacturing processes to produce gear. Materials used in gear manufacturing process :

1) Cast iron is popular due to its good wearing properties, excellent machinability and ease of producing complicated shapes by the casting method. It is suitable for where large gears of complicated shapes are needed. 2) Steel is sufficiently strong & highly resistant to wear by abrasion. 3) Cast steel is used where stress on gear is high & it is difficult to fabricate the gear 4) Plain carbon steels find application for industrial gears where high toughness combined with high strength. 5) Alloy steels are used where high tooth strength & low tooth wear are required 6) Aluminum is used where low inertia of rotating mass is desired. . CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS: 1) MILLING PROCESS: A) DISC TYPE B) END MILL CUTTER 2) GEAR SHAPER A) RACK TYPE B) PINION TYPE

3) GEAR HOBBING A) Axial hobbing B) Radial hobbing C) Tangential hobbing GEAR MANUFACTURING BY CASTING METHOD: Gears can be produced by the various casting processes. Send casting is economical and can take up large size and module, but the gears have rough surfaces and are inaccurate dimensionally. These gears are used in machinery where operating speed is low and where noise and accuracy of motion can be tolerated, for example, farm machinery and some hand operated devices. Send casting is suitable for one off or small batches. Large quantities of small gears are made by Die Casting. These gears are fairly accurate and need little finishing. However the materials used are low melting ones, such as alloys of zinc, aluminum and copper so, there gears are suitable for light duty applications only (light loads at moderate speeds), for example, gears used in toys. Cameras and counters and counters etc. Gears made by Investment Casting may be accurate with good surface finish. These can be made of strong materials to withstand heavy loads. Moderate size gears are currently being steel cast in metal moulds to produce performs which are later forged to size. Light gears of thermoplastics are made by Injection Moulding. This method is satiable for large volume production. However, gear tooth accuracy is no high and initial tool cost is high. These gears find use in instruments, household appliances etc. For phosphor bronze worm wheel rims, centrifugal casting is used far more extensively than any other method. Centrifugal casting is also applied to the manufacture of steel gears. Both vertical and horizontal axis spinners are used. After casting, the gears are annealed or normalized to remove cooling stresses. They may then be heat treated, if required, to provide the needed properties. Centrifugally cast gears perform as well as rolled (discussed ahead) gears and are usually less expensive. Shell moulding is also sometimes used to produce small gears and the product is a good cast gear of somewhat lower accuracy than one made by investment casting but much superior to sand casting.
Methods of forming gears: ROLL FORMING: In roll forming, the gears blank is mounted on a shaft & is pressed against hardened steel of rolling dies. The rolls are fed inward gradually during several revolutions which produce the gear teeth. . The forming rolls are very accurately made & roll formed gear teeth usually home both by not and cold. In not roll forming, the not rolled gear is usually cold rolled which compiles the gear with a smooth mirror finish. In cold roll forming, higher pressures are needed as compared to not rolling many of the gears produced by this process need no further finishing. It becomes stronger against tension & fatigue. Spur & helical gears are made by this process.

Stamping:Large quantities of gears are made by the method known as stamping blanking or fine blanking. The gears are made in a punch press from sheet up to 12.7mm think such gears find application in: toys, clocks 4 timers, watches, water & Electric maters & some business Equipment. After stamping, the gears are shaved; they give best finish & accuracy. The materials which can be stamped are: low, medium & high carbon steels stainless steel. This method is suitable for large volume production
GEAR HOBBING: In hobbing, a worm like cutter known as hob with cutting teeth having the basic reference profile of a rack cuts teeth on a cylindrical blank. Successive hob teeth come in contact with each tooth in the gear blank and generate gear tooth by producing a large number of flats that envelop the tooth profiles, Fig. 3.1. Hob is tilted according to the hob thread angle and helix angle on the gear teeth, to align the hob teeth with the teeth of the gear to be cut. A single thread hob generates one tooth space in one turn of its rotation. The hob and the blank rotate in a constant timed relation to each other that depends on the number of thread of the hob and the number of teeth on the workgear. The hob moves radially to the desired

FIG3.1 Generating Process and Enveloping Cuts in Hobbing

depth of the teeth a little clear from the blank and then feeds axially along the width of the gear teeth.

Machine Elements of Hobbers: Change gears and differential system: Conventional mechanical hobbing machine uses index change gears, and feed change gears to maintain the proper constant timed relationship between the revolution of the hob and the worktable. Unlike gear shaping of helical gear with the help of special helical guide, the helix angle in hobbing is attained by advancing or retarding the relative rotation of hob and the gear blank. A differential system affects the rotation of the workgear and correlates the feed motion through a separate change gear system (known as differential change gears) for obtaining the correct lead. The differential imparts slight supplemental increment or decrement motion of the worktable independent of index change gears and feed change gears. Hob Head and Cutter Spindle: Cutter spindle holds the hob arbor and ensures that the hob arbor and cutter assembly run true on its own axis during cutting. Cutter spindle mounted on a swivelling head is tilted to bring the hob teeth in line with gear teeth. Hob head swivel angle depends on the hand and amount of the lead angle of hob and the hand and amount of helix angle of the workgear. When the hand of hob is same as the hand of the workgear, it is known as 'Same hand hobbing'. Cutting force in same hand hobbing will have a component opposing to workpiece rotation. When the hand of hob is the opposite to that of workgear, it is termed as 'Reverse hand hobbing'. Cutting force in reverse hand hobbing will have a component in same direction of workpiece rotation FIG 3.2

Fig. 3.2 Same Hand Hobbing and Reverse Hand Hobbing Hob mounting: Run-out on the face and the outside diameter of the hob arbor is held within a close limit. The taper bore of the cutter spindle and taper of hob arbor must be clean. The arbor is pulled tightly into the taper bore of the cutter spindle to rest against shoulder. Most of the cutting torque is transmitted by friction via the taper connection. Even an extremely thin oil film in taper (such as one due to wiping off with a greasy hand) will destroy the self locking friction. For a well-held hob, the bending resistance will primarily depend on the diameter of the spacing collars and

not on that of the hob arbor. Errors in hob mounting (angularity, eccentricity and axial run-out) result in different inaccuracies in profile generated, Fig. 3.3 and influence the gear quality significantly.

Fig. 3.3 Inaccuracies in Profiles Generated Due to Incorrect Hob Mounting Hob feed direction: Generally the radial feed is provided by moving the cutter head towards the work table. The hob head moves axially to complete the cutting of the gear teeth along the face of the gear. Direction of travel of hob head-slide decides cutting method. In climb hobbing, Fig. 3.4, the hob pulls itself into the work with maximum chip depth at start and zero chip depth at exit. In conventional hobbing, Fig. 3.5, the condition is just opposite. It starts with very little cut and removes the maximum width at exit. The cutting edge of a dull

Fig. 3.4 Climb Hobbing

Fig 3.5 Conventional Hobbing

Advantages of climb hobbing: Higher cutting parameters are used and so the productivity is higher. One-cut hobbing will be sufficient when the conventional hobbing may require two cuts for similar results with same cutting parameters. Limitations of climb hobbing: Poor surface finish. The machine requires good maintenance with minimum play in moving parts and feed mechanism.
Actual application decides the method of hobbing - climb, conventional, or a combination of both in two cut method. For high helix workgear, the conventional hobbing is superior because of better hob entrance conditions. Rough cutting by climb hobbing results frequently in higher lead error and poorer surface finish. A roughing cut by conventional method may follow a finishing operation by climb hobbing to produce the desired quality on the gear being cut. For very coarse pitch gears, the conventional hobbing is preferred because of less tendency of chatter. In conventional hobbing of spur gear, entrance angle is small. In climb hobbing, entrance angle is larger. All the cutting edges cut into the surface of outer circle. Hob life is better in conventional hobbing. Naturally, material, amount of stock, helix angle, setup and machine condition decide the method. Hand of hob cutter and work gear helix along with the direction of axial feed determines the chip formation and cutting performances of the hobbing process. Normally, for mass production of helical gears, the same hand climb hobbing is practised. However, the Japanese researchers have established that conventional hobbing with a reverse handed hob is more effective for comparatively small module gears of automotive transmission for high speed manufacturing. The entrance angle is large and chip length per blade is short. Hob life is far better. Direction of cutting force against gear blank coincides with direction of table rotation. So the machine must have very effective backlash eliminator. It is also established that gear accuracy (tooth profile

error and lead error) in the reverse hand conventional hobbing is superior to that in the same hand climb hobbing.
GEAR HONING :

Gear Honing is a hard finishing method. It is applied to eliminate gear errors after the process of hardening. It also smooths the surface of a gear teeth. Honing is also known by another name that is "Shave Grinding". In terms of machining kinematics or even the tool geometry it is quite similar to gear shaving. A common fallacy associated with honing is that it cannot better the profile error, lead error etc., inherited from earlier machining and the distortions that results from the hardening. This is not a correct thinking. Modern and sophisticated gear honing (shave girding) machines easily removes considerable amount of materials to rectify the gear errors. ADVANTAGES
The gear honing process offers the following advantages:

Noise generation is reduced Higher input speeds Heightened surface durability Increased load capability Improved gear efficiency and quality No considerable increase of backlash

GEAR SHAVING Gear shaving is basically a low pressure, free-cutting process. A helical gear-like cutter with closely spaced grooves extending from the tip to the root of each tooth, rotates with gear in close mesh in both directions during the shaving cycle. The centre distance between the gear and the cutter is reduced in small controlled steps to remove metal from the gear tooth surfaces till the final required size is achieved. The helix of the cutter is different from that of the gear to be shaved.

Fig. 3.6 Meshing of a Gear with a Shaving Cutter For effective shaving, a pre-determined crossed-axes angle between the axes of the cutter and gear is important. The relative motion between the contacting tooth surfaces of the gear and the cutter, is composed of a rolling motion in the direction of the involute profile and a sliding motion along the length of the tooth, Fig. 3.6 Again, the rolling motion along the involute is composed of a real rolling element and a sliding element. The rolling element is more prevalent near the pitch circle. However, as the contact of the tooth surfaces approaches the tops and roots of the teeth, the sliding element increases and the rolling element decreases accordingly. As the cutter rotates, the lands between the grooves act as cutting edges and remove fine chips from the gear profiles. The cutting action is provided by the relative sliding motion in the direction of tooth trace of the shaving cutter, Fig. 3.7. Crossed axes ensure uniform diagonal sliding action from the tip to the root of the teeth as well as provide necessary shearing action for finish cutting. Higher crossed-axes angle increases cutting action but at the cost of guiding action as the area of contact is reduced. It may result in tooth lead error. With reduced crossed-axes angle, guiding action is improved as the area of contact is increased but at the cost of cutting action. Finished surface appears burnished. Optimum crossed axes angles are kept between 10 - 15 degrees for most transmission gears. For shoulder gear, the angle is kept around 3 degree. For internal gears, the angle varies between 3 to 10 degree.

Fig. 3.7 Cutting Process in Gear Shaving Shaving is a combination of cutting as well as burnishing. The cutting edge follows a path d, while it moves from the time the shaving cutter contacts the tip of the gear and leaves after completing its cutting, Fig. 3.8. On the other side of the tooth, the tip of the cutter tooth comes first in contact with dedendum of the gear, and completes the shaving at the tip of the tooth of the gear. The contact pressure between the cutter and the gear is obtained by radial infeed. Theoretically, the contact between the cutter and the gear in conventional shaving is concentrated at a single point if there is no mutual contact pressure. However, actually the contact takes the form of a long ellipse, because the tooth flanks are pressed one against other, Fig. 3.9. Size of the ellipse depends on the radius of curvature of the mutually engaging tooth surfaces, the amount of crossed-axes angle, the contact pressure and the elasticity of the work material. However, the ellipse does not cover the whole width. A relative traversing motion is required to cover the total face width of the gear. So the gear is traversed back and forth across cutter width. The gear is free on its axis and is driven only by the cutter. The cutter design (helix angle, number of teeth, shape of serrations, contact ratio and operating pressure angle) basically decides the cutting performance as well as accuracy of the shaving process to a great extent.

Shaving removes the cutter marks, waviness and surface irregularities of the pre-shave gear generating process. Surface finish of shaved gears may be even as good as that after grinding. Tooth size is maintained as specified within a closer tolerance. Tooth quality is improved depending on the nature of the gear tooth error. Profile and lead accuracy are remarkably improved. Base pitch error and the difference between the adjacent pitches are reduced greatly. However, the gear may still have a greater cumulative pitch error, if the concentricity during gear cutting has not been controlled carefully. Modifications for longitudinal crowning and tapering of gear teeth are easily and accurately carried out by using the built-in crowning mechanism. The profile corrections, such as tip relief or root relief, are obtained by modifying the tooth profile of the shaving cutter according to the requirement. For certain methods of shaving, all modifications are attained through the modifications of shaving cutter only. These modifications compensate for misalignment in final transmission assembly and for heat treatment distortions as well as produce the desired tooth bearing for uniform load distribution. Gear noise is reduced and load carrying capacity is increased. Under favourable conditions, shaved gears take four times as much load as hobbed gears in high speed transmissions.

Fig. 3.8Relative Sliding Motion of Cutting Edge

Fig. 3.9 Contact Pattern in Shaving

Shaving Methods The pivot point, i.e. the point of intersection of the axes of gear and shaving cutter moves across the face of gear in different methods. Direction of reciprocating stroke is different for different shaving methods, that are designated accordingly.

1. Conventional Shaving: The work table traverses in the direction of the gear axis, Fig. 3.10. Traversing stroke is adjusted to cover the total face width of the gear. A number of table strokes, each with its increment of upfeed, are required to complete shaving in proper way and thus takes the maximum time. Cutter life is inferior as the pivot point of the cutter is always located at the same place on the shaving cutter. So the cutter wear does not extend to whole width. Feed length is about the same as the face width of the gear. The method is suitable for gears with wide face and naturally not suitable for

shoulder gears. For crowning the teeth of gear, the machine table is rocked by built-in crowning mechanism.

Fig. 3.10 Conventional Shaving

2. Diagonal Shaving: The worktable traverses at an angle to the gear axis, Fig. 3.11 Along with traversing motion, the pivot point moves across the entire face width of the shaving cutter. So cutter wear is uniform and the cutter life increases. Width of the shaving cutter depends on the face width of the gear and the diagonal angle. In shaving a wider face gear with a narrow faced shaving cutter, only a small angle diagonal traversing is possible.

Fig. 3.11 Diagonal Shaving

With wider shaving cutter, a larger traverse angle can be used. So in this method the cutter can shave a gear of slightly wider face width depending on traverse angle. Feed length is shorter than that in conventional method. Number of reciprocating table movements is smaller than that for conventional. Short feed length and lower number of reciprocating movements result in substantial reduction in shaving time. Crowning of the gear teeth is accomplished by rocking the machine table provided the sum of the diagonal traverse angle and crossed-axes angle does not exceed 55 degree. When the diagonal traverse angle is between 40 - 90 degrees, the shaving method is sometimes called Traver- pass shaving. Traversing is so short that the shaving action does not cover the entire tooth surface. Width of the shaving cutter is more than the gear face width. As the traverse angle approaches to 90 degree, machine controlled crowning is no longer possible. Crowning is obtained by modification of cutter only. A special cutter with differentially staggered gashes becomes essential when the traverse angle is above 60 degree to have effective shaving of the entire tooth surface. The process can be used for shoulder gears.

Fig 3.12 Underpass Shaving 3. Underpass Shaving: In underpass shaving, the direction of traversing is at right angles to the gear axis, Fig. 3.12. The gear is rolled into the shaving cutter teeth in a single forward and return stroke from an initial centre distance to the desired final centre distance. So the underpass shaving time is minimum compared to all other shaving methods employing traversing. A special shaving cutter with mutually staggered gashes is required to clean the entire tooth surface. Direction of feed is perpendicular to the gear axis. Feed length is smaller than that for conventional and diagonal methods. Tool life is better because of uniform wear, as the pivot point of the cutter moves along the entire face width. Cutter width is to be more than the width of gear. The pitch surface of the cutter is given a hyperboloid form (concave curvature) to ensure proper contact across the full face width of the teeth. Concave pitch surface on the cutter is obtained by negative longitudinal crowning of the cutter teeth. This method is most suitable for shoulder gears with

critical clearance between the gear and the shoulder. Limitation of this method is the width of the cutter that must remain economical. 4. Plunge Shaving: Plunge shaving is the later developed method, where only a radial infeed motion is sufficient without any relative traversing, Fig. 3.13. The shaving cutter is specially ground for negative longitudinal crowning of the cutter teeth to ensure uniform stock removal in crossed-axes relationship. The cutter width is greater than the width of the gear. The cutting grooves in consecutive cutter teeth are differentially staggered so as to describe a helix and to cover the entire tooth surface during shaving. The ratio of the number of teeth in the gear and the cutter, the hand of the helically-arranged serrations, and the direction of crossed axes angle to one another, are selected judiciously. The proper selection ensures that the direction of the axial sliding motion will coincide with the progress of the cutting edges consecutively coming into cutting contact with the gear flank. The individual chip removals will follow one another without any gaps in between. The direction of such chip removals will be from the machined portion of the flank of each gear tooth towards the unmachined portion. Chip formation in this way is essential to improve the surface finish. Another factor for a high quality surface finish is the size of the tooth to tooth steps or relative offset, of the staggered cutting edges. For selecting the best method for the specific application, the salient features of different shaving methods must be understood clearly. Each has certain advantages with some limitations. Conventional is slower but flexible, and is recommended for small batches - even one off and also for wider gears where other methods become uneconomical because of required excessive width of cutter. Gear of practically any width can be shaved by conventional method. Diagonal is faster and is recommended for medium and large batches. Traverpass and underpass are fast and suitable for shoulder gears. Plunge is the fastest of all shaving methods and is being increasingly used for certain gears in mass production.

Fig. 3.13 Plunge Shaving Gear Shaper Cutter A pinion type cutter is used for shaping cylindrical gears. The cutter is basically a cylindrical gear whose addendum modification changes continuously along the face width from a positive value for a new cutter to a negative value for used cutter. The right and left flanks have the clearance angle on the reference cylinder. The basic rack tooth profile of the cutter enveloping surface must correspond to the basic rack tooth profile on the gear in the same plane. Flank clearance angle on the reference cylinder is 2 to 3 degree depending on the machinability of the material of gear. The

front rake angle is normally 5 degree. On conventionally manufactured cutter, a constant tooth thickness and depth of cut can be obtained for the approximate designed life span of the cutter. For gear shaper cutter, the trend is to use larger diameter and wider face width for improved stiffness and better tool life. The ratio of the number of teeth in the cutter and that in the gear, is an important factor for the accuracy of the gear. It is kept within approximately 5:1 to 6:1 to reduce the 'windup' in machine shafts causing spacing variations. Through-grind shaper cutter ensures about 25% - 40% better performance by the way of extra tool life at about 15% extra initial manufacturing cost. In through grinding technique (Fig. 4.65), a reciprocating grinding wheel passes through the entire face width of the cutter and generates the tooth profile. Standard involute cutter manufactured by through grinding method will have extra larger face width. For cutter with modified involute form, say with tip chamfer and protuberance, through grind cutter has maximum possible tool life, as the modified form remains constant even after any number of sharpening. For conventionally

Fig. 3.14 Through-Grind Technique of Producing Shaper Cutter

manufactured cutter, the amount of tip chamfer and protuberance reduce, as the cutter width reduces after each sharpening. Through grind cutter is considered as high performance cutter. Because of its truer cutting geometry, it produces higher quality gears. Its longer tool life means a lower tool cost.

UNIT- 4 CNC MACHINES INTRODUCTION : Numerical control is a technique of automatically operating a productive facility based on code of letters, numbers and special characters. The complete set of coded instructions, responsible for executing an operation is called a part program. The components of traditional NC system are

Part program Prog instructions sent to NC machine

Written program

Tape punch

Micro computer

Tape punch

Tape reader & ctrl

NC machine

Prog punched On tape CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEM: There are 3 types of motion control of tools in NC systems. They are 1. point to point 2. straight cut 3. contouring

Point-to-Point Positioning
Point-to-point positioning is used when it is necessary to accurately locate the spindle, or the workpiece mounted on the machine table, at one or more specific Iocations to perform such operations as drilling, reaming, boring, tapping, and punching (Fig.9). Point-to-point positioning is the process of positioning from one coordinate (XY) position or location to another, performing the machining operation, and continuing this pattern until all the operations have been completed at all programmed locations.

FIG: 4. point to point In Fig. 9 point 1 to point 2 is a straight line, and the machine moves only along the X axis; but points 2 and 3 require that motion along both the X and Y axes takes place. As the distance in the X direction is greater than in the Y direction, Y will reach position first, leaving X to travel in a straight line for the remaining distance. A similar motion takes place between points 3 and 4.

Continuous Path (Contouring)

Contouring, or continuous path machining, involves work such as that produced on a lathe or milling machine, where the cutting tool is in contact with the workpiece as it travels from one programmed point to the next. Continuous path positioning is the ability to control motions on two or more machine axes simultaneously to keep a constant cutter-workpiece relationship. The programmed information in the CNC program must accurately position the cutting tool from one point to the next and follow a predefined accurate path at a programmed feed rate in order to produce the form or contour required (Fig. 10)

FIG. 4.2.a) simple contour b) complex contour Linear Interpolation Linear Interpolation consists of any programmed points linked together by straight lines, whether the points are close together or far apart (Fig. 4.3). Curves can be produced with linear interpolation by breaking them into short, straight-line segments. This method has limitations, because a very large number of points would have to be programmed to describe the curve in order to produce a contour shape. A contour programmed in linear interpolation requires the coordinate positions (XY positions in two-axis work) for the start and finish of each line segment. Therefore, the end point of one line or segment becomes the start point for the next segment, and so on, throughout the entire program.

FIG 4.3. STRAIGHT CUT OR LINEAR INTERPOLATION

DNC SYSTEM: Direct numerical control makes use of a large computer to manipulate operations of a number of NC machines. Development of local area networking with high processing power of computer system facilitated the development of DNC system. Difference between CNC and DNC system:

1. CNC computer control only one machine whereas DNC manipulate more
than one machine using LAN. 2. CNC computer is an integrated part of the machine whereas DNC computer is located at a distance from the machine. 3. DNC computer are having higher processing power than CNC computer 4. DNC software considers management of information flow to a group of machines apart from transferring machining instructions.

The main components of DNC system is shown in fig 4.4

Central computer

Shop computer

CNC

CNC

CNC

FIG. 4.4 Machine Types: 1. Lathe The engine lathe, one of the most productive machine tools, has always been an efficient means of producing round parts (Fig. 4.5). Most lathes are programmed on two axes. The X axis controls the cross motion of the cutting tool. Negative X (X-) moves the tool towards the spindle centerline; positive X moves the tool away from the spindle centerline. The Z axis controls the carriage travel toward or away from the headstock.

FIG. 4.5

2. Milling Machine: The milling machine has always been one of the most versatile machine tools used in industry (Fig. 4.6). Operations such as milling, contouring, gear cutting, drilling, boring, and reaming are only a few of the many operations which can be performed on a milling machine. The milling machine can be programmed on three axes: The X axis controls the table movement left or right. The Y axis controls the table movement toward or away from the column. The Z axis controls the vertical (up or down) movement of the knee or spindle.

Fig. 4.6 The main axes of a vertical machining

Programming Systems
Two types of programming modes, the incremental system and the absolute system, are used for CNC. Both systems have applications in CNC programming, and no system is either right or wrong all the time. Most controls on machine tools today are capable of handling either incremental or absolute programming.

Incremental program locations are always given as the distance and direction from the immediately preceding point (Fig. 4.7). Command codes which tell the machine to move the table, spindle, and knee are explained here using a vertical milling machine as an example:

Fig. 4.7 A workpiece dimensioned in the incremental system mode A X plus (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right of the last point. A X minus (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the left of the last point. A Y plus (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located toward the column. A Y minus (Y-) will cause the cutting tool to be located away from the column. A Z plus (Z+) command will cause the cutting tool or spindle to move up or away from the workpiece. A Z minus (Z-) moves the cutting tool down or into the workpiece. Absolute program locations are always given from a single fixed zero or origin point (Fig. 4.8). The zero or origin point may be a position on the machine table, such as the corner of the worktable or at any specific point on the workpiece. In absolute dimensioning and programming, each point or location on the workpiece is given as a certain distance from the zero or reference point. A X plus (X+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the right of the zero or origin point. A X minus (X-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located to the left of the zero or origin point. A Y plus (Y+) command will cause the cutting tool to be located toward the column. A Y minus (Y-) command will cause the cutting tool to be located away from the column. In absolute programming, the G90 command indicates to the computer and MCU that the programming is in the absolute mode.

FIG: 4.8 A workpiece dimensioned in the absolute system mode UNIT- 5 CNC PROGRAMMING Introduction:

The complete set of coded instructions, responsible for executing an operation is called a part program. There are 3 types of part programming they are 1. manual part programming 2. computer assisted 3. manual data input Manual Part Programming: In this the data required for machining part is written in a standard format on a special manuscript. The manuscript is a planning chart or list of instructions which describes the operation necessary to produce the part. This manual type is generally used for parts to be produced on a point to point machine. Each type of instruction code is called NC block.The explanation of words and codes are follows. 1. sequence number (N- code) 2. prepatory function (G- code) 3. Feed rate (F- code) 4. spindle speed(s- code) 5. tool number (T-code) 6. miscellaneous function (M- code)

Using the example shown in Fig. 5.1 , the five words are as follows:

Fig. 5.1 A complete block of information consists of five word

Fig. 5.2 A typical round part used for CNC programming and machining

APT: Automatic Programming Tools is initially developed by a group at MIT at the Electronics system laboratory. The APT organization contain 1. Part definition 2. Machining plan 3. Machining specification Part Definition: Defines the geometric points and surfaces on a part which represent the size and shape of the part. The geometric types in APT are POINT, LINE, CIRCLE, PLANE, VECTOR, PATERN, SPHERE, GCONIC, the general format <SYMBOL> = GEOMETRIC TYPE / MODIFIERS

Machining Plan: The Three Commands In Apt For Point To Point Machining Are: FROM /<POINT LOCATION> GOTO /< POINT LOCATION > GODLTA /<COORDINATE INCREMENT> MACHINING SPECIFICATIONS: This contains post processor and auxiliary statement. Post processor statement uses the English like statement to generate the data required to instruct the CNC machine. They are used to specify speeds, feed, and other features to actuate the machine. The auxiliary are the miscellaneous statement used to identify the part, tool, tolerances etc. CAM: Computer Aided Manufacturing can be divided into two parts they are 1. Manufacturing planning 2. manufacturing control CAM application of Manufacturing planning: 1. cost estimation 2. Computer aided process planning 3. Computerized machinability data system 4. Computer assisted NC programming 5. Computer aided production and inventory planning CAM application of manufacturing control: 1. Shop floor control 2. Quality control and testing 3. shop floor information process Benefits of CAM 1. higher production rate with lower work force 2. less human error 3. increase in manufacturing efficiency 4. repeatability of production processes 5. analysis of deficiency to take correct measures 6. best production control. Electrical Discharge Machining EDM is the thermal erosion process in which metal is removed by a series of recurring electrical discharges between a cutting tool acting as an electrode and a conductive workpiece, in the presence of a dielectric fluid. This discharge occurs in a voltage gap between the electrode and workpiece. Heat from the discharge vaporizes minute particles of workpiece material, which are then washed from the gap by the continuously flushing dielectric fluid. There are two main types of EDMs; the ram and the wire-cut. Each are used to produce very small and accurate parts as well as large items like automotive stamping dies and aircraft body components. The largest single use of EDM is in die making. Materials worked with EDM include hardened and heattreated steels, carbide, polycrystalline diamond, titanium, hot and cold rolled steels, copper, brass, and high temperature alloys. However, any material to be machined with the EDM process must be conductive.

The benefits of EDM include: EDM is a non-contact process that generates no cutting forces, permitting the production of small and fragile pieces Burr-free edges are produced intricate details and superior finishes are possible EDM machines with built-in process knowledge allow the production of intricate parts with minimum operator intervention The limitations of EDM include: lead time is needed to produce specific, consumable electrode shapes Machining action forms a gap between the part and the electrode (tool) which causes a spark which removes the material 1. The spark generates a temperature of 14000-21000 oF. 2. Electrode is (+) and the part is (-) 3. Electrodes can be made from a. Brass b. Copper c. Graphite

EDM- Types RAM EDM (Die sinker or vertical EDM) Uses a tool with the negative of the desired shape as an electrode. Wire EDM Uses a wire as an electrode, mainly for cutting or contouring Materials That can be EDMed 1. Polycrystalline Diamond 2. Titanium 3. Hot rolled Steel 4. Cold Rolled Steel 5. Copper 6. Brass 7. High Temperature Alloys

RAM EDM Subsystems

Power Supply Dielectric System Electrode Servo System