Anatomy and Physiology Independent Laboratory Exercises for the First Semester

A Manual of Twelve First Semester Exercises for a Two-semester Laboratory Sequence in College Level Anatomy and Physiology

Accompanies HOL LabPaq AP-1

Laszlo Vass

Published by Hands-On Labs, Inc.

Anatomy and Physiology: Independent Laboratory Exercises for the First Semester
Designed to accompany Anatomy & Physiology LabPaq AP-1 070308

Copyright 2006 by Laszlo Vass. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including information storage and retrieval systems without permission in writing from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages in a review. Author: Published by: Laszlo Vass, M.S. Hands-On Labs, Inc. 3880 S. Windermere St. Englewood, CO 80110 www.LabPaq.com Denver Area: 303-679-6252 Toll-free, long-distance: 866-206-0773 info@LabPaq.com Printed in the United States of America. ISBN: 978-1-866151-17-8 The laboratory exercises in this manual may be conducted in a regular formal classroom setting with institution provision for all listed equipment and supplies. However, the manual was specifically written for the benefit of independent study students who do not have convenient access to such facilities. This manual guides students in the performance of college level anatomy and physiology exercises in independent settings. Use of this manual and authorization to perform any of its exercises by any user are expressly conditioned upon reading, understanding and agreeing to fully abide by all of the safety precautions contained herein. Although the author and publisher have exhaustively researched all sources to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the information contained in this book, we assume no responsibility for errors, inaccuracies, omissions or any other inconsistency herein. Any slight of people, organizations, materials, or products is unintentional. The A&P LabPaq AP-1 produced and supplied by Hands-On Labs, Inc., is a collection of laboratory exercises, equipment, materials and chemicals specifically packaged to accompany this manual. Easily procured items are supplied by the student. Citation of sources of materials or use of copyrighted or registered names of materials is provided for information purposes only. Use of this information does not necessarily indicate endorsement or approval of the sources or names.

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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 4 Important Information to Help Students Study Science ..................................... 4 What are Micro and Small-scale Experiments?................................................... 6 THE ORGANIZATION OF THIS LAB MANUAL ......................................................... 7 HOW TO STUDY SCIENCE ........................................................................................ 8 HOW TO STUDY SCIENCE INDEPENDENTLY......................................................... 9 HOW TO PERFORM AN EXPERIMENT................................................................... 12 LABORATORY NOTES AND LAB REPORTS......................................................... 14 Laboratory Drawings............................................................................................... 21 Visual Presentation of Data .................................................................................... 22 Computer Graphing Using MS Excel ................................................................... 25 LABORATORY TECHNIQUES ................................................................................. 28 Use, Disposal, and Cleaning Instructions for Common Materials....................... 34 SAFETY CONCERNS ............................................................................................... 35 Science Lab Safety Reinforcement Agreement................................................. 44 MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheets.................................................................... 46 EXPERIMENTS 1. Using the Microscope ............................................................................... 49 2. Histology .................................................................................................... 56 3. Classification of Body Membranes .......................................................... 64 4. Overview of the Skeletal System ............................................................. 68 5. The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton ..................................................... 75 6. Joints and Body Movements.................................................................... 82 7. Organization of Muscle Tissue................................................................. 91 8. Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System................................................. 97 9. Muscle Physiology .................................................................................. 103 10. Organization of Nervous Tissue ............................................................ 110 11. Gross Anatomy of the Central Nervous System................................... 117 12. Reflex and Sensory Physiology ............................................................. 126 APPENDIX Final Cleanup Instructions.................................................................................... 142

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INTRODUCTION
Important Information to Help Students Study Science
Version 09-1.02 Welcome to the World of Science: Don't be afraid to take science courses. When you complete them you will be very proud of yourself and will wonder why you were ever afraid of the S word, Science! After their first science class most students say they thoroughly enjoyed it, learned a lot of useful information relevant to their personal lives as well as careers, and only regret not having studied science sooner. Science is not some "mystery" subject comprehendible only by eggheads. Science is simply a way of learning about our natural world and how it works by testing ideas and making observations. Learning about the characteristics of the natural world, how those characteristics change, and how they interact with each other makes it easier to understand ourselves and our physical environment and to make the multitude of personal and global decisions that affect our lives and our planet. Plus, science credits on an academic transcript are certainly impressive, and your science knowledge may create some unique job opportunities. All sciences revolve around the study of natural phenomena and require hands-on physical laboratory experiences to permit and encourage personal observations, discovery, creativity, and genuine learning. As increasing numbers of students embrace online and independent study courses, laboratory experiences must remain an integral part of science education. The author and publisher are science educators who welcome electronic technology as an effective tool to expand and enhance instruction. However, technology can neither duplicate nor replace learning experiences afforded to students through traditional hands-on laboratory and field activities. This does not mean that some experiments cannot or should not be replaced or reinforced by computer simulations, but any course of science study must also provide sufficient hands-on laboratory and field experiences to: Engage students in open-ended investigative processes by using scientific problem solving; Provide application of concepts students have seen in their study materials which reinforce and clarify scientific principles and concepts; Involve multiple senses in three-dimensional rather than two-dimensional learning experiences that are important for greater retention of concepts and for accommodation of different leaning styles; Stimulate students to understand the nature of science including its unpredictability and complexity;

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Provide opportunities to engage in collaborative work and to model scientific attitudes and behavior; Develop mastery of techniques and skills needed for potential science, engineering, and technology careers; and Ensure science course transferability to colleges if the course is taken for advanced placement. In summary, the knowledge gained from science courses with strong laboratory components enables students to understand in practical and concrete ways their own physical makeup, the functioning of the natural world around them, and contemporary scientific and environmental issues. It is only by maintaining hands-on lab experiences in our curricula that the brightest and most promising students will be stimulated to learn scientific concepts as opposed to being turned-off by lecture and textbook-only approaches to science. Physical experimentation may offer some students their only opportunity to experience a science laboratory environment. All students - as potential voters, parents, teachers, leaders, and hopefully informed citizens - will benefit from a well-rounded education that includes science laboratory experiences when it is time for them to make sound decisions affecting the future of their country and the world. A wonderful quote about experimentation comes from the 19th century scientist, Ira Remsen (1846-1927): While reading a text book of chemistry, I came upon the statement, "nitric acid acts upon copper." I was getting tired of reading such absurd stuff and I determined to see what this meant. Copper was more or less familiar to me, for copper cents were then in use. I had seen a bottle marked "nitric acid" on a table in the doctors office where I was then 'doing time'! I did not know its peculiarities, but I was getting on and likely to learn. The spirit of adventure was upon me. Having nitric acid and copper, I had only to learn what the words "act upon" meant. Then the statement "nitric acid acts upon copper" would be something more than mere words. All was still. In the interest of knowledge I was even willing to sacrifice one of the few copper cents then in my possession. I put one of them on the table, opened the bottle marked "nitric acid", and poured some of the liquid on the copper, and prepared to make an observation. But what was this wonderful thing which I beheld? The cent was already changed, and it was no small change either. A greenish blue liquid foamed and fumed over the cent and over the table. The air in the neighborhood of the performance became colored dark red. A great cloud arose: This was disagreeable and suffocating--how should I stop this? I tried to get rid of the objectionable mess by picking it up and throwing it out the window, which I had meanwhile opened. I learned another fact--nitric acid not only acts upon copper but it acts upon fingers. The pain led to another unpremeditated experiment. I drew my fingers across my trousers and another fact was discovered. Nitric acid acts upon trousers. Taking everything into consideration, that was the most impressive

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experiment, and, relatively, probably the most costly experiment I have ever performed. I tell of it even now with interest. It was a revelation to me. It resulted in a desire on my part to learn more about that remarkable kind of action. Plainly the only way to learn about it was to see its results, to experiment, to work in a laboratory. This lab manual can be used by all students, regardless of the laboratory facilities available to them. Its experiments are based upon the principles of micro and smallscale science which has been successfully used in campus laboratories for decades. LabPaqs micro and small-scale experiments can also be performed at home, in a dorm room, or at a small learning center that lacks a formal laboratory.

What are Micro and Small-scale Experiments?

You may be among the growing number of students to take a full-credit, laboratory science course through independent study. This is due to the development and perfection of micro-scale and small-scale experimentation techniques over the past half century. Experimentation on any scale is foundational to fully understanding the concepts of science. In the past, science courses required that experimentation be performed in the campus laboratory due to the perceived potential hazards inherent in traditional science experimentation. These elements of danger, increasing chemical, specimen, and science equipment costs, and concerns for the environmental made high schools, colleges and universities reexamine the traditional laboratory methods used to teach science. Scientists began to scale down the quantities of materials and the size of equipment used in experiments and found that reaction results remained unchanged. Over time, more and more traditional science experiments were redesigned to be performed on micro and small scales. Educational institutions eventually recognized that the scientific reaction, not the size of the reaction, is what facilitates learning. Successive comparative assessments have proven that science students learning is not impaired by studying small-sized reactions. Many even suggest that science learning is actually enhanced by small scale experimentation. The primary pioneer and most prominent contributor to micro and small-scale experimentation was Dr. Hubert Alyea, a chemistry professor at Princeton University who began utilizing micro-scale experiments in the 1950s. Dr. Alyea reformatted numerous chemistry experiments and also designed many of the techniques and equipment used in micro and small-scale science today. In the mid 1990s, Dr. Peter Jeschofnig of Colorado Mountain College pioneered the development of LabPaqs academically aligned small-scale experiments that can be performed at home. HandsOn Labs, Inc. has subsequently proven that students can actually perform LabPaqs rigorous science experiments alone at home and still achieve an equivalent, if not higher, level of learning than their campus-based peers.

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THE ORGANIZATION OF THIS LAB MANUAL

Before proceeding with the experiments you need to know what is expected of you. To find out please invest the small amount of time needed to thoroughly read and understand all the various sections of this manual. Introductory and How to Study, Sections: These sections include important information about scientific subject matter in general plus specific information about how to effectively study science and conduct science experiments. Read them carefully and take them to heart! How to Perform an Experiment and Laboratory Techniques Sections: Following the procedures described here will greatly facilitate experimental activities. The lab techniques described primarily apply to full-scale experiments and formal laboratories; however, knowledge of them and their related equipment is important to the basic understanding of science and is also relevant to home-based experimentation work. Laboratory Notes and Lab Reports: Like all serious scientists you must record formal notes detailing your activities, observations, and findings for each experiment. These notes will reinforce your learning experiences and science knowledge plus provide the basis from which you will prepare Lab Reports for your instructor. The Laboratory Notes and Lab Reports section explains exactly how these documents should be organized and prepared. Required Equipment and Supplies: Students performing these experiments in a nonlab setting must obtain the LabPaq specifically designed to accompany this manual. The LabPaq includes all the basic equipment and supplies needed to complete the experiments, except for minor items usually found in the average home or obtainable at local stores. At the beginning of each experiment is a materials section that states exactly which items the student provides and which items are found in the LabPaq. Review this list carefully before you begin an experiment to ensure you have all items on hand before you begin experimenting. Basic Safety Reinforcement: The use of this lab manual and a LabPaq and authorization to perform their experiments are expressly conditioned upon the user reading, understanding, and agreeing to follow exactly all instructions, to abide by all safety rules and precautions noted throughout this manual, and to accept full and unconditional liability for all results of their experimental activities. Additional terms authorizing the use of a LabPaq are contained in its Purchase Agreement on the www.LabPaq.com web site. The safety sections are relevant to both laboratory and non-laboratory experimentation. They describe potential hazards plus the basic safety equipment and safety procedures designed to avoid such hazards. Basic Safety and Safety Reinforcement are the most important sections of this lab manual and should always be reviewed before starting

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each new experiment The Experiments: The science experiments included in this lab manual were specifically selected to accompany its related course materials for a traditional academic term. These labs emphasize a hands-on, experimental approach for a sound understanding of scientific principles. The manuals rigorous lab report requirements help reinforce and communicate students understanding of each labs related science principles plus strengthen students communication skills. This traditional scientific method approach to learning science reflects the teaching philosophy of the authors, Hands-On Labs, Inc., and science educators around the globe.

HOW TO STUDY SCIENCE

It is so unfortunate that many people develop a fear of science somewhere early in life. Yes, the natural sciences are not the easiest subjects to learn, but neither are they the hardest. Like in any other academic endeavor, if you responsibly apply yourself, conscientiously study your course materials, and thoughtfully complete your assignments you will learn the material. Here are some basic hints for effectively studying science - or any other subject - both on or off campus. Plan to Study: You must schedule a specific time and establish a specific place in which to seriously, without interruptions or distractions, devote yourself to your studies. Think of studying like you would think of a job, except that now your job is to learn. Jobs have specific times and places in which to get the work done and studying should be no different. Just as television, friends, and other distraction are not permitted on a job, don't permit them to interfere with your studies. You cannot learn when you are distracted. If you want to do something well you must be serious about it. Only after you have finished your studies should you allow time for distractions. Get in the Right Frame of Mind: Think positively about yourself and what you are doing. Give yourself a pat on the back for being a serious student and put yourself in a positive frame of mind to enjoy what you are about to learn. Then get to work! Organize any materials and equipment you will need in advance so you don't have to interrupt your thoughts to find them later. Look over your syllabus and any other instructions and know exactly what your assignment is and what is expected of you. Review in your mind what you have already learned. Is there anything that you aren't sure about? Write it down as a formal question, then go back over previous materials and try to answer it yourself. If you haven't figured out the answer after a reasonable amount of time and effort, move on. The question will germinate inside your mind and the answer will probably present itself as you continue your studies. If not, at least the question is already written down so you can discuss it later with your instructor. Be Active with the Material: Learning is reinforced by relevant activity. When studying feel free to talk to yourself, scribble notes, draw pictures, pace out a problem, tap out a

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formula, etc. The more physically active things you do with study materials the better you will learn. Have highlighters, pencils, and note pads handy. Highlight important data, read it out loud, make notes. If there is a concept you are having problems with stand up and pace while you think it through. Try to see the action taking place in your mind. Throughout your day try to recall things you have recently learned, incorporate them into your conversations, and teach them to friends. These activities will help to imprint the related information in your brain and move you from simple knowledge to true understanding of the subject matter. Do the Work and Think about What You Are Doing: Sure, there are times when you might get away with taking a shortcut in your studies, but in doing so you will probably shortchange yourself. The things we really learn are the things we discover ourselves. That is why we don't learn as much from simple lectures, passive videos, or when someone tells us the answers to our questions instead. Discovery learning, figuring things out for ourselves, is the most effective and long-lasting form of learning. When you have an assignment don't just go through the motions. Enjoy your work, think about what you are doing, be curious, ask yourself questions, examine your results, and consider the implications of your findings. These "critical thinking" techniques will improve and enrich your learning process. When you complete your assignments independently and thoroughly, you will be genuinely knowledgeable and can be very proud of yourself.

HOW TO STUDY SCIENCE INDEPENDENTLY

There is no denying that learning through any method of independent study is a lot different than learning through classes held in traditional classrooms. A great deal of personal motivation and discipline is needed to succeed in a course of independent study where there are no instructors or fellow students to give you structure and feedback. But these problems are not insurmountable, and meeting the challenges of independent study can provide tremendous personal satisfaction. The key to successful independent study is in having a personal study plan and the personal discipline to stick to that plan. Properly Use Your Learning Tools: The basic tools for web courses and other distance learning methods are often similar and normally consist of computer software, videos, textbooks, and study guides. Double-check with your course instructor to make sure you acquire all the materials you will need. These items are usually obtained from a campus bookstore, library, or via the Internet. Related course lectures and videos may even be broadcast on your local public and educational television channels. If you choose to do your laboratory experimentation independently you will need the special equipment and supplies described in this lab manual and contained in its companion LabPaq. It can be purchased over the Internet at www.LabPaq.com. For each study session first work through the appropriate sections of your course

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materials. These basically serve as a substitute for classroom lectures and demonstrations. Take notes as you would in a regular classroom. Actively work with any computer and text materials, carefully review your study guide, and complete all related assignments. If you do not feel confident about the material covered repeat these steps until you do. It is a good idea to always review your previous work before proceeding to a new section. This reinforces what you previously learned and prepares you to better absorb new information. Actual experimenting is among the last things done in a laboratory session. Plan to Study: A normal science course with a laboratory component may require you to spend as much as 15 hours a week studying and completing your assignments. To really learn new material requires at least 3 hours of study time each week for each hour of course credit taken. This applies as equally to independent study as it does to regular classroom courses. On a school campus science students are usually in class for 3 hours and in the laboratory for 2 to 3 hours each week. They then still need at least 9 hours to read their text and complete their assignments. Knowing approximately how much time is required will help you to formulate a study plan at the beginning of the course; then you must stick to it. Schedule Your Time Wisely: The more often you interact with study materials and call them to mind, the more likely you are to reinforce and retain the information. Thus, it is much better to study in several short blocks of time rather than in one long, mindnumbing session. Accordingly, you should schedule several study periods throughout the week or better yet, during a little time each day. Please do not try to do all of your study work on the week-ends! You will burn yourself out, you won't really learn much, and you will probably end up feeling miserable about yourself and science too! Wise scheduling can prevent such unpleasantness and frustration. Choose the Right Place for Your Home Laboratory: The best place to perform athome science experiments will be determined by the nature of the individual experiments. This is usually an uncluttered room that has these important features: a door that can be closed to keep out children and pets; a window or door that can be opened for fresh air ventilation and fume exhaust; a source of running water for fire suppression and cleanup, and a counter or table-top work surface. A kitchen usually meets all these requirements. Sometimes the bathroom does too, but it can be cramped and subject to a lot of interruptions. Review each experiment before starting any work to help you select the most appropriate work area. Some of the equipment and supplies in LabPaq may pose dangers to small children and animals, so never forget to keep safety in mind when selecting a work area and always chose one where you cannot be disturbed by children or pets. Using a Lab Partner: While the experiments in the LabPaq can be performed independently, it is often fun as well as useful to have a lab partner to discuss ideas with, to help with taking measurements, and to reinforce your learning process.

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Whether the partner you choose is a parent, spouse, sibling, or friend, you will have to explain what you are doing, and in the process of teaching another you will better teach yourself. Always review your labs a few days ahead of time so you have time to line up a partner to help you if needed. Perform Internet Research: Students in todays cyber information age are often unaware of how fortunate they are to have so much information available at the click of a computer mouse. Consider how researchers of the past had to physically go to libraries, search through card catalogs for possible sources of information, and then often wait weeks to receive books and journals that then may not have contained the information they needed. They then had to begin their search all over again! Today, students can find information in a matter of minutes that took days, weeks, and months to find just a few decades ago! Since most courses today include online components, it is assumed that you have reasonable computer skills. If you make ample use of those skills and include online research as part of your study routine, you can greatly enhance your depth of learning as well as improve your grades. Keep a browser open as you review your course materials and lab assignments. When you encounter words and concepts that you have difficulty fully understanding, perform a quick web search on key words and then review three, four or as many sites as needed until you get the definition or concept clear in your mind. Web searches are especially valuable in science. For example, if you have difficulty with a concept, you can usually perform an image search in Google and other search engines that will help visually clarify the object of your interests. Perform a text search and you can find descriptions and information from leading scientists at famous institutions all over the world. For unfamiliar terms, input define plus the term into the browsers search engine and a myriad of differently phrased definitions will be available to help you grasp the meaning of a questioned term. This manual lists numerous respected websites that you may find very useful, and you will undoubtedly find many more on your own. Rely only on trusted government and educational institutions as sources for valid research data. Double-check and be especially skeptical of information garnered from personal blogs and sites such as wikipedia.org where anyone, regardless of their expertise or integrity, can edit and modify the information the site contains. As students all over the world are finding, the worldwide web is a treasure trove of information, but remember that not all of it is valid information! One additional caution: while the website links in this manual were valid at the time of printing, one of the drawbacks of the internet is that many good websites occasionally become unavailable or change URLs. However, if that happens, you can simply go to one of the other sites listed or perform a web search for more current sites.

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HOW TO PERFORM AN EXPERIMENT

Although each experiment is different the process of preparing, performing, and recording all the experiments is essentially the same. Read the Entire Experiment Before you Start: Knowing what you are going to do before you do it will help you to organize your work and be more effective and efficient. Review Basic Safety: Before beginning work on an experiment reread the manuals safety sections, try to foresee any potential hazards, and take appropriate steps to prevent any safety problems. Organize Your Work Space, Equipment and Materials: It is hard to organize your thoughts in a disorganized environment. Assemble all required equipment and supplies before you begin working. These steps will also facilitate safety. Outline Your Lab Notes: Outline the information needed for your lab notes and set-up required data tables. This makes it much easier to concentrate on your experiment while you are performing it and to simply enter observations and results as they occur. Note: LabPaq CDs normally include a Report Assistant that contains .rtf files of each experiments questions and data tables. These can be copied and pasted to facilitate your compilation of data and text information within your lab notes. Perform the Experiment According to Instructions: Follow exactly all directions in a sequential order. This is not the time to be creative. DO NOT attempt to improvise your own procedures! Think About What You Are Doing: Stop and give yourself time to reflect on what has happened in your experiment. What changes occurred? Why? What do they mean? How do they relate to the real world of science? This step can be the most fun and often creates "light bulb" experiences of understanding. Clean-up:. Always clean your lab space and lab equipment immediately after use. Wipe down all work surfaces that may have been exposed to chemicals or dissection specimens. Blot any unused chemicals with a paper towel or flush them down the sink with generous amounts of water. Wrap dissection specimens in newspaper and then plastic and place them in a sealed garbage can. Discard used pipets and other waste in your normal trash. Return cleaned equipment and supplies to their LabPaq box and store it out of the reach of children and pets. Complete Your Lab Notes, Answer Required Questions, and Prepare Your Lab Report: If you have properly followed all the above steps the conclusion will be easy.

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Why Experimental Measurements Are Important:

When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meager and unsatisfactory kind. Lord Kelvin

We measure things to know something about them and to describe objects and understand the phenomena. Experimental measurement is the cornerstone of the scientific method; thus, no theory or model of nature is tenable unless the results it predicts are measurable and in accordance with the experiment. Your primary tasks in a science lab course are to create experimentally measured values, compare your results to accepted theoretical or measured values, and gain a full understanding of scientific concepts. This is true for experiments done both inside and outside of a formal laboratory. Each experiment is predicated upon a theory of scientific principle and represents a test of that theory via experimentation, observation, measurements, and analysis of these activities.

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LABORATORY NOTES AND LAB REPORTS

Normally two basic records are complied during and from scientific experimentation activities. The first record is Lab Notes which you will record as you perform your actual experiments. Entries into your lab notebook will be the basis for your second record, the Lab Report. The Lab Report formally summarizes the activities and findings of your experiment and is what is normally submitted for instructor grading. Scientists keep track of their experimental procedures and results through lab notes that are recorded in a journal-type notebook as they work. In laboratories these notebooks are often read by colleagues such as directors and other scientists working on a project. In some cases scientific notebooks have become evidence in court cases. Thus, lab notes must be intelligible to others and include sufficient information so that the work performed can be replicated and so there can be no doubt about the honesty and reliability of the data and the researcher. Notebooks appropriate for data recording are bound and have numbered pages that cannot be removed. Entries normally include all of the scientists observations, actions, calculations, and conclusions related to each experiment. Data is never entered onto pieces of scratch paper to later be transferred, but rather is always entered directly into the notebook. When erroneous data is recorded a light diagonal line is drawn neatly through the error, followed by a brief explanation as to why the data was voided. Information learned from an error is also recorded. Mistakes can often be more useful than successes, and knowledge gained from them is valuable to future experimentation. As in campus-based science laboratories, independent study students are normally expected to keep a complete scientific notebook of their work that may or may not be periodically reviewed by their instructor. Paperbound 5x7 notebooks of graph paper usually work well as science lab notebooks. Since it is not practical to send complete notebooks back and forth between instructors and students for each experiment, independent study students instead usually prepare formal Lab Reports that are submitted to their instructors along with regular assignments via email or fax. Lab notes of experimental observations can be kept in many ways. Regardless of the procedure followed, the key question for deciding what kind of notes to keep is this: Do I have a clear enough record so that I could pick up my lab notebook or read my Lab Report in a few months and still explain to myself or others exactly what I did? Laboratory notes normally include these components: Title: Purpose: This should be the same title stated in the laboratory manual. Write a brief statement about what the experiment is designed to determine or demonstrate about chemistry.

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Procedure:

Briefly summarize what you did in performing this exercise and what equipment was used. Do not simply copy the procedure statement from the lab manual.

Data Tables: Tables are an excellent way to organize your observational data. Where applicable, the "Procedures" section of the experiment often advises a table format for data recording. Always prepare tables before experimenting so they will be ready to receive data as it is accumulated. Observations: What did you observe, smell, hear, or otherwise measure? Usually, observations are most easily recorded in table form. Questions: Questions are asked frequently throughout and at the end of exercises. They are designed to help you think critically about the exercise you just performed. Answer thoughtfully.

Conclusions: What did you learn from the experiment? Your conclusions should be based on your observations during the exercise. Conclusions should be written in your best formal English, using complete sentences, paragraphs, and correct spelling. Here are some general rules for keeping a lab notebook on your science experiments: Leave the first 2 to 4 pages blank so you can later add a "Table of Contents" at the front of the notebook. Entries into the table of contents should include the experiment number and name plus the page number where it can be found. Your records should be neatly written without being fussy. The notebook should not contain a complete lab report of your experiment. Rather it should simply be a record of what you did, how you did it and what your results were. Your records need to be complete enough so that any reasonably knowledgeable person familiar with the subject of your experiment, such as another student or your instructor, can read the entries, understand exactly what you did, and if necessary, repeat your experiment. Organize all numerical readings and measurements in appropriate data tables as in the sample Lab Report presented later. Always identify the units for each set of data you record (i.e., centimeters, kilograms, seconds, etc.). Always identify the equipment you are using so you can find or create it later if needed to recheck your work.

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It is an excellent idea to document important steps and observations of your experiments via digital photos and to include yourself in these photos. Such photos within your Lab Report will document that you actually performed the experiment as well as what you observed. In general, it is better to record more rather than less data. Even details that may seem to have little bearing on the experiment you are doing (such as the time and the temperature when the data were taken and whether it varied during the observations) may turn out to be information that has great bearing on your future analysis of the results. If you have some reason to suspect that a particular data set may not be reliable (perhaps you had to make the reading very hurriedly) make a note of that fact. Never erase a reading or data. If you think an entry in your notes is in error draw a single line through it and note the correction, but dont scratch it out completely or erase it. You may later find that it was significant after all. Although experimental results may be in considerable error, there is never a wrong result in an experiment for even errors are important results to be considered. If your observations and measurements were carefully made then your result will be correct. Whatever happens in nature, including the laboratory, cannot be wrong. Errors may have nothing to do with your investigation, or they may be mixed up with so many other events you did not expect that your report is not useful. Yet even errors and mistakes have merit and often lead to our greatest learning experiences. Thus, you must think carefully about the interpretation of all your results, including your errors. Finally, the cardinal rule in a laboratory is to fully carry out all phases of your experiments instead of dry-labbing or taking shortcuts. The Greek scientist, Archytas, summed this up very well in 380 B.C.: In subjects of which one has no knowledge one must obtain knowledge either by learning from someone else or by discovering it for oneself. That which is learned, therefore, comes from another and by outside help; that which is discovered comes by ones own efforts and independently. To discover without seeking is difficult and rare, but if one seeks it is frequent and easy. If, however, one does not know how to seek, discovery is impossible.

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Science Lab Report Format

This guide covers the overall format that formal Lab Reports normally follow. Remember that the Lab Report should be self-contained so that anyone, including someone without a science background and without a lab manual, can read it and understand what was done and what was learned. Data and calculation tables have been provided for many of the labs in this manual and students are encouraged to use them. Computer spreadsheet programs such as Excel can greatly facilitate the preparation of data tables and graphs. One website with additional information on preparing lab reports is: http://www.ncsu.edu/labwrite/.. Remember, above average work is necessary to receive above average grades! Lab Reports are expected to be word processed and to look organized and professional. They should be free of grammar, syntax, and spelling errors and be a respectable presentation of your work. Writing in the first person should be avoided as much as possible. Lab Reports should generally contain these sections: 1. Title Page 2. Section 1: Abstract, Experiment Description, Procedures, and Observations including photos, drawings, and data tables Section 2: Analysis including calculations, graphs, and error analysis Section 3: Discussion of Results Each of the above three sections is discussed in greater detail below. They should be clearly distinguished from each other in the actual report. The presentation and organization skills developed by producing science Lab Reports will be beneficial to all potential career fields. Title Page: This is the first page of the lab report and consists of: a. Experiment number and/or title b. Your name c. The names of any lab partner(s) d. The date and time the experiment was preformed e. The location should be included if work was performed in the field f. The course number Section 1: Abstract, Experiment, and Observation Abstract: Even though the abstract appears at the beginning of the report, it is written last and inserted into the beginning. An abstract is a very concise description of the experiments objective, results, and conclusions. It should be no longer than a paragraph. Experiment and Observation: Carefully, yet concisely, describe, in chronological order, what was done, what was observed, and what, if any, problems were encountered. Describe what field and laboratory techniques and equipment were employed to collect and analyze the data upon which the conclusions are based.
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Photos and graphic illustrations are usually inserted in this section. Graphics should be in .jpg or .gif format to minimize their electronic file size. Show all of work for any calculations performed. Every graph must have a title and its axes must be clearly labeled. Curves through data points this should be best-fit curves, which are smooth straight or curved lines that best represents the data, rather than a dot-to-dot connection of data points. Include all data tables, photos, graphs, lists, sketches, etc. in an organized fashion. Include relevant symbols and units with data. Generally a sentence or two explaining how data was obtained is appropriate for each data table. Note any anomalies observed or difficulties encountered in collecting data as these may affect the final results. Include information about any errors observed and what was learned from them. Be deliberate in recording the experimental procedures in detail. Your comments may also include any preliminary ideas you have on explaining the data or trends you see emerging.

Section 2: Analysis including Calculations, Graphs, and Error Analysis Generally, the questions at the end of each lab will act as a guide for preparing results and conclusions. This section is normally written in paragraph form and not more than one or two pages long. Additional considerations are: What is the connection between the experimental measurements taken and the final results and conclusions? How do your results relate to the real world? What were the results of observations and calculations? What trends were noticed? What is the theory or model behind the experiment preformed? Do the experimental results substantiate or refute the theory? Why? Be sure to refer specifically to the results you obtained! Were the results consistent with your original predictions of outcomes or were you forced to revise your thinking? Did errors such as environmental changes (wind, rain, etc) or unplanned friction occur? If so, how did they affect the experiment? Did any errors occur due to the equipment used such as estimates being skewed due to a lack of sufficient measurement gradients on a beaker?

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What recommendations might improve the procedures and results?

Errors: In a single paragraph comment on the accuracy and precision of the apparatus and include a discussion of the experimental errors and an estimate of the error in your final result. Remember, "errors" are not "mistakes!" Errors arise because the apparatus and/or the environment inevitably fail to match the "ideal circumstances" assumed when deriving a theory or equations. The two principal sources or error are: Physical phenomena: Elements in the environment may be similar to the phenomena being measured and thus may affect the measured quantity. Examples might include stray magnetic or electric fields or unaccounted for friction. Limitations of the observer, the analysis, and/or the instruments: Examples are parallax error when reading a meter tape, the coarse scale of a graph, and the sensitivity of the instruments. Examples of "mistakes" and "human errors" that are not acceptable scientific errors include: A. Misuse of calculator (e.g., pushing the wrong button, misreading the display), B. Misuse of equipment, C. Faulty equipment, and D. Incorrectly assembled circuit or apparatus.

Section 3: Discussion, Results, and Conclusions Discussion: The discussion section should be carefully organized and include consideration of the experiments results, interpretation of results, and uncertainty in results as further described below. This section is normally written in paragraph form and no more than one to two pages in length. Occasionally it will be more appropriate to organize various aspects of the discussion differently for different labs. Not all of the following questions will apply to every lab.

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Results: What is the connection between your observations, measurements, and final results? What were the independent or dependent variables in the experiment? What were the results of your calculations? What trends were noticeable? How did the independent variables affect the dependent variables? For example, did an increase in a given independent variable result in an increase or decrease in the associated dependent variable?

Interpretation of Results: What is the theory or model behind the experiment you performed? Do your experimental results substantiate or agree with the theory? Why or why not? Be sure to refer specifically to YOUR experimental results! Were these results consistent with your original beliefs or were you forced to reevaluate your prior conceptions?

Uncertainty in results: 1. How much did your results deviate from expected values? 2. Are the deviations due to error or uncertainty in the experimental method or are they due to idealizations inherent in the theory, or are they due to both? 3. If the deviations are due to experimental uncertainties can you think of ways to decrease the amount of uncertainty? 4. If the deviations are due to idealizations in the theory what factors has the theory neglected to consider? In either case, consider whether your results display systematic or random deviations. All of these comments on lab notes and lab reports undoubtedly sound complex and overwhelming upon first reading. But do not worry; they will make more sense to you when you actually begin to perform the experiments and write reports. After writing the first few lab reports they will become second nature to you. This manual contains a sample lab report example of A level work to provide a better understanding of how a formal lab report is written.

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Laboratory Drawings
Laboratory work often requires findings to be illustrated in representational drawings. Clear, well organized drawings are an excellent way to convey observations and are often more easily understood than long textual descriptions. The adage a picture is worth a thousand words really is true when referring to science laboratory notes. Students often say they cant draw, but with a little care and practice, anyone can illustrate science lab observations. A trick most artists use is to place a mental grid over the object or scene and then approach their drawing from the standpoint of the grid areas. For instance, look at the diagram below and quickly make a free hand drawing of it. Then mentally divide the diagram into quarters and try drawing it again. In all likelihood, the second grid-based drawing will yield a better result. Give yourself ample drawing space, and leave a white margin around the actual illustration, so it can be seen clearly. Also, leave a broad margin along one side of your drawing to insert labels for the objects in the drawing. Use a ruler to draw straight lines for the labels and as connecting lines between the objects and their related labels. The following is a good example of how your lab drawings should look when they are included in a formal lab report.

SOURCE OF DRAWING
Such as MUNG BEAN

Your Name Date of Drawing TITLE OF DRAWING

Such as CELL STRUCTURE

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Visual Presentation of Data

Learning to produce good graphs and tables is important because like pictures they can quickly and clearly communicate information visually. That is why graphs and tables are often used to represent or depict data that has been collected. Graphs and tables should be constructed in such a way that they are able to stand alone. That means, all the information required to understand a graph or table must be included in it. A graph is composed of two basic elements: the graph itself and the graph legend. The legend adds the descriptive information needed to fully understand the graph. In the graph at right the legend shows that the red line represents Red Delicious apples, the brown line is the Gala apples, and the green line is the Wine Sap apples. Without the legend it would be difficult to interpret this graph. One of the most important uses of a graph is to predict data that is not measured by the data. In interpolation a graph is used to construct new data points within the range of a discrete set of known data points. As an example if the data points on the pH graph are recorded at pHs of 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 but the investigator wants to know what happens at pH 6 the information can be found by interpolating the data between the points of pH 5 and 7. Follow the red line up to interpolate the value, there would be 12 tadpoles living at a pH of 6. Along the same lines, a graph line can be extended to extrapolate data that is outside of the measured data. For example if the researcher wanted to know what would happen at a pH greater than 11 this can be extrapolated by extending the line. In the example at right the blue line represents an extrapolation that allows scientists to predict what might happen. Why is

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extrapolation less reliable than interpolation? Constructing a Table: A table allows for the data to be presented in a clear and logical way. The independent data is put at the left hand side of the table and the dependent data falls to the right of that. Keep in mind Concentration of Plant Fertilizer versus Plant Height that there will be only one independent X-Axis Y-Axis variable but there can be more than one Fertilizer % dependent variable. The decision to present solution Plant Height in cm data in a table rather than a figure is often 0 25 arbitrary. However, a table may be more 10 34 appropriate than a graph when the data set is 20 44 too small to warrant a graph, or it is large and 30 76 complex and is not easily illustrated. 79 Frequently, a data table is provided to display 40 65 the raw data, while a graph is then used to 50 60 40 make the visualization of the data easier. Setting up a Graph: Consider a simple plot of the Plant Fertilizer versus the Plant Height. This is a plot of points on a set of X and Y coordinates. The X-axis or abscissa, runs horizontally, while the Y axis or ordinate, runs vertically. By convention, the X-axis is used for the independent variable which is defined as a manipulated variable in an experiment whose presence determines the change in the dependent variable. The Y axis is used for the dependent variable which is the variable affected by another variable or by a certain event. In our example the amount of fertilizer is the independent variable and should go on the X-axis. The plant height is the dependent variable and should go on the Y-axis since it may change as a result of or dependent on how the amount of fertilizer changes. One way to help figure out which data goes on the X-axis versus the Y-axis is to think about what affects what, so does fertilizer affect plant height or would plant height affect the fertilizer. Only one of these should make sense, plant height will not change the fertilizer but the fertilizer will have an effect on the plant height. So which ever causes the change is the independent or X axis and which responds as a result of that change is the dependent or Y-axis.

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The rules for constructing a table are similar. The important point is that the data is presented clearly and logically. As shown in the prior table, the independent data is put at the left hand side of the table and the dependent data falls to the right of that. Keep in mind that there will be only one independent variable, but there can be more than one dependent variable. The decision to present data in a table rather than a figure is often arbitrary. However, a table may be more appropriate than a graph when the data set is too small to warrant a graph, or it is large and complex and is not easily illustrated. Frequently, a data table is provided to display the raw data, while a graph is then used to make the visualization of the data easier. If the data deals with more than one dependent variable such as the apple varieties seen in the first example, it would be represented with three lines and a key or legend would be needed to identify which line represents which data set. In all graphs each axis is labeled, and the units of measurement are specified. When a graph is presented in a lab report, the variables, the scale, and the range of the measurements should be clear. Graphs are often the clearest and easiest way to depict the patterns in your data -- they give the reader a "feel" for the data. Use the table at right to help set up a line graph. Once you have a good feel for how to create a graph on your own, explore computer graphing using MS Excel.

Another easy program to use is http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/Graphing/Classic/line.asp

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Computer Graphing Using MS Excel

If you have a newer Excel program you may need to perform an internet search for a more up to date set of instructions

This set of general instructions will be used to plot the following data: Time, t (seconds) 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 Distance, x (cm) 0 9.8 30.2 59.9 99.2 148.9

2. When you graph x-y data as you will in most graphs, you must first determine which variable will be the x-variable and which will be the y-variable. If unsure as to which is which, read the section on Visual Presentation of Data. In this example, time (t) goes on the x-axis and distance (x) goes on the y-axis. Remember that the symbol for time is t and the symbol for distance is x. Do not confuse these symbols, especially the distance symbol, with the x and y axes when plotting graphs. 3. Open the Excel software, begin a new spread sheet, and save it under an appropriate name such as Exercise 1 Time vs. Distance. 4. Record x-data points in the first column (A) of the spreadsheet and the y-data points in the second column (B). It is often useful to have zero as the first data value, but not always. However, it never hurts and this is a good habit to start in case it might ever be helpful. 5. Highlight all the data values you entered. To do this, first place the cursor in the first cell (A1) to be highlighted, then a. With the mouse: left click and hold the mouse button down while pulling the mouse and cursor down and to the right so all cells are included. Release the left mouse button and the area is highlighted, or On the keyboard: hold the shift key down and use the direction arrows to move the cursor over the desired area. Each cell passed will be highlighted. 6. Click the graphing icon on the toolbar at the top of your screen or click on the "Insert option at the top of the screen and then scroll to the Chart" option. Both methods will open up a Chart Wizard box to help design a graph. Under Chart Type, pick XY (Scatter). Then under Chart sub-type, select a
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preference of a graph with or without data points shown on it and/or one that also connect the points with lines or smoothed lines. Usually graphs with smoothed lines are preferable. Click "Next. 7. Carefully review information in the next box Step 2 of 4 Chart Source Data to make certain the graph has the correct values for the vertical and the horizontal axes. Under the tab Data Range page, the box for Columns should be checked; the range should be: Data Range: =Sheet1!$A$2:$B$7 This means that the data: Comes from Sheet 1 of the 3 potential spreadsheets for this file. Comes from cells A2 through B7. Has been organized via the vertical columns instead of the vertical rows of cells within the data range. 8. Next, under the tab Series page, are the following boxes and values: X Values: =Sheet1!$A$2:$A$7 Y Values: =Sheet1!$B$2:$B$7 This means: The data comes from Sheet 1 of the 3 potential spreadsheets for this file. That the data for X values comes from cell numbers A2 through A7. That the data for Y values comes from cell numbers B2 through B7. If the data is reversed - although this should not happen if all the above instructions are followedremedy the situation by simply replacing the incorrect column letters and numbers with the correct ones. For extra neatness and appropriate reference, rename the series of data points from the default name, series 1. To do so, simply type another name in the "Name" box. Data is a name commonly used here. 9. Click "Next," and a new box will prompt for a title entry for the chart and labels for the X and Y axis.

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10. Click "Next" again and a new screen will present these two options: As new sheet: will open a new page on which the graph will appear. As object in: will return you to the open data spread sheet on which the graph will appear. This is a purely personal preference, but if in doubt it is wise to chose As object in since the actual data and graph will then be on the same page. 11. Click finish to go to the selected page preference, and the graph should look like the one at right:

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LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
Most of the following techniques apply primarily to chemistry and biology and refer to their use in formal laboratory facilities. However, knowledge of these techniques is also often required in the study of other science disciplines and in working in a home lab. Dispensing Chemicals: When pouring liquid chemicals from a reagent (pronounced re-agent) bottle with a glass stopper, avoid contaminating the stopper by holding it in your fingers while carefully pouring the liquid into the desired container. When pouring from a screw-cap bottle, set the cap down on its top so that it does not contaminate or become contaminated. Be certain to put the correct cap on the bottle after using it. NEVER POUR EXCESS CHEMICALS BACK INTO A REAGENT BOTTLE since this may contaminate the reagents. If any liquid is spilled or drips on the side of the bottle, clean it immediately. To obtain samples of a powdered or crystalline solid from a container, it is best to first pour the approximate amount desired into a clean dry beaker or onto a small piece of clean paper that has been creased down the center. Pour powders and crystals by tilting the container and, with a gentle shaking and rotating motion, work the solids up to the lip and allow them to slowly fall out. The easiest way to transfer solids is by using a creased piece of paper. If you pour too much, DO NOT PUT ANY SOLID BACK INTO THE JAR. Also, never put wooden splints, spatulas, or paper into a jar of solids, as they too may cause contamination. Dropping Chemicals: In micro-scale science, where only small drops of chemicals are used, it is extremely important that the drops are uniform in size and that they are carefully observed for accurate counting. To ensure uniformity of drop sizes, first cut off the tip of the pipets with scissors. Cut straight across and perpendicular to the pipet body as cutting at an angle will distort drop sizes. Turn the dropping bottle or pipet completely upside down so that the dispensing chamber behind the dropper is full of liquid. Finally, hold the dropper in front of your eyes so you can carefully observe and count the number of drops as you slowly squeeze the pipet or bottle to dispense drops. Here you can see the wrong (left) and correct (right) way to dispense drops. The bottle or pipet should be held in a vertical position at eye level to ensure drops are uniform in size and to correctly count the exact number of drops needed

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Heating Chemicals: SOLID AND LIQUID CHEMICALS MUST BE HEATED WITH GREAT CARE TO PREVENT EXPLOSIONS AND ACCIDENTS. Heating Liquids in Beakers: To heat liquids in beakers or flasks make certain that these containers are well supported above their heat source. Heating with most sources is normally done with a stand where the container is placed on wire gauze that is supported by an iron support. The heat source is then placed under the beaker or flask. Heating Liquids in Test Tubes: When heating a liquid in a test tube, always use a test tube holder. The test tube should be carefully heated by moving it back and forth in the flame so that the contents are evenly heated. Heat the test tube near the top of the liquid first. Heating the test tube at the bottom may cause the liquid to suddenly boil and fly out! Mass Measurement Equipment: Note that weighing scales are often called balances since weights are often calculated via balance beams. Triple and quadruple beam balances are traditionally the most common measuring equipment found in laboratories. However with today's precision technology, digital top-loading balances are becoming increasingly popular. Triple and Quadruple Beam Scale: These balances typically include a hanging pan and vary in their degree of accuracy. After the scale has been set at zero, the object to be weighed is placed in the hanging pan and balancing weights are added or subtracted by moving a pointer across a horizontal bar scale. When exact scale is achieved, the pointer indicates the objects mass on the scale. Digital Top Loading Balance: This scale is initially zeroed by pressing the "zero" button. If using weighing paper or a small beaker, the paper or beaker should first be "tared by placing it on the scale and pressing the "tare button before adding the material. This will produce a zero reading and the weight of the paper or beaker will be excluded from the weighing process. Hanging Spring Scales: Measurements are taken by suspending the item from the scale, often within a container. Spring scales are not easily tared, so the container weight should be separately calculated and subtracted from the combined weight of the item and the container. The Non-digital Analytical Balance: This is a very delicate type of scale instrument. The instructions for its use are quite detailed and because of its extreme sensitivity weighing on the analytical scale must be carried out in a closed chamber that is free from drafts. It is seldom used by first-year chemistry students. Volume Measurement Equipment: To obtain accurate measurements from any glass volume measurement container such as a beaker or graduated cylinder, you must identify and correctly read a curved surface known as the meniscus. The meniscus of
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water and water-based solutions concave downward and are read at the very bottom of their curve. A mercury meniscus is convex and thus is read at the very top of its curve. There is no meniscus issue associated with plastic containers, only glass. The Graduated Cylinder: Graduated cylinders are available in a wide range of sizes. To read a volume in a graduated cylinder, hold the cylinder at eye level so the contents level and possibly the meniscus can be directly viewed in a straight line. Looking at a meniscus from below or above will create parallax and cause a false reading. Always read any scale to the maximum degree possible, including an estimate of the last digit. The Buret: Burets are long graduated tubes usually used in titration. They have a stopcock or valve at their bottom end that allows liquids to be dispensed in individual drops and the quantity dispensed to be accurately measured. Caution is required when opening the stopcock to ensure that only one drop is dispensed at a time. The Pipet: Pipets are small tube-type containers with openings at one end if made of plastic or at both ends if made of glass. They come in a range of volumes and are generally used to transfer specific amounts of liquids from one container to another. The Berel Pipet: These soft and flexible pipets are made of polyethylene plastic and are extensively used in LabPaqs. They have long narrow tips and are used to deliver chemicals and to collect products, including gases. Berel pipets come in different sizes and their tips can have different diameters and lengths. They may be modified to serve diverse purposes such as chemical scoops, gas generators, reaction vessels, etc. The Volumetric Flask: Volumetric flasks are pear-shaped flasks with long necks used for the preparation of solutions whose concentrations need to be very accurate. They come in a variety of sizes ranging from a few milliliters to several liters, and their volume levels are precisely marked. When the liquid level inside a volumetric flask is such that the meniscus lines up with the calibration mark on the neck, the volume of the liquid is exactly as stated. Unlike volumetric flasks, the markings on beakers, Erlenmeyer flasks and most other lab containers are very good approximates but are not intended to be exact and precise measurements of volume. Wash Bottles: These are plastic squeeze bottles from which a small stream of water can be easily dispensed to where it is needed, such as in washing out residue from a container. They usually contain distilled or deionized water and are typically used to top off the last few milliliters of a vessel and thereby avoid overfilling it. In micro and smallscale experimentation plastic pipets are used for similar functions. Distilled Water or Deionized Water: Tap water frequently contains ions that may interfere with substances being studied. To avoid such interference, distilled or deionized water is used any time water is needed for dilution of concentration or for the preparation of experimental solutions. Used glassware should be washed with soap, rinsed with tap water, and then rinsed again with distilled water.

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Filtration Equipment: Gravity Filtration: Gravity filtration is used to remove solid precipitates or suspended solids from a mixture. Such a device basically works like a small funnel or spaghetti strainer, except that it is lined with fine conical filter paper to trap the solids. After the mixture has been poured into the filter from a beaker, a special spatula called a rubber policeman is used to scrape any remaining solids from the beaker wall into the conical filter paper. A wash bottle is then used to rinse residue from the beaker and rubber policeman into the filter cone to ensure that all the mixture's particles pass through the filter. Suction Filtration: This type of filtration uses a vacuum to suck a mixture through a filter. It is much faster than but not always as efficient as gravity filtration. The required vacuum is usually created by the aspirator of a laboratory water faucet. The Bunsen Burner: This old tried-and-true heat source relies on the combustion of natural or bottled gas. To achieve the best flame, the burner's gas inlet valve and air vent must be properly adjusted. This is done by opening the valves only halfway before lighting. The safest way to actually light the burner is by bringing a lighted match to the flame opening from the side, not the top. When the burner is lit close the air vent and adjust the gas inlet valve until the flame is about 10 cm high. This flame should be luminous and yellow. Next, open the air vent until the flame becomes two concentric cones. The outer cone will be faintly colored and the inner cone will be blue. The hottest part of the flame is at the tip of the blue cone. Heating Methods for Small-scale Techniques: For micro and small-scale science experimentation the most commonly used heat sources are alcohol burners, candles, and burner fuel. Alcohol burners can be a problem because their flame is almost invisible and they cannot be refilled while hot. Candles, while effective for heating small quantities of materials, tend to leave a sooty carbon residue on the container being heated and thus can obstruct observations. Chafing dish or burner fuel is actually the best of these alternatives for it has a visible flame, is easily extinguished, and does not leave excessive flame residue. Sterno and similar alcohol based fuels are very volatile and cannot be safely shipped. However, the Glycol-based fuel used in LabPaqs is safe to ship. Regardless of the type of burner used, no ignited heat source should ever be left unattended. The Tissue Culture Well Plates: These microplates are plastic trays containing numerous shallow wells arranged in lettered rows and numbered columns. The wells are used in similar ways to test tubes and beakers to observe reactions, to temporarily store chemicals during experiments, to hold pipets, etc. The most commonly used plates are 24-well plates and 96-well plates.

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Use, Disposal, and Cleaning Instructions for Common Materials

Properly cleaning the laboratory after experimentation is also a safety measure!

THESE PROCEDURES ARE NOT REPEATED WITHIN THE LABORATORIES since it is assumed students will always refer to them before beginning any laboratory.

Items in LabPaq auxiliary bags are normally used multiple times or for several different experiments. Always clean and return unused auxiliary items to the bag after completing an experiment. Small quantities of chemicals are usually packaged in thin stem pipets. When the tip is cut perpendicular to the pipet body, not at a slant, and the pipet is held in a vertical position with the tip pointed down, the pipet will dispense uniformly sized drops. The drop size dispensed from small dropper bottles is different from that of the pipets. Most experiments require pipet-sized drops. Thus, it may be necessary to squeeze a few drops of chemical from a dropper bottle into a well of the 24-well plate. Then use a clean, empty pipet suck up and drop the chemical. To clean a thin-stemmed plastic pipet, squeeze the bulb to draw up and then expel tap water into and out of the bulb several times, then repeat this process with distilled water. Dry the pipet by repeatedly squeezing the bulb while tapping the tip on a clean paper towel, then use gravity to help dry the pipet by forcefully swinging it into a downward arch while squeezing its bulb. Lay the pipet on a clean paper towel o place it in a test tube stand and allow it to air dry. To reseal a pipet, never simply hold a flame to the tip of the stem! Instead, heat the tip of a metal knife, then press the pipet tip onto the hot metal while twirling the bulb. Once dispensed, chemicals should not be returned to their dropper bottles as this could cause contamination. Thus, squeeze out only a few drops of chemicals at a time into a well plate. More can always be squeezed later if needed. Used and left over chemicals should be blotted up with paper towels and placed in the garbage bin or flushed down a drain using copious amounts of water. The quantities of chemicals used in LabPaqs are very small and should not negatively impact the environment nor adversely affect private septic systems or public sewer systems. To use burner fuel, unscrew its cap, light the wick, and slip the can under a burner stand. Extinguish the fuel by gently placing the cap over the flame to deprive it of oxygen. Leave the cap sitting loosely on top of the wick when you are not using the fuel in order to avoid unnecessary evaporation and to ensure an ample supply of fuel

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for all experiments. Allow the fuel to cool completely before tightly screwing on the cap for storage. If the cap is screwed on while the fuel is still hot, a vacuum may be created that will make it very difficult to reopen the fuel can in the future. Non chemical experimental items can be discarded with household garbage, but should first be wrapped in newspaper. Place such items in a securely covered trash container that will not allow children and animals to access the contents. LabPaqs containing dissection specimens will usually contain specific information regarding their handling. After completion of any dissecting work, dissection specimens should be wrapped in news or waste paper, sealed in a plastic bag, and then placed in a closed trash bin for normal garbage disposal. Use a mild liquid dishwashing detergent mixed with warm water to loosen solids or oils that adhere to experimental glassware, plastics and equipment and to clean lab equipment and the lab area after an experiment is finished. Use tap water to rinse washed items well removing all traces of detergent. A final rise of distilled water should be used item to clean tap water mineral residue from the newly washed items, especially beakers, cylinders, test tubes, and pipets. Use a soft cloth or a test tube brush to loosen and clean residue from the surfaces of experimental glassware, plastics and equipment. Avoid touching the surfaces of clean items that might later contact test chemicals to minimize contamination. Test tubes may be dried by placing them upside down in the test tube rack. Other items may be air dried by placing them on paper towels, aluminum foil or a clean dishtowel.

Important Notice Regarding Chemical Disposal Issues: Due to the minute quantities and diluted and/or neutralized chemicals used in LabPaqs, the above described disposal methods are well within acceptable levels of disposal guidelines defined for the vast majority of local solid and wastewater regulations. However, since regulations occasionally vary in some communities, students are advised to check with their local area waste authorities to confirm these disposal techniques are in compliance with their local regulations and/or if they desire assistance with disposal.

SAFETY CONCERNS
While there certainly are not as many safety hazards in experimenting with physics and geology as there are in chemistry and biology, safety risks exist in all science experimentation and should be taken very seriously.
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You, as a responsible science student and researcher, are solely responsible for safely storing and using your LabPaq materials and for conducting your experiments in a safe and responsible manner that will bring no harm to anyone or to anything. Items in your LabPaq can be especially dangerous to children and pets, so the LabPaq should always be kept safely stored out of their reach. The LabPaq may contain acids or other chemicals that can cause burns if mishandled plus serious illness and possibly death if consumed, especially by a small child. Many LabPaq items are made of glass and/or have sharp edges that pose potential risks for cuts and scratches. While LabPaq thermometers do not contain mercury, they might still break and cause cuts and injury. The LabPaq contains small items and materials that could cause choking or injury and even death if misused. Experimentation may require you to climb, push, pull, spin, and whirl. While these activities are not necessarily dangerous they can pose hazards and should always be undertaken cautiously and with consideration for people and objects around you. If you need to climb to take measurements, make sure any stool, chair, or ladder used is sturdy and take ample precautions to prevent falls. It is wise to have an assistant help keep you stable when you must climb. Be especially aware of experimental equipment that you must put in motion and act cautiously to ensure that items cannot go astray and cause injury to people or property. If you or anyone accidentally consumes or otherwise comes into contact with a toxic substance that cannot be easily washed away such as a chemical accidentally splashed in the eyes, you should immediately call:

The National Poison Control Center: 1-800-332-3073

Your eyesight is precious and should be protected against chemical spills or splashes and potential flying objects and debris. Always wear safety goggles when working with chemicals of any kind and even when working with non-chemical objects that could possibly fly into your eyes. When you use a hammer to break or chip rock specimen, there is the danger of rock debris flying into your eyes. Protect against this danger by always wearing your safety goggle when you hammer rocks! Since chemicals, dirt, and germs are often involved with geology lab work, you should never eat or smoke in your lab area. Protect your body by keeping your hair well tied back from your face and by wearing old clothing that fully covers your arms and legs. You also need to protect your home furnishings from damage during your experimentation. Cover your work surface with plastic or paper towels when appropriate to prevent ruining furniture and to aid in clean up. The best safety tools you have are your own mind and intellectual ability to think and plan. After previewing each experiment carefully think about what safety precautions
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you need to take to experiment safely, and then take them! Since it is impossible to control students use of this lab manual and related LabPaqs or students work environments, the author(s) of this lab manual, the instructors and institutions that adopt it, and Hands-On Labs, Inc. the publisher of the manual and producer of LabPaqs authorize the use of these educational products only on the express condition that the purchasers and users accept full and complete responsibility for all and any liability related to their use of same.

Basic Safety Guidelines

This section contains vital information that must be thoroughly read and completely understood before a student begins to perform experiments.

PREVENT INJURIES AND ACCIDENTS! Science experimentation is fun, but does involve potential hazards which must be acknowledged to be avoided. To safely conduct science experiments, students must first learn and then always follow basic safety procedures. Although there are certainly not as many safety hazards in experimenting with physics and geology as there are in chemistry and biology, safety risks exist in all science experimentation and science students need to be aware of safety issues relevant to all the disciplines. Thus, the following safety procedures review is relevant to all students regardless of their field of study While this manual tries to include all relevant safety issues, not every potential danger can be foreseen as each experiment involves slightly different safety considerations. Thus, students must always act responsibly, learn to recognize potential dangers, and always take appropriate precautions. Regardless of whether a student will be working in a campus or home laboratory setting, it is extremely important that he or she knows how to anticipate and avoid possible hazards and to be safety conscious at all times.

BASIC SAFETY PROCEDURES: Science experimentation often involves using toxic chemicals, flammable substances, breakable items, and other potentially dangerous materials and equipment. All of these things can cause injury and even death if not properly handled. These basic safety procedures apply when working in a campus or home laboratory. Because eyesight is precious and eyes are vulnerable to chemical spills and splashes, to shattered rocks and glass, and to floating and flying objects o Students must always wear eye protecting safety goggles when experimenting. Because toxic chemicals and foreign matter may enter the body through digestion,

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o Drinking and eating are always forbidden in laboratory areas o Students must always wash their hands before leaving their laboratory o Students must always clean their lab area after experimentation. Because toxic substances may enter the body through the skin and lungs, o The laboratory area must always have adequate ventilation, o Students must never "directly" inhale chemicals, o Students should wear long-sleeved shirts, pants, and enclosed shoes when in their lab area, and o Students must wear gloves and aprons when appropriate. Because hair, clothing, and jewelry can create hazards, cause spills and catch fire while experimenting, o Students should always tie or pin back long hair, o Students should always wear snug fitting clothing (preferably old), and o Students should never wear dangling jewelry or objects. Because a laboratory area contains various fire hazards, o Smoking is always forbidden in laboratory areas. Because chemical experimentation involves numerous potential hazards, o Students must know how to locate and use basic safety equipment, o Students must never leave a burning flame or reaction unattended, o Students must specifically follow all safety instructions, o Students must never perform any unauthorized experiments, and o Students must always properly store equipment and supplies and ensure these are out of the reach of small children and pets. Because science equipment and supplies often include breakable glass and sharp items that pose potential risks for cuts and scratches and small items as well as dangerous chemicals that could cause death or injury if consumed o Students must carefully handle all science equipment and supplies o Students must keep science equipment and supplies stored out of the reach of pets and small children o Students must ensure pets and small children will not enter their lab area while they are experimenting. Because science experimentation may require students to climb, push, pull, spin, and whirl o Students should undertaken these activities cautiously and with consideration for people, property, and objects that could be impacted o Students must ensure any stool, chair, or ladder used to climb is sturdy and take ample precautions to prevent falls Because students best safety tools are their own minds and intellectual ability

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o Students must always preview each experiment, carefully think about what safety precautions need to taken to experiment safely, and then take them

BASIC SAFETY EQUIPMENT: The following pieces of basic safety equipment are found in all campus laboratories. Informal and home laboratories may not have or need all of these items, but simple substitutes can usually be made or found. Students should know their exact location and proper use. SAFETY GOGGLES - There is no substitute for this important piece of safety equipment! Spills and splashes do occur, and eyes can very easily be damaged if they come in contact with laboratory chemicals, shattered glass, swinging objects, and flying rock chips. While normal eyeglasses do provide some protection, these items can still enter the eyes from the side. Safety goggles cup around all sides of the eyes to provide the most protection and can be worn over normal eyeglasses if required. EYEWASH STATION - All laboratories should have safety equipment to wash chemicals from the eyes. A formal eyewash station looks like a water fountain with two faucets directed up at spaces to match the space between the eyes. In case of an accident the victim's head is placed between the faucets while the eyelids are held open so the faucets can flush water into the eye sockets and wash away the chemicals. In an informal laboratory, a hand-held shower wand can be substituted for an eyewash station. After the eyes are thoroughly washed, a physician should be consulted promptly. FIRE EXTINGUISHER - There are several types of fire extinguishers, at least one of which should be found in all types of laboratories. Students should familiarize themselves with and know how to use the particular type of fire extinguisher in their laboratory. At a minimum, home laboratories should have a bucket of water and a large pot of sand or dirt available to smother fires. FIRE BLANKET - This is a tightly woven fabric used to smother and extinguish a fire. It can cover a fire area or be wrapped around a victim who has caught on fire. SAFETY SHOWER - This shower is used in formal laboratories to put out fires or douse people who have caught on fire or suffered a large chemical spill. A hand-held shower wand is the best substituted for a safety shower in a home laboratory. FIRST-AID KIT - This kit of basic first-aid supplies is used for the emergency treatment of injuries and should be found in both formal and informal laboratories. It should be always well stocked and easily accessible. SPILL CONTAINMENT KIT - This kit consists of absorbent material that can be ringed around a spilled chemical to keep it contained until the spill can be neutralized. The kit may simply be a bucket full of sand or other absorbent material such as kitty litter.

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FUME HOOD - This is a hooded area containing an exhaust fan that expels noxious fumes from the laboratory. Experiments that might produce dangerous or unpleasant vapors are conducted under this hood. In an informal laboratory such experiments should be conducted only with ample ventilation and near open windows or doors. If a kitchen is used for a home laboratory, the exhaust fan above the stove substitutes nicely for a fume hood. POTENTIAL LABORATORY HAZARDS: Recognizing and respecting potential hazards is the first step toward preventing accidents. Please appreciate the grave dangers the following laboratory hazards represent. Work to avoid these dangers and consider how to respond properly in the event of an accident. FIRES: The open flame of a Bunsen burner or any heating source combined, even momentarily, with inattention may result in a loose sleeve, loose hair or some unnoticed item catching fire. Except for water, most solvents including toluene, alcohols, acetones, ethers, and acetates are highly flammable and should never be used near an open flame. As a general rule NEVER LEAVE AN OPEN FLAME OR REACTION UNATTENDED. In case of fire, use a fire extinguisher, fire blanket and/or safety shower. CHEMICAL SPILLS: Flesh burns may result if acids, bases, or other caustic chemicals are spilled and come in contact with skin. Flush the exposed skin with a gentle flow of water for several minutes at a sink or safety shower. Acid spills should be neutralized with simple baking soda, sodium bicarbonate. If eye contact is involved use the eyewash station or its substitute. Use the spill containment kit until the spill is neutralized. To better protect the body from chemical spills wear long-sleeved shirts, fulllength pants, and enclosed shoes, not sandals, when in the laboratory. ACID SPLATTER: When water is added to concentrated acid the solution becomes very hot and may splatter acid on the user. Splattering is less likely to occur if acid is slowly added to the water: Remember this AAA rule: Always Add Acid to water, NEVER add water to acid. GLASS TUBING HAZARDS: Never force a piece of glass tubing into a stopper hole. The glass may snap and the jagged edges can cause a serious cut. Before inserting glass tubing into a rubber or cork stopper hole be sure the hole is the proper size. Lubricate the end of the glass tubing with glycerol or soap, and then while grasping it with a heavy glove or towel, gently but firmly twist the tubing into the hole. Treat any cuts with appropriate first-aid. HEATED TEST TUBE SPLATTER: Splattering and eruptions can occur when solutions are heated in a test tube. Thus, you should never point a heated test tube towards anyone. To minimize this danger direct the flame toward the top rather than the bottom of the solution in a test tube. Gently agitate the tube over the flame to heat the contents evenly. SHATTERED GLASSWARE: Graduated cylinders, volumetric flasks and certain other
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pieces of glassware are NOT designed to be heated. If heated they are likely to shatter and cause injuries. Always ensure you are using heatproof glass before applying it to a heat source. Special caution should always be taken when working with any type of laboratory glassware INHALATION OF FUMES: To avoid inhaling dangerous fumes partially fill your lungs with air and, while standing slightly back from the fumes, use your hand to waft the odors gently toward your nose and then lightly sniff the fumes in a controlled fashion. NEVER INHALE FUMES DIRECTLY! Treat inhalation problems with fresh air and consult a physician if the problem appears serious. INGESTION OF CHEMICALS: Virtually all the chemicals found in a laboratory are potentially toxic. To avoid ingesting dangerous chemicals never taste, eat or drink anything while in the laboratory. All laboratories, and especially those in home kitchens, should always be thoroughly cleaned after experimentation to avoid this hazard. In the event of any chemical ingestion immediately consult a physician. HORSEPLAY: A laboratory full of potentially dangerous chemicals and equipment is a place for serious work, not for horseplay! Fooling around in the laboratory is just an invitation for an accident. VERY IMPORTANT CAUTION FOR WOMEN: If you are pregnant or could be pregnant you should seek advice from your personal physician before doing any type of science experimentation. If you or anyone accidentally consumes or otherwise comes into contact that is not easily washed away (such as splashed in the eyes) with a chemical that might be toxic, you should immediately call the National Poison Control Center for advice at:

1-800-332-3073

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SAFETY QUIZ
Questions (Please view illustration on following page): 1. List 3 unsafe activities shown in the illustration and explain why each is unsafe.

2. List 3 correct procedures depicted in the illustration.

3. What should Bob do after the accident?

4. What should Sue have done to avoid an accident?

5. Compare Luke and Duke's lab techniques. Who is following the rules?

6. What are three things shown in the lab that should not be there?

7. Compare Joe and Carl's lab techniques. Who is doing it the correct way?

8. What will happen to Ray and Tim when the teacher catches them?

9. List three items in the illustration that are there for the safety of the students in the lab.

10. What is Betty doing wrong?

Safety Quiz courtesy of http://biologyjunction.com/picturing%20lab%20safety.html

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Science Lab Safety Reinforcement Agreement

Any type of science experimentation involves potential hazards and unforeseen risks may exist. The need to prevent injuries and accidents cannot be over-emphasized! Use of this lab manual and any LabPaq are expressly conditioned upon the student agreeing to follow all safety precautions and accept full responsibility for his or her own actions. Study the safety section of the manual until you can honestly state the following: _Before beginning an experiment I will first read all directions and then assemble and organize all required equipment and supplies. _I will select a work area that is inaccessible to children and pets while experiments are in progress. I will not leave experiments unattended and I will not leave my work area while chemical equipment is set up unless the room will be locked. _To avoid the potential for accidents I will clear my home-lab workspace of all nonlaboratory items before setting up the equipment and supplies for my lab experiments. _I will never attempt an experiment until I fully understand it. If in doubt about any part of an experiment, I will first speak with my instructor before proceeding. _I will wear safety goggles when working with chemicals or items that get into my eyes _I know that except for water, most solvents such as toluene, alcohols, acetone, ethers, ethyl acetate, etc. are highly flammable and should never be used near an open flame. _I know that the heat created when water is added to concentrated acids is sufficient to cause spattering. When preparing dilute acid solutions, I will always add the acid to the water (rather than the water to the acid) while slowly stirring the mixture. _I know it is wise to wear rubber gloves and goggles when handling acids and other dangerous chemicals, that acid spills should be neutralized with sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), and that acid spilled on the skin or clothes should be washed off immediately with a lot of cold water. _I know that many chemicals produce toxic fumes and that cautious procedures should be used when smelling any chemical. When I wish to smell a chemical I will never hold it directly under my nose but instead will use my hand to waft vapors toward my nose. _I will always handle glassware with respect and promptly replace any defective glassware because even a small crack can cause glass to break, especially when heated. To avoid cuts and injuries, I will immediately dispose of any broken glassware.
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_I will avoid burns by testing glass and metal objects for heat before handling. I know that the preferred first aid for burns is to immediately hold the burned area under cold water for several minutes. _I know that serious accidents can occur if the wrong chemical is used in an experiment. I will always carefully read the label before removing any chemical from its container. _I will avoid the possibility of contamination and accidents by never returning an unused chemical to its original container. To avoid waste I will try to pour out only the approximate amount of chemicals required. _ I know to immediately flush any chemical the spill on the skin with cold water and then consult a doctor if required. _To protect myself from potential hazards I will wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and enclosed shoes and I will tie up any loose hair, clothing, or other materials when performing chemical experiments. _I will never eat, drink, or smoke while performing experiments. _After completing all experiments I will clean up my work area, wash my hands, and store the lab equipment in a safe place that is inaccessible to children and pets. _I will always conscientiously work in a reasonable and prudent manner so as to optimize my safety and the safety of others whenever and wherever I am involved with any type of science equipment or experimentation. It is impossible to control students use of this lab manual and related LabPaqs or students work environments, the author(s) of this lab manual, the instructors and institutions that adopt it, and Hands-On Labs, Inc. the publisher of the manual and producer of LabPaqs authorize the use of these educational products only on the express condition that the purchasers and users accept full and complete responsibility for all and any liability related to their use of same. Please review this document several times until you are certain you understand it and will fully abide by its terms; then sign and date the agreement were indicated below. I am a responsible adult who has read, understands, and agrees to fully abide by all safety precautions prescribed in this manual for laboratory work and for the use of a LabPaq. Accordingly, I recognize the inherent hazards potentially associated with science experimentation; I will always experiment in a safe and prudent manner; and I unconditionally accept full and complete responsibility for any and all liability related to my purchase and/or use of a science LabPaq or any other science products or materials provided by Hands-On Labs, Inc. (HOL).

____________________________________________________ Students Name (print) and Signature

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MSDS: Material Safety Data Sheets

A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is designed to provide chemical, physical, health, and safety information on chemical reagents and supplies. An important skill in the safe use of chemicals is being able to read a MSDS. It provides information about how to handle store, transport, use and dispose of chemicals in a safe manner. MSDS also provide workers and emergency personnel with the proper procedures for handling and working with chemical substances. While there is no standard format for an MSDS, they all provide basic information about physical data (melting point, boiling point, flash point, etc.), toxicity, health effects, first aid procedures, chemical reactivity, safe storage, safe disposal, protective equipment required, and spill cleanup procedures. An MSDS is required to be readily available at any business where any type of chemical is used. Even day-care centers and grocery stores need MSDS for their cleaning supplies. It is important to know how to read and understand the MSDS. They are normally designed and written in the following sections: Section 1: Product Identification (Chemical Name and Trade Names) Section 2: Hazardous Ingredients (Components and Percentages) Section 3: Physical Data (Boiling point, density, solubility in water, appearance, color, etc.) Section 4: Fire and Explosion Data (Flash point, extinguisher media, special fire fighting procedures, and unusual fire and explosion hazards) Section 5: Health Hazard Data (Exposure limits, effects of overexposure, emergency and first aid procedures) Section 6: Reactivity Data (Stability, conditions to avoid, incompatible materials, etc.) Section 7: Spill or Leak Procedures (Steps to take to control and clean up spills and leaks, and waste disposal methods) Section 8: Control Measures (Respiratory protection, ventilation, protection for eyes or skin, or other needed protective equipment) Section 9: Special Precautions (How to handle and store, steps to take in a spill, disposal methods, and other precautions)

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Summary: The MSDS is a tool that is available to employers and workers for making decisions about chemicals. The least hazardous chemical should be selected for use whenever possible, and procedures for storing, using, and disposing of chemicals should be written and communicated to workers. MSDS information can be viewed at http://www.hazard.com/msds/index.php. Students can also find a link to MSDS information from the www.LabPaq.com web site. If there is ever any problem or question about the proper handling of any chemical, the student should seek information from one of these sources.

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EXPERIMENTS

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Using the Microscope

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.01 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To identify the parts of a microscope and list the functions of each part, To demonstrate proper care and use of the microscope, and To demonstrate the proper techniques for focusing a slide. Materials From:
Student Provides Dissection Tray Slide Box AP-1

Label or Box/Bag:

Qty
1 1

Item Description:
Microscope and all of its lenses & electric light source Slide - Hyaline cartilage

Introduction: Your microscope is a precision instrument that requires some skill and understanding to use properly. This short introduction to the microscope will give you the basic information you will need in order to operate it effectively. With some practice it will become a simple matter to enter the wondrous world of microscopy, and with proper care and maintenance your microscope will provide a lifetime of fascinating insight into the inner world of the microscopic.

The Parts of a Light Microscope

A light microscope has the following basic systems and parts: Specimen specimen.

controls

hold

and

manipulate

the

stage a square platform where the specimen rests. clips to hold the specimen still on the stage. Because you are looking at a magnified image the smallest movement of the specimen can move parts of the image out of your field of view.

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Illumination - sheds light on the specimen. The simplest illumination system is a mirror that reflects room light up through the specimen.

mirror held by a C-shaped bracket that plugs into a hole in the base of the microscope, under the stage. The mirror is flat on one side and concave on the other, and the concave side focuses the light more strongly. illuminator produces sufficient light where other light sources are not sufficient to see the specimen clearly. The electric illuminator unit attaches to the microscope by plugging it into the hole in the base of the microscope in place of the mirror bracket. condenser a lens system under the stage that aligns and focuses the light from the lamp onto the specimen. The condenser unit can be removed for cleaning by loosening the set screw on its side. iris diaphragm built into the condenser unit in the path between the light source (mirror or lamp) and the condenser lenses to alter the amount of light that reaches the specimen. Moving the lever on the side of the condenser unit changes the diameter of the aperture of the diaphragm, varying the amount of light reaching the specimen. This alters the contrast in the image and significantly affects the visual quality of the image. filter a circular bracket swings out from under the condenser to hold filters that can change the color quality of the light. A blue filter supplied with the microscope makes the color of the illumination from an electric lamp more like natural light or sunlight.

Lenses form the image.

objective lens gathers and focuses light from the specimen. A typical student microscope has 4, 10 and 40 power objective lenses. eyepiece transmits and magnifies the image from the objective lens to your eye. A typical student microscope has 10- or 15-power eyepieces. A wide-field eyepiece enables the viewer to see a wider area of the specimen.

Focus - to position the objective lens at the proper distance from the specimen.

coarse-focus knob brings the object approximately into the focal plane of the objective lens. fine-focus knob makes fine adjustments to focus the image.

Support and alignment

arm the curved portion of the microscope frame that holds all of the optical parts at a set distance from the stage. base supports the weight of all of the microscope parts. inclination joint connects the arm to the base and allows the arm to be tilted toward the viewer for a more comfortable viewing position.

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nosepiece a rotating mount at the bottom of the tube that holds three objective lenses. tube blocks out stray light and holds the eyepiece at its top and the nosepiece with objective lenses at its bottom a specific distance apart (for this microscope 160 mm) in order to make the lenses work together optically. rack and pinion gear connects the tube to the arm of the microscope. It allows you to move the tube relative to the arm, changing the distance from the objective lens to the specimen in order to focus the image or to move the assembly away from the stage in order to change lenses or slides. stop set screw located at the base of the focusing rack and pinion block and behind the rotating nosepiece, the stop set screw can be set to keep the coarse focus from placing the objective lens so low that it strikes and damages the specimen.

Some Microscope Terms: total magnification the product of the magnifying powers of the objective and eyepiece lenses (e.g., a 15X eyepiece and a 40X objective lens will together give you 15x40=600 power magnification). resolution the closest that two objects can be before they are no longer detected as separate objects (usually measured in nanometers). Resolution is related to the numerical aperture of the objective lens (the higher the numerical aperture, the better the resolution) and by the wavelength of light passing through the lens (the shorter the wavelength, the better the resolution). brightness refers to how light or dark the image is. It is related to the illumination system and can be changed by changing the strength of the source of light and by adjusting the condenser diaphragm aperture. Brightness is also related to the numerical aperture of the objective lens: the larger the numerical aperture, the brighter the image. focus refers to whether the image is blurry or well-defined. It is related to focal length and can be controlled with the focus knobs. The thickness of the cover glass on the specimen slide can also affect your ability to focus the image if it is too thick for the objective lens. contrast refers to the difference in lighting between adjacent areas of the specimen. It is related to the illumination system and can be adjusted by changing the intensity of the light and the diaphragm aperture. Chemical stains applied to the specimen can enhance contrast. numerical aperture the measure of the light-collecting ability of the lens. depth of field - the vertical distance, from above to below the focal plane, that yields an acceptable image.
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field of view the area of the specimen that can be seen through the microscope with a given eyepiece and objective lens. focal length the distance required for a lens to bring the light to a focus (usually measured in millimeters). focal point the point at which the light from a lens comes together in a point. Care and Handling of the Microscope When you move your microscope, you should always use two hands. Place one hand around the arm, lift the scope, and put your other hand under the base of the scope for support. If you learn to carry the scope in this way, it will force you to carry it carefully, ensuring that you do not knock it against anything while moving from one place to another. When you put the scope down, do so gently. If you bang your scope down on the table eventually you could jar lenses and other parts loose. Your microscope seems like a simple instrument but each eyepiece and objective is actually made up of a number of lenses, put together in a wonderful way to create enhanced magnification. If you bang your scope around, you are shaking upwards of 15 to 20 lenses! Always have clean hands when handling your scope. It would be a shame to damage your scope with too much peanut butter! Using an Electric Illuminator Grasp the mirror bracket with your fingers behind it and pull the bracket to unplug it from the base of the microscope. Insert the metal plug tip of the electric illuminator into the hole from which you have unplugged the mirror bracket. Rotate the fixture so that the glass opening over the bulb points up toward the light condenser under the stage. Plug the electric cord into a 120 volt outlet and turn on the switch in the cord. Using an Oil Immersion Lens Install the oil immersion 100X objective lens in place of any of the other objective lenses. The 4X lens is a good choice. Apply a drop of oil on the specimen slide and turn the revolving nosepiece to bring the 100X objective into position. If the barrel is too low to allow the 100X lens to move into position raise it with the coarse focus very slightly, position the lens, and then lower the barrel until the tip of the 100X lens touches the oil and the slide. The tip of the lens is able to move a short distance into the lens against a spring in order to keep from putting too much pressure on the slide. With the lens tip touching the oil and slide, focus with the fine-focus knob. The working distance of the lens is very short so do not use the coarse-focus knob other than to carefully position the lens. After using the oil immersion lens wipe off the oil carefully with alcohol.
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Cleaning the Microscope The first step in keeping your microscope clean is to keep it from getting dirty. Always keep your microscope covered with the dust cover when it is not in use. Your eyepiece will need cleaning from time to time. Due to its position on the scope, it will have a tendency to collect dust and even oil from your eyelashes. The eyepiece lens should be cleaned with the microfiber cloth that comes with your microscope, with a high quality lens paper, or with a cotton swab. Brush any visible dust from the lens and then wipe the lens. You may wish to use a bit of lens solution, applied to a cotton swab, but do not use facial tissues to clean your lenses. If the eyepiece should collect dust on the interior surfaces it can be disassembled for cleaning. Slowly unscrew the two parts of the eyepiece, carefully noticing the positions of the lenses (e.g., convex surface up or down) as you open it so that you can reassemble them in the same positions. You will need occasionally to clean the objective lenses. Use a clean surface of the microfiber cloth or a fresh cotton swab each time so that you don't transfer dust from one lens to another. Clean the lenses in the glass condenser under the stage by loosening the set screw to remove the condenser assembly. The assembly can be unscrewed to remove the lenses, but be sure to notice the positions of the lenses (e.g., convex surface up or down) as you open it so that you can reassemble them in the same positions Finally, clean the mirror or the glass lens over your illuminator so that an optimal amount of light can shine through. You can also follow up by wiping down the whole microscope with a soft, clean cotton towel. Storing the Microscope The best place to store your scope is a stable desk, table or shelf where the scope will not be disturbed or bumped. Dust is an enemy to your lenses, so always keep your scope covered with the vinyl cover that comes with it when not in use. If you are unable to find a safe place where you can leave your scope out, store it in the fitted foam case it comes in.

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PROCEDURE: Using the Microscope

Before beginning work, read the entire exercise; consider and record in the Lab Report your thoughts about the exercises purpose and what safety precautions are needed; then organize your materials and a safe work area. 1. Remove the microscope body from the case. Remove the plastic cap closing the top of the tube, remove the eyepiece from its plastic container and insert the eyepiece in the opening in the tube. 2. Remove the objective lenses from their individual containers, unscrew the plastic caps on the revolving nosepiece and screw the objective lenses into the revolving nosepiece, placing each in the color coded position that corresponds to the color band on the lens. 3. Adjust the tension on the coarse focus control knobs to suit your touch or to compensate for normal wear over time. To increase tension, hold one knob firmly in each hand and turn them in opposite directions, each clockwise with reference to the microscope. Turning the knobs counter-clockwise relative to the microscope will loosen the coarse focus tension. 4. Unplug the rotating mirror bracket from the base of the microscope. Insert the mirror (packaged separately with the microscope) into the bracket, firmly spreading the arms of the bracket so that the points on the inside of the tips of the bracket can fit into the depressions on the rim of the mirror. When the mirror swivels freely plug the bracket back into the base of the microscope. 5. Tilt the arm of the microscope back until it is at a position where you can comfortably look into the microscope eyepiece. 6. Place a slide under the clips on the stage with the area you wish to view over the center of the hole in the stage. For your first try use either the focusing slide or select a specimen that is relatively large and has some bright color that will be easy to find in the field of view. 7. Turn the nosepiece of the microscope to select the longest lens (usually the highest power or 40X lens). Lower the tube of the microscope with the coarse-focus knob until it almost touches the slide. If it will not go that far unscrew the stop set screw behind the rotating nosepiece of the microscope until it will let you move the tube down so that the lens can almost touch the slide. While it is in that position lightly tighten the screw and lock it in place with the knurled (ridged) nut on the shaft of the screw. 8. Place a light source in front of the microscope, use the small lever on the sub-stage condenser to open the diaphragm fully, and adjust the mirror so that the light is brightest as seen through the microscope.
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9. Rotate the nosepiece to select the lowest power lens (4X). Lower the tube with the coarse-focus knob until it reaches the stop that is set (which you have just set above) and will not go further. Then raise the barrel slowly with the coarse-focus knob until you see an image from the slide. Finish the focus with the fine-focus knob. 10. Looking through the microscope, and with thumb and forefinger on each end of the slide, move the slide slowly on the stage until the object you wish to study is centered in your field of view. 11. Rotate the nosepiece of the microscope to select the objective lens that will give you whatever magnification you need. Once one lens is focused properly any other objective lens on the nosepiece rotated into position will be roughly in focus, requiring only fine focus or very slight movement of coarse focus to bring the image with the new lens into correct focus. 12. Move the lever for the diaphragm through its full range to select the amount of light that gives you the best contrast. Many details will be visible with good contrast which would be otherwise lost with too much or too little light.

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Histology
by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.02 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To name and identify the major tissue types in the human body, To identify the subcategories of tissue types through microscopic identification and inspection of corresponding photomicrographs and diagrams, To state the location of the tissue types in the body, and To identify the major functions of each of the tissue types in the body. Label or Box/Bag: Qty
1

Materials From:
Student Provides

Item Description:
Microscope & internet access to view online micro-photographs of slides at www.labpaq.com/ex-2-histology Slide - Cardiac muscle LS Slide - Dense regular connect Slide - Elastic cartilage Slide - Fibrocartilage Slide - Ground compact bone CS Slide - Human blood Slide - Hyaline cartilage Slide - Pseudostrat. ciliated Slide - Reticular connective Slide - Simple column-duodenum Slide - Simple column-stomach Slide - Simple cuboidal Slide - Simple squamous Slide - Skeletal muscle L&CS Slide - Skeletal muscle w/ neuro Slide - Smooth muscle LS Slide - Spinal Cord Smear Slide - Stratified squa. non-k Slide - Stratified squamous Slide - Transitional epithelium

Dissection Tray

Slide Box AP-1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Introduction: Histology is the study of tissues. Tissues are defined as a group of cells of varying form that provide a unified function for an organism. Understanding the structure and function of various tissues is an important concept because it provides the
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background for studying organs and systems. In this exercise you will explore the various classes of tissues to learn about their structure and function. Since Anatomy and Physiology is based upon the complimentarily of form and function, the structure of these tissues can provide solid clues about what they do in your body. There are four classifications of tissues that we will explore; epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous. Each of these has unique characteristics that define their function. You will also notice common features that tissues share with one another. There are four parts to this exercise. Complete one exercise in its entirety before moving on to another. Exercise 1: Epithelial Tissue Epithelial tissue covers surfaces in our body. It can be external like the epidermis of our skin or internal like the linings of our tubules and cavities. Functions include protection, absorption, filtration, secretion, excretion and sensory reception. Epithelial tissues are classified based on their arrangement and shape. Epithelia can be arranged in two ways, simple meaning a single layer of cells or stratified meaning multiple layers of cells. Their shapes include squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube like) and columnar (column like). There are also two unique arrangements and shapes which do not fit into the above categories. The first is pseudostratified epithelium. The word pseudo means false, so this type of tissue implies that the cells look like they have multiple layers but they are actually in a single layer. The size of the cells varies as does the location of the nucleus within the cells giving the impression of layering. The second unique tissue type is transitional epithelium. Transitional epithelium has large, rounded cells with the unique feature of being able to slide or move past each other. This allows the tissue to be stretched. In this exercise you will examine the various types of epithelial tissues under the microscope. Remember, your objective is to be able to relate structure and function. Careful observation is needed. Be sure to reference your textbook and the photomicrographs on the Hands-On Labs website to help you with this exercise.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out the prepared slides of simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, stratified squamous (keratinized and non-keratinized), pseudostratified ciliated columnar, and transitional epithelium 2. Place the slide of simple squamous epithelium on the stage of the microscope. Start on low power and focus the slide. Switch to medium power and refocus. Finally, switch to high power and sharpen the image with the fine focus. As you observe the tissue, note how the epithelial cells fit in close to each other to form sheets of cells. This allows the tissue to make an effective covering.
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3. Scan the slide for specific functions such as cilia (cell projections to help move materials along) or microvilli which increase surface area for greater absorption. 4. For reference, compare your observations to the online photomicrographs of each slide found in the slide table found at: http://www.labpaq.com/ex-2-histology These online examples are labeled and will help you ensure you have correctly identified structures and features on your own slides. 5. Repeat Steps 2 to 5 for each of the epithelial tissue slides. Pay particular attention to details such as cell size, shape, arrangement, and layering as well as features such as cilia or microvilli in each of the slides you observe. 6. Record in the data table of the Lab Report Questions section for Activity: Epithelial Tissue descriptions of the epithelial tissues you observed with the microscope. Observations Data Table 1: TISSUE TYPE Simple Squamous Simple Cuboidal Simple Columnar (stomach) Simple Columnar (duodenum) Stratified Squamous (keratinized) Stratified Squamous (non-keratinized) Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Transitional Stratified Cuboidal (online) Stratified Columnar (online) OBSERVATIONS

7. Closely observe the online photos of stratified cuboidal epithelium and stratified columnar epithelium tissue slides. Look for the same details in cell size, shape, arrangement and features that you looked for with the microscope slides and record your observations in the data table.

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Questions: A. Why is the study of histology important in your overall understanding of anatomy and physiology? B. How are epithelial tissues named? C. Why is some epithelium stratified? D. Unlike squamous cells, cuboidal and columnar cells have large, open cytoplasms. Which of the functions of epithelial tissue are supported by having such big cells? E. Look at the following drawing and identify each type of epithelial tissue:

1._____________________

2._____________________

3.______________________

4.______________________

Exercise 2: Connective Tissue Connective tissues are the most abundant tissues in our body and are found in several locations. Connective tissues perform a variety of functions. They primarily protect,
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support and bind together the other tissues of the body. Connective tissues contain a variety of cells. They contain a great deal of non-cellular matter called matrix between the cells. This matrix is the key in providing the supportive and binding functions of connective tissues. The cells make and extrude the matrix which surrounds them. Some connective tissues also contain collage fibers. The fibers allow tissues to be flexible while providing additional strength and stability. In this exercise you will examine the structure and functions of connective tissues. Pay particular attention to the shape of the cells, the amount of non-living matrix between the cells and look for the presence of fibers running between the cells.

PROCEDURE:
1. Record the following the observation in the data table of the Lab Report Questions section for Exercise: Connective Tissue. 2. Closely observe and record observation of the online photo of the Mesenchyme tissue slide. Look for details such as cell shape, size, amount of matrix, fibers and arrangement. Mesenchyme is infantile tissue which serves as the base for several connective tissues in our body. 3. Repeat step 2 above for aerolar, adipose, and dense irregular connective tissues. 4. Closely observe each of the following slides with your microscope using low power to focus and high power with fine focus for detailed observation: dense regular connective tissue (tendon), reticular tissue, ground compact bone, human blood, hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage. 5. For each slide, record in Data Table: Connective Tissue the shape and number of cells present. Observe the matrix between the cells. Note how much open space exists between the cells and the matrix, a little or a lot? Are there fibers present? If so how many? Data Table 2
Tissue Amount and Shape of Cells Amount of Matrix Are there fibers? If so, are they parallel or scattered?

Mesenchyme (online) Aerolar (online) Adipose (online) Dense Irregular (online) Reticular Dense Regular: Tendon Hyaline Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Fibrocartilage Compact Bone Human Blood
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Questions: A. What is the primary function of connective tissue? B. What can the shape of the cells in a particular type of tissue tell you about the function of that tissue? C. What is matrix? Why do some tissues have more than others? D. What do collagen fibers do for a tissue? E. Tendons, ligaments and cartilage have limited blood supply. Explain how this might affect the ability of these tissues to heal after an injury. Exercise 3: Muscle Tissue Muscles are highly specialized tissues that have been designed to contract and extend when force is applied to them. Their primary function is movement, but they also play a major part in body temperature regulation, digestion, respiration and circulation. There are three types of muscles in our body. The most common is skeletal muscle which is under voluntary control from the brain and provides our strength to move. Skeletal muscle is both strong and flexible. The second type of muscle we have is smooth muscle. Smooth muscles make up the bodies of our internal organs and are designed to stretch and extend. They give up strength to be able to do this and are therefore vulnerable to injury. The last type of muscle is the highly specialized muscle only found in our heart called cardiac muscle. Cardiac muscle is made up of a series of cells that work together as one unit and respond to electrical impulses that allow our hearts to beat. Its primary function is to send blood through our arteries to deliver nutrients and oxygen to our cells. In this exercise you will observe the structures of the three different types of muscle tissue. Pay particular attention to the shape, size and number of cells. Also look for banding of the tissue. These are called striations and they run perpendicular to the surface of the cells.

PROCEDURE:
1. Record the following observation in the data table of the Lab Report Questions section for Exercise: Muscle Tissue. 2. Closely observe the prepared skeletal muscle slide on the stage of your microscope, using low power to focus and high power with fine focus for detailed observation: 3. Observe the shape of the cells and make note of their arrangement. Look for banding or striations across the cells and fibers. Look carefully for darker oval
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shaped structures. These will be the nuclei of the muscle cells. observations in Data Table 3. Observations Data Table 3: Prepared Slides Cell Shape and Striations Arrangement Present? Muscle Skeletal Smooth Cardiac

Record your

Online Slides Cell Shape and Striations Arrangement Present?

4. Observe the online photomicrographs of skeletal muscle tissue. Compare what you see on your slide with that of the online slide. Record your observations. 5. Repeat the above steps 2 through 4 for the smooth and cardiac muscle slides. Questions: A. What kind of muscle would you find in your stomach? B. How is smooth muscle structure different from that of skeletal and cardiac muscle? C. Why do we say that skeletal muscle is voluntary? D. What is unique about cardiac muscle?

Exercise 4: Nervous Tissue

Nervous tissue is specialized to respond to stimuli from our environment. Stimuli can come from external sources such as light and sound or internal such as hunger or thirst. Nervous tissue is made out of two separate sets of cells. Neurons receive the stimuli and transmit the impulses through our bodies. Neuroglia are a special set of support or helper cells that protect and insulate the neurons. We usually refer to these tissues as nerves which are a set of neurons designed to respond to and transmit specific stimuli from a certain area of the body. In this exercise you will observe the microscopic structure of neurons. These cells are very different from the ones youve seen so far. The cell bodies are large and the cytoplasm is stretched or elongated out into finger-like processes that can be up to 3 feet long. This allows neurons to transmit impulses over a long distance in the body. As you make your observations, pay attention to the size of the cells and the cell body. Identify the nucleus and see if you can find any of the neuroglia or supporting cells surrounding the cell body.
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PROCEDURE:
1. Closely observe the online slide microphotograph of the neuron. 2. Closely observe the prepared spinal cord smear slide on the stage of your microscope, using low power to focus and high power with fine focus for detailed observation. Scan the slide and find a multipolar neuron. 3. Compare your observations of the prepared neuron slide to the online slide. Write a detailed description of the prepared slide; include the size and shape of the cell and how it resembled or differed from the online slide. Questions: A. What is the function of nervous tissue? B. Why are the cell bodies of neurons elongated into cell processes? C. If all nerves respond to stimuli why cant your eyes hear sound and your ears see light? D. How is a nerve different from a neuron? Conclusions: Explain the purpose of these exercises and why studying histology is important to your understanding of how the human body functions.

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Classification of Body Membranes

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.02 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To be able to recognize the microscopic structure of mucous and serous membranes, To describe the structure of synovial membranes, and To list the major functions of each membrane type and indicate its location in the body. Label or Box/Bag: Qty
1 1

Materials From:
Student Provides

Item Description:
Microscope & Internet Access to view online materials A longitudinally cut, fresh or frozen beef joint (ball and socket joint from the shoulder or femur) from the meat department in a grocery store Dissection-kit with 7-tools - including the following: Bent Probe, Dropping Pipette, Probe, Ruler in pocket, Scalpel with 2 Blades - Note blades are in the pocket, Scissors, Tweezers Dissection Tray #2 Small, opaque - Note several supplies are loaded in this tray - see below Gloves packages - 4 pairs Slide - Pseudostrat. ciliated Slide - Simple column-duodenum Slide - Simple column-stomach Slide - Stratified squa. non-k Slide - Stratified squamous

Aux-Supplies BagAP

Aux-Supplies Bag-AP

Dissection Tray

Dissection Tray

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Slide Box AP-1

Introduction: Membranes cover body surfaces, line body cavities and form protective sheets around our organs. Membranes are classified in several different ways. Cutaneous membrane is the skin. The epidermis (outermost layer) is composed of dry, keratinized cells that are designed to protect the body from invasion by bacteria and viruses. These cells are tough and dead because they no longer contain viable DNA that can be used for reproduction by invaders. Epithelial membranes are composed of an epithelial sheet attached to an underlying layer of connective tissue. There are three varieties of epithelial membranes. Mucous
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membranes or mucosae are composed of epithelial cells lying on top of loose connective tissue. They line cavities that open to the outside of the body, namely the respiratory, digestive and urogenital tracts. Serous membranes are epithelial cells that are attached to a small amount of aerolar connective tissue. These membranes are unique because they occur in two layers. The parietal layer lines a body cavity while the visceral layer covers the organs in that cavity. These membranes cover cavities which (with few exceptions) do not open the outside of the body. They also secrete serous fluid which lubricates the organs and reduces friction between them. Finally, we have synovial membranes which are composed entirely of connective tissue and are found lining the cavities around our joints. These membranes help provide a smooth surface for the movement of joints. They also secrete synovial fluid which helps lubricate and reduces friction between bones in a joint. Exercise 1: The Microscopic Structure of Cutaneous Membranes In this exercise you will observe keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue from human skin. Cutaneous membranes like our skin need to be layered (stratified) in order to provide protection. The specialized protein called keratin provides the protective barrier that our skin needs. The outer most cells on your skin are dead which means they cannot be used by viruses and bacteria for reproduction. The skin is very efficient. The keratinized layer protects us from a whopping 70% of the all infectious bacteria and viruses we come in contact with.

PROCEDURE:
1. Place the prepared slide of the keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue on the stage of the microscope. Focus the slide on low power. Find the darker stained keratinized cells on the edge of the tissue sample. The darker stain results from the layering of the keratinized cells. Switch to high power and observe the slide. Go to the Hands on Labs Website. Either click on this link or copy and paste it into your browser: https://labpaq.com/ap1 Click on the link for this experiment: Body Membranes. Click on the slide of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium and compare your slide to the one online. Sketch your slide in the appropriate place in the lab report template and indicate the keratinized layer on your sketch.

2.

3.

4.

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Questions: 1. What is keratin? 2. Why is your skin keratinized? Exercise 2: The Microscopic Structure of Mucous Membranes In this exercise you will observe various mucous membranes under the microscope. These tissues contain specialized mucous storage cells called goblet cells. The goblet cells are found in the cytoplasm and have a large vacuole where the mucous is stored.

PROCEDURE:
1. Place the prepared slide of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium of the trachea on the stage of the microscope and set the objective to low power. Turn on the light and begin focusing the slide. Look for the cell types mentioned in the introduction. 2. Switch to medium and then high power using the fine focus to adjust the sharpness of the image. 3. Sketch what you see in the space provided in the Lab Report observations section. Label the type of epithelium tissue you see and the goblet cells. 4. Repeat steps 1 through 3 for the stratified squamous epithelium (non-keratinized) of the esophagus and simple columnar epithelium (duodenum) of the small intestine. Questions: A. Compare and contrast the roles of the three mucous membranes. B. What is the role of mucous in the body?

Exercise 3: Structure of Synovial Membranes

PROCEDURE:
1. Place your purchased beef joint on the dissection tray. 2. Find the surface of the joint capsule and feel the texture of the synovial membrane. (See diagram below). 3. Turn the bone so you can see how the synovial membrane lays on the bone below.
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4. Using the dissection needle found in your dissection LabPaq, poke a hole through the superior end of the ball of the joint and lift up a piece of the membrane and cartilage underneath. 5. Use the forceps from your LabPaq to carefully peel back a piece of the membrane. Observe the thickness of the section you peeled back.

Section through shoulder joint (ball and socket)

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Overview of the Skeletal System

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.02 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To be able to list the functions of the skeletal system, Materials From:
Student Provides

To identify the four main kinds of bones, To identify the structures of a cut long bone, To be able to identify and give the functions of the microscopic structures found within bone tissue, and To identify and give the functions of the three major types of cartilage in the skeletal system.

Label or Box/Bag:

Qty
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Item Description:
Bowl with lid or plastic wrap to cover Baking sheet or pan Kitchen oven Microscope Concentrated lemon juice in a bottle Two chicken leg (drumstick) bones with all the meat removed A fresh or frozen longitudinally cut beef bone ball and socket joint (used in a previous experiment) available from the meat department in the grocery store Internet Access to view online materials Human-Skeleton-Model Dissection-kit with 7-tools - including the following: Bent Probe, Dropping Pipette, Probe, Ruler in pocket, Scalpel with 2 Blades - Note blades are in the pocket, Scissors, Tweezers Dissection Tray #2 Small, opaque - Note several supplies are loaded in this tray Pencil, marking Slide - Ground compact bone CS Slide - Hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage

From LabPaq Aux-Supplies BagAP

Aux-Supplies Bag-AP

1 1 1

Dissection Tray

Dissection Tray

1 1 1 1

Slide Box AP-1

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Introduction: The skeleton is our bodys foundation. Just like the foundation of a house, we use our skeleton to give us structure and support. Our skeletons are made out of two important tissues; bone and cartilage. Each tissue plays a vital role in providing the structure and support our bodies need. In addition to support, our skeleton performs several other functions. Our skeleton gives us a way to move by creating a system levers that attach to skeletal muscles. Our bones provide a site for the process of red blood cell formation called hematopoesis. Our bones are also a major storage facility for lipids and minerals (like calcium). Our skeleton is made up of a series of bones connected at joints (articulations). These areas are designed to both support and move even though we often push them to their extreme limits, they are remarkably strong when you measure the amount of force they can withstand. Exercise 1: The Chemical Components of Bone Bones are composed of both organic and inorganic substances. The living tissue of bone contains cells that have specific functions. One of their functions is to produce a protein called collagen which gives bone some flexibility and prevents sudden fracturing of the tissue. Bones are also the reservoirs of calcium. Bones gain their strength from mineral deposits of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. In this activity you will test two variables (acid and heat) to see their effect on the organic and inorganic structures in bone.

PROCEDURE:
Day 1: 1. 48 hours before you make your observations, you will need to prepare the two chicken leg bones. 2. The easiest way to remove the meat from the bone is to cook the chicken legs. Place them in a pot and cover them with water. Bring the water to a boil and simmer for 45 to 50 minutes. 3. Allow the legs to cool. Remove as much of the meat as you can from each bone. 4. Take one of the bones and place it into a small bowl or plastic container. 5. Pour enough lemon juice into the bowl so as to completely cover the bone. 6. Place a lid or plastic wrap on the bowl and allow the bone to sit for 48 hours. 7. Preheat your oven to 300oF. 8. Place the second chicken leg bone on a baking sheet and bake in the oven for 40
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minutes. 9. Take the tray out of the oven, allow the bone to cool and set it aside for later observation. Turn off the oven. Day 3 (48 hours later): 1. Get the dissection tray from the LabPaq. 2. Remove the first chicken leg bone from the lemon juice and get the baked chicken bone. 3. Place bones on the tray. 4. Observe the color and texture of each bone. Make note of what you see. 5. Gently apply pressure to bend each bone. What happens when you do this? Make note of your observations and answer the questions in the Lab Report.

Exercise 2: The Microscopic Structure of Bone Bones are formed from two basic types of tissue; compact bone and spongy bone. As the names imply, compact bone is dense and tough while spongy bone is full of holes and serves as a site for development and storage of materials. Both kinds of tissue play a vital role in bone function. Compact bone consists of columns of support tissues called osteons or the Haversian System. These tissues look like concentric rings from a cut tree when viewed under a microscope. The rings themselves are made of calcified matrix called concentric lamellae. Between the lamellae are small depressions in the matrix called lacunae. The mature bone cells called osteocytes reside inside the lacunae. Each osteon contains a large central canal which allows blood vessels and nerves to travel into the bone matrix. Coming off of the central canal are smaller, hair like canals called canaliculi which connect the lacunae with the central canal and allow for the delivery of blood and nutrients to the osteocytes.

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The central canal is fed from the outside of the bone by a series of horizontal perforating canals which bring in the blood and nutrients from the body.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out the slide of ground compact bone. 2. Place it on the stage of the microscope and scan the slide on low power. 3. Focus in on a Haversian system. 4. Switch to medium power and refocus. 5. Switch to high power and sharpen the image with the fine focus if necessary. 6. Observe the structure of the Haversian system sketch what you see in the Lab Report section and identify the following: central canal, lacunae, concentric lamellae, canaliculi and an osteocyte. Questions: A. Which part of the Haversian system was the hardest to see on the slide of compact bone? Why do you suppose this is? B. Which structures in the compact bone deliver nutrients to the osteocytes? C. What structures are found inside the central canal?

Exercise 3: Structure of a Long Bone

Long bones are especially important to mammals because they constitute the mechanism for movement and survival. Long bones are, as the name suggests, longer than they are wide. They have a proximal and a distal end which is wider than the middle. These ends are called epiphyses (plural) or epiphysis (singular). The epiphyses form the site of joint formation between two bones. The outer covering on the epiphyses is made of hyaline cartilage which helps reduce friction between bones in a joint. Under the cartilage is a layer of compact bone for support. Beneath the compact bone is spongy bone. The spongy bone in the epiphyses is the site of hematopoesis or blood cell formation. The spongy bone contains red bone marrow which gives rise to blood cells that then are released into the circulatory system.

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The long part of a long bone is the shaft called the diaphysis. The diaphysis is covered by a tough, fibrous membrane called the periosteum (surrounding membrane). The periosteum provides protection for the bone. Moving in from the periosteum, the diaphysis has a ring of compact bone to provide structure and support. Deeper in from the compact bone lies a hollow cavity called the medullary cavity. This cavity is lined with a membrane called the endosteum (inside membrane). The medullary cavity contains yellow bone marrow which is made of adipose (fat) cells and provides an energy reserve for the body. Refer to the illustration on the right.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out the model of the femur bone form the A&P LabPaq. 2. Using the diagram at right or a diagram from your textbook, identify the external structures of a long bone on your femur model. Use the wax pencil to mark the structures indicated. 3. Take out the dissection kit from the LabPaq. 4. Use the dissection needle from the kit to help identify the parts of the bones. 5. Observe the epiphysis. Identify the following structures: articular cartilage, compact bone, spongy bone and red bone marrow. Make a sketch of the bone in the Lab Report and label the structures you identified. 6. Observe the section of diaphysis. Identify the following structures: periosteum, compact bone, endosteum and yellow bone marrow. Make a sketch of the diaphysis in the Lab Report and label the structures you identified.

Questions: A. How does the model of the femur compare to the diagrams in your textbook or this manual? B. How does the texture of articular cartilage compare to that of periosteum?
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C. What is the function of spongy bone? D. What makes compact bone hard?

Exercise 4: Cartilage As you saw in Exercise: Structure of a Long Bone, cartilage is an important connective tissue that provides support and movement for the body. There are three classifications of cartilage in the body. Cartilage is made by cells called chondrocytes. They secrete the fibrous, jelly-like matrix that makes up the non-living portion of cartilage tissue. Hyaline cartilage is the most common type found in the skeletal system. It looks like frosted glass when viewed without a microscope. The chondrocytes sit inside depressions called lacunae (same as osteocytes in bone). The matrix is made of collagen fibers. Hyaline cartilage is found at the joints where it provides a smooth, sturdy surface that reduces friction and allows for smooth movement. It is also found in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi in the respiratory system. Elastic cartilage is more fibrous than hyaline cartilage. It is only found in two places, the external ear and the epiglottis in the throat. As the name suggests, it is elastic and can stretch easily. Fibrocartilage looks quite different from hyaline and elastic cartilage. It contains alternating bands of collagen fibers and chondrocytes. It is found in areas where hyaline cartilage joins a tendon or ligament like the intervertebral discs of the spinal column and the knee. Fibrocartilage is very strong and can withstand a lot of pressure.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out the microscope. 2. Select the slides of hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage and fibrocartilage from the LabPaq. 3. Place the hyaline cartilage slide on the stage. Focus on low power. Switch to medium power. Use the fine focus to sharpen the image. Finally, switch to high power and sharpen the image with the fine focus knob. 4. Sketch a section of the slide in the Lab Report. Label the following structures: Chondrocytes, lacunae and cartilage matrix. 5. Repeat Steps 3 and 4 for elastic cartilage and fibrocartilage.

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Exercise 5: Classification of Bones Bones are classified by their shape. There are four major shapes of bones; Long, Short, Flat and Irregular. There is also a special classification for the patella (knee cap). This bone is completely encased in ligaments and membranes and is referred to as Sesamoid (sesame seed shaped). Sesamoid bones are a sub-classification of short bones. Long bones are longer than they are wide. They are made of compact bone and are used as levers for movement of major muscles. Short bones are cube shaped and contain more spongy bone than compact bone. Flat bones are generally thin with two thin layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone between. Finally, irregular bones, as the name suggests, have no discernable shape and fall into their own category.

PROCEDURE:
1. Log Go to the Hands on Labs Website. Either click on this link or copy and paste it into your browser: https://labpaq.com/ap1 2. Go to Overview of the Skeletal System. Click on the link for classification of bones. You may use youre A&P textbook as an additional reference. Read the chart of the different bone classifications. 3. Click on the link for the skeleton classification on the website. Identify the different classifications of bones on the skeleton diagram. 4. Go to the Lab Report portion of this exercise. Look at the table for Classification of Bones. 5. Observe the skeleton model and find the bones listed in the table. 6. Fill in the data table below. Classify each bone in the table by making an x in the appropriate box.

Bone Femur Phalanges Ribs Frontal (skull) Calcaneus(heel) Tibia Carpals (wrist) Patella
Hands-On Labs, Inc.

Long

Short

Flat

Irregular

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The Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.02 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To be able to identify the three bone groups which compose the axial skeleton, To be able to identify the bones of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and their attached limbs on an articulated skeleton, To be able to identify the bones of the axial skeleton using an articulated skeleton and skull model, and To be able to distinguish the different types of vertebrae. Label or Box/Bag: Qty
1 1 1

Materials From:
Student Provides From LabPaq

Item Description:
Internet access to view online materials A&P Textbook Human-Skeleton-Model

Introduction: Our skeleton is divided out into two distinct regions. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, bony thorax (rib cage) and vertebral column. The appendicular skeleton contains the pelvic and pectoral girdles as well as the upper and lower limbs including our hands and feet. In this exercise you will get the chance to explore the various bones of each division and examine how they fit and relate to each other. You will be using the miniature skeleton in the LabPaq and your textbook to make these observations. Exercise 1: The Skull The primary function of the skull is to protect the sense organs and the brain. The bones provide support and attachment points for the various tendons and ligaments that hold the bones together. In this activity you will get to identify the major bones of the skull. The skull contains 14 facial bones and 8 cranial bones. There are seven other associated bones. There are three auditory bones (in each ear) and the hyoid bone.

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The Cranium: The cranium consists of the frontal bone of the forehead which articulates (meets with) posteriorly with the two parietal bones at the coronal suture. The parietal bones are joined superiorly at the sagittal suture. The parietal bones articulate posteriorly with the occipital bone in the back of the skull at the lambdoid suture, completing the posterior wall of the cranium. Laterally, the temporal bone articulates with the parietal bone at the squamous suture. The squamous and coronal sutures are linked by the sphenoparietal suture. Inferior to this suture lies the sphenoid bone. The sphenoid and parts of the frontal, temporal and occipital bones make up the floor of the cranium. The sphenoid is unique in that it is a single bone spanning the whole cranium floor but it is only visible on the lateral surface of the skull anterior to the temporal bone and in the back wall of the eye orbit (socket). Finally, the ethmoid bone is a small bone deep inside the eye orbit, behind the bridge of the nose. It forms the medial walls of both eye orbits. The Face: The face is constructed of 14 bones: two maxillary, two nasal, two zygomatic, two lacrimal, two palatine, two inferior nasal conchae, the vomer and the mandible. The small nasal bones form the bridge of the nose. Laterally, the maxillae (plural) form the floor of each eye orbit and extend inferiorly to form the upper jaw bones. Below each eye orbit are the cheekbones known as the zygomatic bones. At the bridge of the nose, lateral to each maxillae, are the lacrimal bones of the eye orbit. Tears drain through a canal in these bones. The lower sets of bones in the nasal cavity are the inferior nasal conchae. The vomer divides the nasal cavity in half. The lower jaw is the mandible. Finally, on the inferior surface of the skull are the palatine bones that construct the roof of the mouth.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out the skeleton model from the LabPaq. 2. Find the bones of the cranium and face as listed above in the introduction on the model. Questions: A. Name the eight bones of the cranium.
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B. What function do the cranial bones serve? C. List the bones that form the eye orbit. D. Examine the skull on your skeleton model and describe some ways in which the mandible is different from the other bones of the skull. E. Besides the skull, what are the other two components of the axial skeleton?

Exercise 2: Skull Markings

In this exercise you will feel the major markings and landmarks of the skull on yourself. This activity will familiarize you with some of the important structural features of the skull.

PROCEDURE:
1. Locate and feel (palpate) each of the following areas on yourself: a. Temporomandibular joint: place a finger just anterior to your ear canal and open and close your jaws. b. Mastoid process: place a finger just posterior to your earlobe and apply pressure. You will feel a bump behind your lower jaw. c. Zygomatic bone and arch: Place a finger on your cheek just inferior to your eye. Follow it laterally around to your temporal bone. d. Greater wing of the sphenoid: place a finger in the notch posterior to the eye orbit and superior to the zygomatic arch. e. Infraorbital foramen: Place a finger on the cheek bone inferior to the eye orbit. Slide the finger medially under the eye and apply firm pressure. f. Mandibular angle: Run your finger posteriorly along the mandible until you feel the bend at the back of your jaw. g. Mandibular symphysis: Feel the indentation on the midline of the chin. h. Nasal bones: Run your finger and thumb along opposite sides of the bridge of your nose until they collapse medially at the inferior end of the bones.

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Questions: A. Of the markings you palpated on yourself, which one was easiest to find? Propose a reason why. B. What bone are you palpating when you touch your temple? Exercise 3: The Vertebral Column The vertebral column extends from the skull to the pelvis and is the bodys major support mechanism. It protects the spinal cord and nerves from damage. The vertebrae have a general structure that is modified for specific areas of the body. Superiorly, the cervical vertebrae are designed to support the skull and allow the head to move. Going inferiorly from the cervical vertebrae, we have the thoracic vertebrae which are designed to support the torso and bony thorax of the ribs. Moving inferiorly, we have the lumbar vertebrae of the lower back. These vertebrae are more vulnerable to injury because they often take the stress of lifting and moving that is accomplished by our arms. Inferior to the lumbar vertebra are the fused vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx. The vertebral column exhibits a curvature to allow for flexibility and movement of the axial skeleton. The cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae contain intervertebral discs made from fibrocartilage. These discs are designed to cushion the vertebrae and serve as shock absorbers for the column.

PROCEDURE:
1. Observe the vertebral column on the skeleton model from the LabPaq. In addition you may want to use your textbook and the online resources at the Hands-On Labs webpage (https://labpaq.com/ap1) for this exercise. Questions: A. What are the five categories of vertebrae in your vertebral column? B. Why are lumbar vertebrae particularly prone to injury? C. What is an intervertebral disc? What is its function? D. How are the Sacrum and Coccyx different from the other vertebrae? E. What is the overall function of vertebrae?
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Exercise 4: The Bony Thorax

The bony thorax consists of the sternum, ribs and thoracic vertebrae. The thoracic cage forms a protective barrier for the organs of the thoracic cavity (namely the heart and lungs). The sternum (breastbone) is a flat bone made of three parts. The superior end is the manubrium. Moving inferiorly, you will find the body and inferior to the body is the triangular tip of the xiphoid process. The ribs are flat bones which are curved to form the boundary of the thoracic cage. We have 12 pairs of ribs. All of the ribs articulate posteriorly with the thoracic vertebrae. Moving inferiorly, the first seven ribs are called true ribs because they all have their own cartilage which they use to attach to the sternum. The next five pairs are called false ribs because they attach indirectly to the sternum via shared cartilage. Finally, the last two pairs of ribs are called floating ribs because they have no sternal attachment at all.

PROCEDURE:
1. Observe the rib cage on the skeleton model from the Lab Paq. You may also want to use your textbook and online resources at the Hands-On Labs web site (https://labpaq.com/ap1) to help you. 2. Locate the twelve ribs on your model and identify the true, false and floating ribs. Questions: A. What bones make up the bony thorax? B. What is the function of the bony thorax? C. What category of bones are the sternum and ribs? D. Why are ribs 11 and 12 referred to as floating ribs? E. Propose a reason why the ribs are attached anteriorly by cartilage.

Exercise 5: The Appendicular Skeleton

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and lower appendages and the associated structures that attach them to the axial skeleton. The appendages are designed for movement. The bones of the appendicular skeleton articulate (move)
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with each other through a series of joints that connect and allow for flexibility. There are two major areas where the appendages are attached to the axial skeleton. The first is the pectoral or shoulder girdles. These bilateral attachment points are for the upper appendages and consist of two bones. The anterior bone is the clavicle and the posterior bone is the scapula. In addition to serving as the attachment point for the upper appendages, the pectoral girdle also serves as an important attachment point for the major muscles of the neck and trunk. Arm: The arm consists of a single bone, the humerus. The humerus is attached proximally to the pectoral girdle at the glenoid cavity of the scapula. The humerus articulates distally with the forearm at the medial trochlea (a spool like looking structure) and the lateral capitulum. Forearm: The forearm consists of two bones, the radius and ulna. In anatomical position, the radius is the lateral forearm bone and articulates with the humerus proximally at the capitulum and distally with the ulna. The ulna is the medial forearm bone and articulates proximally with the humerus at the trochlea. The ulna also contains the olecranon process which is easily palpated as the bump of your elbow. Hand: The hand consists of three groups of bones; the carpals (wrist), metacarpals (palm) and phalanges (fingers). The lower appendages are attached to axial skeleton at the pelvic girdles. The pelvic girdle or hip is formed by two coxal bones (coxa = hip). Each coxal bone is the result of the fusion of three bones; the ilium, ischium and pubis. The coxal bones along with the sacrum and coccyx form the bony pelvis. The ilium is the large, flaring bone that makes up the bulk of the pelvis. Superiorly, it contains the iliac crest which is where you put your hand when you rest it on your hip. Thigh: The thigh consists of the largest bone in your body; the femur. The femur articulates with the pelvis proximally at the acetabulum (a large rounded socket) which receives the head of the femur. Distally, the femur articulates with the tibia of the lower leg. The femur forms a joint with the patella (knee cap). The patella is enclosed in a tendon and protects the knee joint anteriorly. Leg: The leg consists of two bones; the tibia and fibula. The larger tibia is medial and proximally forms the knee joint with the femur and patella. The lateral leg bone is the smaller fibula which lies parallel to the tibia and distally forms the outer lateral bump of the ankle. Foot: The foot consists of the tarsal bones (ankle and heel). The talus (ankle) and calcaneus (heel) are the two largest tarsal bones and together they bear the brunt of our body weight. The metatarsals (the instep) make up the body of the foot. The phalanges make up the toes.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Observe your skeleton model from the LabPaq. You may also want to use your textbook and online resources on at the Hands-On-Labs web site to help you. 2. Identify all of the bones described in the introduction above on the skeletal model. Questions: A. What is the pelvic girdle? What is its function? B. What is the pectoral girdle? What is its function? C. Name the bones of the upper appendages (arm, forearm and hand). D. Name the bones of the lower appendages (thigh, leg and foot). E. Which of the four categories of bones do MOST of the bones of the appendicular skeleton fit into?

Conclusions: Why is it important to relate the structures of the axial and appendicular skeleton to one another?

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Joints and Body Movements

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.02 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To be able to name and identify the three functional categories of joints, To be able to name and identify the three structural categories of joints, To demonstrate and identify various body movements, To be able to relate the relationship between bones, ligaments, tendons and muscles, and To be able to identify the types of synovial joints in the body. Label or Box/Bag: Qty
1 1 1 1 1

Materials From:
Student Provides

Item Description:
Internet access to view online materials Your own body to perform various movements An uncooked chicken wing purchased from the supermarket Human-Skeleton-Model Dissection-kit with 7-tools - including the following: Bent Probe, Dropping Pipette, Probe, Ruler in pocket, Scalpel with 2 Blades - Note blades are in the pocket, Scissors, Tweezers Dissection Tray #2 Small, opaque - Note several supplies are loaded in this tray

From LabPaq Aux-Supplies BagAP

Aux-Supplies Bag-AP

Dissection Tray

Dissection Tray

Introduction: One of the functions of our skeletal system is to provide movement for our body. In order to accomplish this, our bones need to be able to move past each other. This movement is accomplished by articulations between our bones, more commonly known as joints. Articulations have two functions. First they help hold the various bones of the skeleton together and second they allow for movement. Joints are classified in two ways; structurally and functionally. The structural classification is based on the presence or absence of connective tissues, cartilage or a joint cavity between the two articulating bones. Structurally, our body contains fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial joints. The functional classification is based on the amount of movement that is allowed by a particular joint. Functionally, joints are classified as synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly moveable) or diarthroses (freely movable). In this exercise, you will have the opportunity to explore the various types of joints in each classification scheme.

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Exercise 1: Identifying Fibrous Joints

Fibrous joints are joined by fibrous tissue. There is no joint cavity present. Most fibrous joints are synarthrotic and allow virtually no movement. Fibrous joints are found in the skull in the form of sutures. These joints have jagged, irregular edges that lock the two joining bones together. There is another category of fibrous joints called syndesmoses and these are found in areas where short, dense ligaments connect the two bones but there is no interlocking between the two bones. The distal joint between the tibia and fibula is a good example of syndesmoses.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out your skeleton model from the LabPaq. 2. Examine the skull bones of the cranium, in particular the joining of the parietal, frontal, temporal and occipital bones. Look at the sutures between these bones. Questions: A. As you observe the skull explain how the structure of the sutures between the cranial bones is related to the overall function of the cranium. B. Why are synarthroses an important component of fibrous joints? Exercise 2: Identifying Cartilaginous Joints In cartilaginous joints the bone ends are connected by a sheet or pad of cartilage. Most cartilaginous joints are slightly movable (amphiarthroses). There are two types of cartilaginous joints in the body. Symphyses are bones connected by a large flat disc of cartilage. The intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis of the pelvis are two good examples of this. The second type of cartilaginous joint is the synchondroses. Synchondroses have bony portions united by cartilage. The articulation between the first five ribs and the sternum are an example of synchodroses.

PROCEDURE:
1. Find a diagram of a skeleton form your textbook or online at the Hands-On Labs web page for this exercise. 2. Identify the location of cartilaginous joints on the diagram as well as on your own body. Questions: A. Cartilaginous joints exhibit amphiarthroses. Why is this important?
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B. Structurally, how are cartilaginous joints similar?

Exercise 3: Identifying Synovial Joints Synovial joints are the articulations which are most familiar to us. The shoulder, elbow, wrist, hip, knee and ankle are what most people think of when they refer to joints. These are all examples of synovial joints. All synovial joints are freely movable (diarthroses) although the degree to which they can move can vary greatly. Synovial joints have some common characteristics. First, their joint surfaces are covered by a two-layered articular capsule (a covering of connective tissue) which creates a joint cavity. Second, the inner layer of the capsule has a membrane called the synovial membrane which produces a lubricating fluid called synovial fluid which has the job of reducing friction. Third, articular (hyaline) cartilage covers the surfaces of the bones forming the joint. Fourth, the capsule is reinforced with ligaments and may contain fluid-filled sacs called bursae that help reduce friction where tendons move across bones. Finally, some synovial joints contain fibrocartilage pads within the capsule. The following is a diagram of the different types of synovial joints:

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PROCEDURE:
1. Find a diagram of a skeleton in your textbook or online at the Hands-On Labs web page (https://labpaq.com/ap1) for this exercise. 2. Look over the diagram above of the different types of synovial joints. 3. Locate each joint on the skeleton diagram. 4. Locate each joint on your own body and perform the movement that each joint allows. Observe how the bones move when you perform the joint movements. Questions: A. Which type of synovial joint has the least amount of movement? B. Why are diarthroses important for synovial joints? C. Which synovial joint is most movable? D. What are the four structural characteristics that all synovial joints share?

Exercise 4: Body Movements

Our joints allow for a variety of different movements between bones. In this exercise you will perform a series of movements on yourself to demonstrate the range of motion and flexibility exhibited by the various synovial joints in your body.

PROCEDURE:
1. Perform each of the following movements on yourself as you read about them: a. Flexion: This movement decreases the angle of the joint and reduces the distance between the two bones. Typically done by hinge joints (knee and elbow). b. Extension: This movement increases the angle of the joint and the distance between the two bones. Typically done by hinge joints (knee and elbow). c. Abduction: The movement of a limb away from the midline or median plane of the body. d. Adduction: The movement of a limb towards the midline or median plane of the body. e. Rotation: The movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis. Usually
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performed by ball and socket joints but can be done with the head as the atlas (cervical vertebra 1) moves around the axis (cervical vertebrae 2). f. Circumduction: This movement combines flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction. Usually seen in ball and socket joints, especially the shoulder. It makes a cone-like circular movement around the axis of the joint. g. Pronation: The moving of the palm of the hand from an anterior or upward position to a downward position. This causes the radius to cross over the ulna. Look closely at your arm as you do this and follow the length of the radius down your forearm to your wrist. h. Supination: The moving of the palm of the hand from a downward position to an upward position (opposite of pronation). i. Inversion: The turning of the sole of your foot inward or medially.

j. Eversion: The turning of the sole of your foot outward or laterally. k. Dorsiflexion: The movement of the ankle joint dorsally. You stand on your heels when you do this. l. Plantar flexion: The movement of the ankle joint downward to point your toes.

Questions: A. Which of the body movements was the most difficult to perform? Why? B. Hinge joints like the elbow and knee have limited movement. Why are these types of joints more prone to injury? C. When you perform flexion on your arm, the biceps muscle (on the anterior of the arm) contracts. What happens to the triceps muscle (on the posterior of the arm) as you do this action? D. Both the shoulder and the hip are ball and socket joints. Why does the shoulder have a greater range of motion than the hip?

Exercise 5: The Relationship between Bones, Joints and Muscles In this exercise you will examine how bones, joints and muscles are related both structurally and functionally to one another. You will use a chicken wing as your model to help explain these relationships. Bones are attached to other bones via ligaments. Ligaments are made out of dense connective tissue which is both strong for support and flexible for movement. Ligaments have limited vascularization (blood supply) which
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makes them slow to heal if they become injured. Muscles are attached to bones via tendons. Tendons are made of dense connective tissue like ligaments but have better vascularization. Tendons pull on the bones which provide movement as muscles are flexed and extended. Both ligaments and tendons also provide stabilization for synovial joints. This gives the joints the extra support they need to allow for movements between bones.

PROCEDURE:
1. Get out the uncooked chicken wing. 2. Take out the dissection kit from the LabPaq as well as the dissection tray. 3. Rinse the chicken wing under running water. Dry it thoroughly with a paper towel and place it on the dissection tray. 4. Begin by removing the skin from the chicken wing. Start at the proximal end where the wing is attached to the body. 5. Insert the tip of the scissors under the skin and cut along the entire length of the wing to the tip. BE CAREFUL NOT TO DIG INTO THE MUSCLES UNDERNEATH. 6. The skin will be fatty and slippery. Use a paper towel to pat it dry as you go. 7. Once you have made the cut to the tip, grasp the skin with the forceps and carefully pull the skin away from the muscle beginning at the proximal end. Notice the white connective tissue that holds the skin to the muscle. This is called fascia. 8. You will need to use the scalpel or probe to help separate the skin from the fascia.
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9. Remove the skin from the upper and lower wing. It is not necessary to remove the skin from the wing tip. Discard the skin in the trash. 10. Make sure the skin is removed from around the joints. 11. Use the blunt probe to gently separate the muscles in the upper wing and lower wing. 12. Look at the second joint. This represents the elbow on our body. Look for tendons attaching the muscles to the bone. The tendons will appear like shiny, white bands of tissue. 13. Grasp one of the tendons with the forceps and gently pull on it. Does the joint move? 14. Grasp the wing by the shoulder and the wing tip. Bend and straighten the wing several times. 15. Observe what happens to the muscles as you flex and extend the wing joints. 16. Observe the bones as you flex and extend the chicken wing. As the muscle contracts the attachments to the bone either stay stationary or move. The stationary attachment is called the origin. The attachment that moves is called the insertion. 17. Look at the shoulder joint. Identify the articular cartilage at the end of the humerus where it attached to the shoulder. 18. Wash your hands with soap and water. 19. Go to the Lab Report and sketch your chicken wing. Label the bones, muscles, and tendons on your sketch (PLEASE NOTE: YOU DO NOT HAVE TO IDENTIFY THE NAMES OF THE SPECIFIC MUSCLES HERE. JUST LABEL WHERE THE MUSCLES ARE IN RELATION TO THE TENDONS AND BONES). 20. Discard the chicken wing in the trash and thoroughly wash the dissection tray with soap and warm water.

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Questions: A. What effect will the tearing of a tendon have on its corresponding muscle? B. Why are ligaments harder to heal than tendons? C. Compare and contrast tendons and ligaments. D. What is the function of fascia? E. What effect would the loss of articular cartilage have on a joint, its bones and their corresponding muscles? Conclusions: Explain how skin, bones and muscles are related to each other. Why is this relationship important to your understanding of the skeletal and muscular systems?

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Organization of Muscle Tissue

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.02 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To be able to describe the microscopic and gross structure of skeletal muscle, To define and explain the function of the following: actin, myosin, myofibril, myofilament, epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, fascicle, fascia, tendon, and aponeuroses, and To describe the structure of a neuromuscular junction and define its role in skeletal muscle function. Label or Box/Bag: Qty
1 1 1 1

Materials From:
Student Provides

Item Description:
Microscope A fresh, uncooked, chicken breast or thigh Internet access to view online materials Dissection-kit with 7-tools - including the following: Bent Probe, Dropping Pipette, Probe, Ruler in pocket, Scalpel with 2 Blades - Note blades are in the pocket, Scissors, Tweezers Dissection Tray #2 Small, opaque - Note several supplies are loaded in this tray - see below Saline, 1% with 0.01% Thimerosal - 30 mL in Dropper Bottle Slide - Cover Glass - Cover Slip Cube Slide - Cardiac muscle LS Slide - Skeletal muscle w/ neuro Slide - Smooth muscle LS

Aux-Supplies BagAP

Aux-Supplies Bag-AP

Dissection Tray

Dissection Tray

1 1 1 1 1 1

Slide Box AP-1

Introduction: Muscle tissue is organized as a series of cylinders wrapped and bundled together by connective membranes to provide strength and support. These cylinders are often referred to as muscle fibers. Skeletal muscles have several nuclei (multinucleate) and the numerous oval shaped nuclei are visible under the plasma membrane (in muscles the plasma membrane is called the sarcolemma). Muscle cells have a striped appearance which is provided by a series of alternating light and dark bands called myofibrils. Inside of the myofibrils are even smaller bands of thread like fibers called myofilaments. The myofilaments are made up of two contractile proteins which give muscles their ability to shorten and extend. The proteins actin and myosin slide past each other and enable muscles to contract and extend. The actin and myosin are organized into contractile units called sarcomeres.
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In this exercise you will examine both the macroscopic and microscopic structure of muscle tissue to better understand how skeletal muscle is arranged and organized.

Exercise 1: Examining Skeletal Muscle Cells Skeletal muscle is easily viewed microscopically using animal tissue. In this exercise you will use fresh chicken to examine the structure of skeletal muscle cells.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out your microscope. 2. Get a clean glass slide and cover slip from the LabPaq. 3. Get the dropper bottle of 1% saline solution from the LabPaq. 4. Take out your dissection kit and dissection tray from the LabPaq. 5. Take out the prepared slide of skeletal muscle from your LabPaq. 6. Get out the fresh chicken breast or thigh. 7. Wash the chicken under cold water and pat dry with a paper towel. 8. Place the chicken on the dissection tray. 9. Using your forceps and scalpel, carefully cut away a small, thin section of chicken. The piece should be small enough to fit on a slide. 10. Place the piece of chicken on the slide and add a drop of the 1% saline solution. 11. Using the dissection needle from your LabPaq, pull apart the fibers of the chicken. Tease them apart until it looks like a fluffy mass. 12. Add the cover slip and place on the microscope. 13. Begin on low power. Turn the diaphragm so that the light is on the lowest setting possible. Focus the image. 14. Switch to medium power and fine focus and finally to high power and fine focus. 15. Observe the tissue and look for the banding pattern of the myofibrils. 16. Go to the Lab Report and sketch what you see in the appropriate place in the
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observations. 17. Remove the chicken tissue slide. Throw away your chicken, clean and dry your slide and wash your hands with soap and water (this is very important when working with uncooked chicken). 18. Place the prepared slide of skeletal muscle on the microscope. 19. Focus the image using good microscope techniques and move your way up to high power. 20. Observe the prepared tissue slide. Go to the Lab Report and sketch what you see in the appropriate place in the observations. Label the sarcolemma and nuclei on your sketch. 21. Go to the LabPaq website and find the image of skeletal muscle tissue. Compare your sketches with the photomicrograph of skeletal muscle on the website. Questions: A. What muscular structures created the striped or banded image you saw in your chickens tissue? B. How are muscle cells different from a typical cell in your own body? C. What is the sarcolemma? Exercise 2: Organization of Skeletal Muscle Cells into Muscles Muscle fibers are soft, flexible structures that are actually very fragile. In order for muscles to provide the strength and support our bodies need, muscle fibers have to be wrapped and bundled. The wrappings and bundles are provided by a series of connective tissue membranes which reinforce the fibers and hold them together to provide strength. Each individual muscle fiber is wrapped in aerolar connective tissue flattened into a sheath. This inner sheath is called the endomysium. Groups of muscle fibers are then wrapped in a membrane made from collagen called the perimysium. The bundles of fibers formed by each perimysium are called fascicles.
(Source: National Library of Medicine http://www.nih.gov)

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Larger groups of fascicles are then wrapped together by a coarse outer membrane called the epimysium. The epimysium surrounds the whole muscle. Further out, each muscle is then connected or bound into functional groups of muscles by dense connective tissue called fascia. Muscles are then connected to bones by bands of dense connective tissue called tendons or directly to other muscles by sheets of dense connective tissue called aponeuroses. In this exercise you will look at slides to try to identify the tissues that group muscle cells into muscles.

PROCEDURE:
1. Go to the Hands on Labs Website. Either click on this link or copy and paste it into your browser: https://labpaq.com/ap1 2. Open the image labeled Skeletal Muscle C. S. 3. Observe the slide. Identify the muscle fibers, endomysium and perimysium. 4. Go to the Lab Report and sketch what you see in the appropriate place in the observations. Questions: A. Why do muscle fibers need to be wrapped and bundled into groups? B. What tissue are the muscle wrappings generally made out of? Why? C. What is a fascicle? D. Compare and contrast tendons and aponeuroses. Exercise 3: The Neuromuscular Junction Skeletal muscles are under voluntary control from the nervous system. You can tell your skeletal muscles when, where and how much to move. This function is made possible by the fact that each muscle is supplied by impulses from its own dedicated neuron (nerve cell). The connection between the neuron endings (axons) and the muscle cell is the neuromuscular junction. The axons of the neuron branch out into several endings called axon terminals which then form junctions with individual muscle cells. This allows one neuron to stimulate several muscle cells. The neuron and all of the muscle cells it stimulates are collectively called a motor unit. The neuron and muscle fibers dont actually touch. There is a fluid filled space between them called the synaptic cleft. The neuron communicates with the muscle fiber by releasing chemicals called neurotransmitters. These chemicals take the message from the neuron across
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the synaptic cleft and deliver it to the muscle fiber. You will learn more about this process in a later activity. In this activity, you will explore the structure of the neuromuscular junction and relate it to its function.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out the microscope. 2. Find the prepared slide of skeletal muscle showing neuromuscular junctions in the LabPaq. 3. Place the slide on the microscope and using good microscope technique focus the slide. Move up until you are focused on high power. 4. Observe the slide and find a neuronal fiber from an axon. Follow the axonal fiber to its terminus. 5. The oval shaped structure at the terminus of the fiber is the axon terminal. 6. Go to the Hands on Labs Website. Either click on this link or copy and paste it into your browser: https://labpaq.com/ap1 7. Open the link for this exercise and then click on the image labeled Skeletal Muscle with Neuromuscular Junction. 8. Compare your slide with the image on the website. 9. Go to the Lab Report and sketch your slide from the microscope into the appropriate place in the observations. Label the axon, the terminal braches and the muscle fibers. Questions: A. How does a motor neuron stimulate a muscle fiber? B. What happens at the synaptic cleft? C. What is a motor unit? D. Why is skeletal muscle called voluntary muscle?

Conclusions: Why is it important to understand the relationship between nerves and muscles?

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10. Go to the Lab Report and sketch your slide from the microscope into the appropriate place in the observations. Label the axon, the terminal braches and the muscle fibers. Questions: E. How does a motor neuron stimulate a muscle fiber? F. What happens at the synaptic cleft? G. What is a motor unit? H. Why is skeletal muscle called voluntary muscle?

Conclusions: Why is it important to understand the relationship between nerves and muscles?

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Gross Anatomy of the Muscular System

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.01 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To identify and name the major muscles of the human body, and To explain how muscle actions are related to their location in the body. Label or Box/Bag: Qty Item Description:
1 1 Partner or family member to assist you Anatomy and Physiology textbook

Materials From:
Student Provides

Introduction: Skeletal muscles are designed to provide, structure, support and locomotion for our body. Our muscular system works as a unit with the skeleton to provide the functions just mentioned. No single muscle in your body is its own entity. Every muscle relies on other muscles to perform its given task. Remembering the names of muscles in the body is a daunting task. There are clues that can help. Muscles are named for the following reasons: The direction of muscle fibers The location of the muscle The shape of the muscle The action of the muscle The size of the muscle The number of origins a muscle has The location of the muscles origin and insertion

In order to understand muscles we first have to define a few terms. All muscles are attached to a bone or another muscle through connective tissues such as tendons (muscle to bone) or apeneuroses (muscle to muscle). The origin of a muscle is its stationary or non-movable end or attachment. For example, your biceps brachii originates at the proximal end of your humerus. The insertion of a muscle is the movable end or attachment. Your biceps brachii inserts on the proximal end of the radius. The action of the muscle is the movement it performs. Your biceps brachii performs flexion of the elbow and supination of the forearm. As mentioned before, muscles work together to perform movements. Muscles that perform a particular movement are called agonists or prime movers. Muscles that oppose or reverse a particular movement are called antagonists. Now, because
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muscles work together, antagonist muscles can be prime movers themselves. For example, the triceps brachii (extension of the elbow) is an antagonist to the biceps brachii (flexion of the elbow), but extension of the elbow is, in and of itself, a prime movement. Prime movers need help making their movements. Synergists help the action of agonists by reducing or eliminating unnecessary movements that would take away from the action being preformed. Fixators immobilize the origin of an agonist so that most of the tension being exerted occurs at the insertion. The large muscles of the back that stabilize the shoulder and muscles involved in maintaining posture are all fixators. In this exercise you will identify the major muscles of the human body through observation, dissection and movements on your own body.

Exercise 1: The Muscles of the Head and Neck

Refer back to Exercise: Joints on Joints and Body Movements or your textbook as needed to refresh your memory about different body movements.

PROCEDURE:
1. Using the diagrams in the manual and your textbook as a reference, identify the muscles of the head and neck. 2. Pivot your head side to side. Which muscles allow for this movement? 3. Flex and extend your head. Which muscles allow for these movements? 4. Depress and elevate your mandible. Which muscles allow for these movements? 5. Go to the Lab Report. Label the muscles of the head and neck on the diagram. Questions: A. Which muscles pivot your head? B. Which muscles flex and extend your head? C. Which muscles depress and elevate your mandible? D. Which muscles are used in smiling? E. Which muscle raises your eyebrow as if you were questioning what someone said?

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Exercise 2: The Muscles of the Trunk PROCEDURE:

1. Using the diagrams in this manual and your textbook for reference, identify the major muscles of the trunk. 2. You will need a partner or family member to help you perform the following actions. 3. Fully abduct your arm, with your elbow extended. Have your partner provide resistance as you try to adduct the arm. Which trunk muscle allowed you to do these actions? 4. Have your partner provide resistance on your arms. Try to abduct the arm. Which shoulder muscle allowed for this action?

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5. Have your partner provide resistance on the superior end of your shoulders. Try to elevate your shoulder. Which back muscle allowed for this action? 6. Go to the Lab Report and label the major muscles of the anterior and posterior trunk. Questions: A. Which trunk muscle allows you to adduct your arms? B. Which shoulder muscle allowed you to adduct your arm? C. Which trunk muscle allows you to elevate your shoulders? D. Which muscle is the prime mover for shoulder flexion? E. What are the muscles between the ribs called? What do they do?

Exercise 3: Muscles of the Upper Limb PROCEDURE:

1. Using the diagrams in the manual and your textbook for reference, identify the major muscles of the upper limb. 2. You will need a partner or family member to help you perform the following actions. 3. Have your partner provide resistance on your forearm as you attempt to flax your elbow. Which muscle flexes your elbow? 4. Flex your elbow fully. Have your partner provide resistance against your fully flexed forearm. Extend your elbow. Which muscle extends your elbow? 5. Extend your forearm, flex your wrist and make a fist. Palpate your wrist flexor muscles in your forearm. Which muscles allow you to flex your wrist? Which muscles allow you to make a fist? 6. Extend your forearm, pronate your hand, extend your wrist and flare your fingers out. Which muscles allow you to perform these actions? 7. Go to the Lab Report. Label the muscles of the upper limb on the diagram. Questions: A. Which muscles flex your elbow?
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B. Which muscles extend your elbow? C. Which muscles flex your wrist and allow you to make a fist? D. Which muscles allow you to extend your wrist and flare your fingers? E. Which muscles allow you to supinate and pronate your hand?

Exercise 4: Muscles of the Lower Limb

1. Using the diagrams from this manual and your textbook as reference, identify the major muscles of the lower limb. 2. You will need a partner or family member to help you perform some of the following actions. 3. Go into a deep knee bend and palpate the posterior of your hip. Extend your hip and return to an upright position. Which muscle were you palpating? 4. Sit in a chair. Have your partner provide resistance on the anterior of your lower leg. Extend your knee. Which muscle allowed you to perform this extension? 5. Have your partner support himself and stand on his toes. Palpate your partners calf and follow the muscles down to the heel. Which muscles did you just palpate? What tendon attaches these muscles to your heel? Whats the name of the heel bone the tendon attaches to? 6. Dorsiflex and invert your foot. Palpate the anterior of your tibia. Which muscle allows you to perform this action? 7. Go to the Lab Report. Label the muscles of the lower limb on the diagram. Questions: A. Which muscle did you palpate when you extended your hip and stood up? B. Which muscle extends your knee and flexes the thigh? C. Which muscle dorsiflexes and inverts your foot? D. Which three muscles extend the thigh and flex the knee? E. Which muscles abduct your leg?

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Muscle Physiology
by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.01 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To explain the differences between a twitch, wave summation, treppe and tetanus, To be able to relate the different types of muscle contractions through the construction and interpretation of myograms, To describe how a muscle fatigues, and To explain the differences between isometric and isotonic contractions. Label or Box/Bag: Qty Item Description:
1 1 1 1 A textbook or other heavy object MS Excel software (or other spreadsheet program for graphs) Partner or family member to assist you Metric Ruler from the Dissection-kit with 7-tools including the following: Bent Probe, Dropping Pipette, Probe, Ruler in pocket, Scalpel with 2 Blades - Note blades are in the pocket, Scissors, Tweezers Stopwatch-digital

Materials From:
Student Provides

Aux-Supplies BagAP

Aux-Supplies Bag-AP

Introduction: Muscles and nerve tissues are deemed as excitable because they can produce electrical impulses called action potentials. The electricity is generated by the movement of sodium and potassium ions through specified protein channels in the plasma membrane. When muscles and neurons are at rest, the electrical charge inside the cell is different from the electrical charge outside the cell. The electrical difference can be measured in millivolts and is referred to as the resting membrane potential. Resting membrane potentials differ between cells. Neurons are around -70 mv, somewhat more reactive than muscle cells at -85 mv. When a neuron stimulates a muscle, the nerve action potential causes the neuron to release chemical messengers called neurotransmitters which carry the action potential over to the muscle cells causing a contraction. The sodium ion channels open in the sarcolemma (muscle cell membrane) and sodium ions rush into the fiber causing the sarcolemma to become depolarized (less negative). The sarcolemma can rise to +30 mv at the peak of depolarization. When the sarcolemma reaches +30 mv, the sodium ion channels close and potassium ion channels open. Potassium exits the fiber and the
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sarcolemma becomes repolarized (more negative) back to its resting membrane potential. In this exercise you will investigate several different kinds of muscle contractions which are designed to help you better understand muscle physiology.

Exercise 1: Muscle Twitch

Even though we often study and discuss muscle fibers individually to better understand their structure and function, they do not act individually. Several muscle fibers are usually stimulated by a single neuron. The neuron and the fibers it stimulates are referred to as a motor unit. You can consider these fibers a muscle team that contracts together when they receive stimulation from the neuron. Muscle fibers are either on (during a contraction) or off (during relaxation). This on or off phenomenon is known as the all or nothing principle. Simply put, muscle fibers are either contracted or relaxed without any intermediate states. The type of muscle contraction a muscle fiber undergoes is determined by the frequency at which the fiber is stimulated by the neuron. If the fiber receives a single action potential from the neuron, the muscle fiber will twitch. A twitch is a single contraction-relaxation cycle. Each twitch has three parts: latent period, contraction phase and relaxation phase. The latent period is the time from the initial stimulation to the start of the muscle contraction. The delay occurs as the neurotransmitter delivers the action potential and engages the myofilaments (actin and myosin) in the muscle fiber. The contraction phase involves the shortening of the fiber and the creation of tension or force within the muscle. The relaxation phase occurs when the neurotransmitter is broken down and the actin and myosin go back to their resting positions. This decreases the tension and force in the muscle. Muscle twitch can be measured and recorded. The information can be presented a graph called a myogram. Myograms graphically show the relationships between different kinds of muscle contractions and the force they create in a variety of muscles.

PROCEDURE:
1. In the Lab Report Template, look over the data for the three muscles in Tables 1A, 1B and 1C. 2. Make a graph in Microsoft Excel. Refer to the section in the Introduction of this lab manual titled: Computer Graphing Using Microsoft Excel for help with this process. 3. Graph all three sets of data on one graph. Label the three muscles on the graph as well as the latent period, contraction phase and relaxation phase.

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Questions A. What is a muscle twitch? B. According to your graph, which muscle has the fastest twitch? Why do you suppose this is? C. What is the latent period and why does it occur?

Exercise 2: Treppe: The Staircase Effect Muscles, like people, are slow to get going sometimes. Initial muscle contractions are only half as strong as later contractions even when the stimuli are of the same strength. This gradual increase in strength leads to a staircase increase in tension known as treppe. It is believed that treppe results because excess calcium is available in the sarcoplasm of the muscle cell. This exposes additional attachment sites between actin and myosin increasing the strength of subsequent contractions. Treppe is the reason why athletes need a warm up period before they begin full exercise.

PROCEDURE:
1. Go to the Lab Report and look over the data in Table 2. 2. Create a graph of the information for treppe on the time vs. tension graph in Microsoft Excel. 3. Use arrows to indicate where each subsequent stimulus occurred on the graph. Questions: A. Why is treppe an important phenomenon for athletes to be aware of? B. Physiologically, what causes treppe to occur? Exercise 3: Wave Summation (Temporal Summation) If a muscle is stimulated repeatedly before it has completely relaxed from the previous stimulus then the contractions are said to be summed or added up. This phenomenon is known as wave or temporal summation. Wave summation results in an increase in tension with each stimulus. Wave summation occurs because the actin filaments have not fully relaxed when a new stimulus arrives. This releases additional calcium ions into the sarcoplasm exposing more actin-myosin binding sites. The result is increased contractile strength.
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PROCEDURE:
1. Go to the Lab Report and look over the data in Table 3. 2. Graph the information for wave summation on the time vs. tension graph using Microsoft Excel. 3. Use arrows to indicate where the subsequent stimuli occurred on the graph. Questions: A. Explain why wave summation occurs. B. Can summation go on infinitely? Why or why not? Exercise 4: Tetanus As the frequency of muscle stimulation increases, the muscle produces peak tension with short cycles of relaxation. This type of contraction is known as incomplete tetanus. If the frequency of stimulation is so quick that the relaxation phase is completely eliminated, then the resulting contraction is called complete tetanus. Complete tetanus results in a strong, smooth contraction over a period of time. Most of the work our muscles do is accomplished in complete tetanus. By the way a tetanus shot, which is given to prevent lockjaw (contraction of the facial muscles caused by a bacterium), is named after this type of muscle contraction.

PROCEDURE:
1. Go to the Lab Report and look over the data in Table 4. 2. Graph the information for incomplete tetanus on the time vs. tension graph. 3. Use arrows to indicate where the subsequent stimuli occurred on the graph. 4. Graph the information for complete tetanus on the second time vs. tension graph. 5. Use arrows to indicate the subsequent stimuli on the graph. Questions: A. What is the difference between complete and incomplete tetanus? B. Will muscle fatigue occur quicker in complete or incomplete tetanus? Explain your reasoning.

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Exercise 5: Demonstrating Muscle Fatigue Muscle fibers cannot contract for an indefinite period of time. Eventually the fibers become fatigued and the force of the contractions decreases. Fatigue is brought on by a loss of cellular energy, a decrease in oxygen levels and an accumulation of waste products from metabolism. As ATP levels drop, lactic acid builds up in the muscle fibers and they begin to burn. In this exercise you will demonstrate muscle fatigue on yourself using a heavy object.

PROCEDURE:
1. Get out the stopwatch from the LabPaq. 2. Take out your Anatomy and Physiology textbook (or other heavy textbook). 3. You may need a partner or family member to help you with this exercise. 4. Go to the Lab Report and record a zero 0 in the start time column for Trial 1 in Data Table 5. 5. Stand up and extend your arm straight out in front of you (DO NOT BEND YOUR ELBOW AT ALL) so that your arm is parallel to the floor. 6. Hold your hand out with your palm flat and fingers straight. Place your A&P text in your hand and immediately start the stopwatch. 7. Hold the book straight out in front of you until your arm starts to ache. 8. Put down the book and stop the stopwatch. 9. Record the end time for Trial 1 in Data Table 5. Data Table 5: Muscle Fatigue Trial Start Time (seconds) End Time (seconds) Duration (seconds) 1 2 3 10. Rest for 1 minute. 11. Repeat Steps 3 through 7 as Trial 2. Record your data in Data Table 5. 12. Rest 1 minute. 13. Repeat Steps 3 through 7 as Trial 3. Record your data in Data Table 5.
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14. Calculate the total time in seconds required for each trial and record this under Duration in Data Table 5. 15. Plot the graph for the total time it took for fatigue to set in for each trial. Label the horizontal axis as Trial and the vertical axis as Time in Seconds. Questions: A. Explain why your muscles get fatigued. B. How does exercise effect muscle fatigue?

Exercise 6: Isometric and Isotonic Contractions There are two major complete tetanic (during tetanus) contractions that our muscles can perform. Isometric contractions occur when the muscle length stays relatively constant but the tension of the muscle changes. There is no body movement with isometric contractions because the length of the muscle stays constant. Muscles that maintain our posture use these types of contractions. Isotonic contractions, on the other hand, maintain constant tension while the length of the muscle changes. If you pick up a book and bend your arm to lift it towards you, the tension of the muscle stays relatively the same but the length of the muscle changes quite a bit. In this activity you will demonstrate both isometric and isotonic contractions on yourself.

PROCEDURE:
1. Get out your A&P textbook or other heavy textbook. 2. Take out the ruler with metric measurements. 3. You may need a partner or family member to help you with this exercise. 4. Stand up and extend your arm straight out in front of you so that it is parallel to the floor. DO NOT BEND YOUR ELBOW AT ALL. 5. Palpate (feel) your biceps brachii muscle. Feel the tension of the muscle and measure the length. Record this information in the Lab Report for Trial 1 in Data Table 6. Data Table 6: Isometric and Isotonic Contractions Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Tension Length Type of Contraction
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6. Hold your hand out and load your arm with the textbook. Palpate your biceps brachii again and notice the degree of muscle tension. Measure the length of the muscle. Record your observations under Trial 2 in Data Table 6. 7. Gently squeeze your biceps brachii muscle with your opposite hand. Repeatedly flex your arm holding the book six times. Move the textbook at least six inches each time. Record your muscle tension and length observations under Trial 3 in Data Table 6. 8. Fill in the Type of Contraction for each trial in Data Table 6.

Questions: A. Which types of muscles do isometric contractions? B. What happened to the muscle length and tension with each successive trial while doing isotonic contractions? Why do you suppose this occurred?

Conclusions: Describe how muscles are designed to receive stimuli. How does this design support their ability to contract?

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Organization of Nervous Tissue

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.03 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To describe the structure and function of a multipolar neuron, To describe the structure and function of unipolar and bipolar neurons, To describe the functions of the various neuroglia and supporting cells, and To identify the structures of a nerve and explain the significance of the connective tissues that surround nerves. Label Box/Bag: or Qty
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Materials From:
Student Provides

Item Description:
Internet access to view online materials Immersion Oil Microscope with oil immersion lens Slide - Spinal Cord Smear Slide - Teased Nerve Fiber CS Purkinje Cells (website) Pyramidal Cells (website) Dorsal Root Ganglion (website) Neuron (website)

Dissection Tray

Slide Box AP-1

Introduction: The nervous system is one of two systems (the other being the endocrine) which regulate the activity of other systems in the body. Its primary function is response to the environment of an organism (both internal and external). Being able to respond to what is happening to you is critical for survival. As a matter of fact, response is one of the defining characteristics of life. The nervous system is divided up into two major divisions. The central nervous system includes the brain, and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system includes all of the nerves in the rest of the body. The nervous system relies on the transmission of electrical impulses through specialized cells called neurons. Neurons are designed to carry and transmit electrical impulses generated by both internal and external stimuli. Our five senses play the biggest role in providing our nervous system the information it needs about our environment. The control portion of the system is centered in our brain. You will learn more about the structure and function of the brain in the next exercise. Neurons are fragile and are dependent on a group of supporting cells (collectively) called neuroglia to help them out. Neurons are organized into bundles of fibers called nerves. Nerves are assigned specific areas of the body from which they receive and transmit information to.
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In this exercise you will explore the structure of a variety of neurons. You will relate the structures to the function of the neuron and to the overall function of the nervous system. You will also explore the structure of a nerve and how it relates to neurons.

Exercise 1: The Multipolar Neuron

Neurons come in several different forms. The most common is the multi-polar neuron. Multipolar neurons are named for the many branches, processes and extensions that come off of their cell bodies. Observe and study the diagram below and then follow the procedure to study the neuron microscopically.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out the microscope. 2. Get the immersion oil and immersion oil lens for the microscope. 3. Insert the oil immersion lens onto the nose piece of the microscope. Refer back to the experiment Using the Microscope if you need to refresh your memory about this lens. 4. Obtain the Spinal Cord Smear slide. 5. Place the slide of the spinal cord smear on the microscope and focus on low power. 6. Following proper microscopic technique, move up to high power, and finally up to the oil immersion lens. Observe the spinal cord smear and find a multipolar neuron.

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7. Identify the cell body, the nucleus, the large nucleolus, and granular Nissl bodies on your own slide. Try to find the axon and differentiate it from the dendrites. 8. Go to the Lab Report and sketch the cell in the space provided. 9. Now, go to the Hands on Labs Website. Either click on this link or copy and paste it into your browser: https://labpaq.com/ap1 10. Click on the Neuron slide under Exercise: Histology and identify the cell body, the nucleus, the large nucleolus, and the granular Nissl bodies. Try to find the axon and differentiate it from the dendrites. 11. Go to the Lab Report and sketch the cell in the space provided. 12. Observe the teased myelinated nerve fiber slide following the same procedure as the spinal cord smear slide. 13. Go back to the A&P website and click on the photomicrograph of teased myelinated nerve fiber under Using the Microscope. 14. Using the photomicrograph as your guide, identify the following structures on your own slide: Nodes of Ranvier, neurilemma, the axon, Schwann cell nuclei and myelin sheath. 15. Go to the Lab Report and sketch your observations in the space provided. Label all of the structures that could be identified.

Questions: A. What is the function of a neuron? B. What is the difference between a neuron and a nerve? C. What gives a multipolar neuron its name? D. What are the functions of the dendrites and axons?

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Exercise 2: Structures of Selected Neurons

In addition to multipolar neurons, neurons also come in other structural categories. Neurons are classified according to the number of processes or projections they have coming off of their cell bodies. Unipolar neurons have one short process and are most often found in the central nervous system. Bipolar neurons have two processes, one axon and one dendrite attached to the cell body. In this exercise you will get to compare some of these structural differences found in neurons. Observe the structure of a unipolar and bipolar neuron below and then go to the procedure to study them microscopically.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Go the A&P website to locate the slide images of Purkinje cells, Pyramidal cells, and Dorsal Root Ganglion. 2. Review each of these slide images. 3. See if you can identify any of the structures shown in the diagram above.

Questions: A. Which slide contained bipolar neurons? B. Which slide contained unipolar neurons? C. What was unique about the dorsal root ganglion compared to the other two slides?

Exercise 3: The Neuroglia and Support Cells

Neurons are specifically designed to transmit electrical impulses. As a result, they themselves are vulnerable and they are supported by several structures collectively known as neuroglia or glial cells. The neuroglia provide a variety of services for neurons including protection, support, and immune function. The neuroglia are found in the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system also has supporting cells which provide the same kinds of services for neurons outside of the brain and spinal cord. In this exercise, you will do some research on these support cells to learn more about their functions.

PROCEDURE:
1. Look over Data Table 1, depicting neuroglia and supporting cell functions. 2. Do some research and fill in the table with the name of the neuroglial cell or supporting cell that matches each function. 3. Fill in the location of each cell type.

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Data Table 1: The Neuroglia and Supporting Cells Cell Function

Support and brace neurons to nutrient blood capillaries Provide protection and sense neuron injuries. Can be phagocytic. Ciliated cells found in the cavities of the brain. Help to circulate cerebrospinal fluid. Makes the myelin sheath in the central nervous system. Surround neuron cell bodies with ganglia. Function is mostly unknown. Produces the myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system

Location (CNS/PNS)

Exercise 4: Structure of a Nerve PROCEDURE:

1. Observe the diagram of the nerve below. 2. Using your textbook as reference, identify the function of each of the labeled structures. 3. Go to the Lab Report and fill in the functions for the labeled structures.

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Questions: A. Describe the functions of the following parts of a nerve: Endoneurium: Perineurium: B. What is a nerve? C. Why are the connective tissue wrappings an important part of nerve structure? D. Differentiate the central nervous system from the peripheral nervous system. Epineurium: Fascicle:

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Gross Anatomy of the Central Nervous System

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.02 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To identify and state the functions of the major structures of the brain using diagrams, models and dissection, To identify and state the functions of the 12 cranial nerves, To be able to locate the major functional areas of the brain, To compare the human brain with that of a sheep, and To describe the structure of the spinal cord and list the functions of major spinal nerves. Label or Box/Bag: Qty
1 1 1 1 1 1

Materials From:
Student Provides

Item Description:
Internet access A&P textbook Kitchen knife Small zip baggie Old shirt to wear during dissection Dissection-kit with 7-tools - including the following: Bent Probe, Dropping Pipet, Probe, Ruler in pocket, Scalpel with 2 Blades - Note blades are in the pocket, Scissors, Tweezers Mask with Earloops (4) in Bag 4" x 7" Assembly Dissection Specimen - Sheep-brain Dissection Tray #2 Small, opaque - Note several supplies are loaded in this tray - see below Gloves packages - 4 pairs

Aux-Supplies BagAP

Aux-Supplies Bag-AP

Dissection Tray

Dissection Tray

1 1 1 1

Introduction: The central nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord and spinal nerves. This division is constantly receiving information from the peripheral nervous system about the internal and external environment. The brain is our most complex structure. It coordinates our thought, movement, emotion and physiology to every other system in the body. The spinal cord is the communication line for the brain. The transmission of messages between our body and our brain rely on the intact spinal cord to communicate the needs of the body to the brain and vice versa.
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In this exercise you will have the opportunity to explore the structure and function of the brain and spinal cord. This vital organ is amazingly complex and no single structure works alone. The brain is truly our center and it relies on communication between its own parts to work correctly.

Exercise 1: Structures of the Brain

The major structural features of the brain are the undulating grooves and ridges that give it its surface texture. The shallow grooves are called sulci (sulcus is singular) and the deeper grooves are called fissures. The ridges are called gyri (gyrus is singular). These grooves and ridges also serve to divide up the brain into its different areas. The brain is divided into four main areas; the cerebral hemispheres, the diencephalon, the brain stem and the cerebellum. Look over the diagram below and then go to the procedures to explore the major structures of the brain.

PROCEDURE:
1. Get out your textbook for the course. 2. Study a labeled diagram of the brain from the book. Go to the Hands on Labs Website. Either click on this link or copy and paste it into your browser: https://labpaq.com/ap1 3. Click on the labeled human brain images in The Central Nervous System. 4. Identify the lobes and areas shown.
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5. Using your textbook identify the following structures and label the diagrams in the Lab Report. Lateral View of the Brain Frontal Lobe Parietal Lobe Temporal Lobe Occipital Lobe Cerebellum Pons Medulla Oblongata Mid Sagittal View of the Brain Corpus Callosum Mammilary Body Midbrain Pons Medulla Oblongata Spinal Cord Cerebellum Ventral View of the Brain Frontal Lobe Temporal Lobe Occipital Lobe Cerebellum Medulla Oblongata Optic Chiasma Longitudinal Fissure Pituitary Gland Thalamus Hypothalamus 3rd Ventricle 4th Ventricle Spinal Canal Cerebral Aqueduct Spinal Cord A Sulcus A Fissure Central Sulcus Lateral Fissure

Brain Association and Cortical Function Areas Primary Auditory Auditory Interpretation Brocas Region Premotor Cortex General Interpretation

Primary Somatic Somatic Interpretation Primary Motor Primary Visual Visual Interpretation

Exercise 2: Dissection of the Sheep Brain

Mammalian brains have remarkably similar structure between species. Each species will have evolutionary differences that show up in structures such as the brain. In this exercise we will explore the structure of the sheep brain and compare it to the human brain. As you are doing this dissection, you should keep in mind the differences
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between humans and sheep: what we eat, where we live, are we predators or prey, etc. These clues will help explain some of the structural differences you will see in this activity. This is a lengthy activity. Some students will not be able to complete this dissection in one session. It is important that you protect the brain from drying out and that you store it in a safe area away from children and pets. Storing your sheep brain between sessions: Wrap the brain in moist paper towels. Place the wrapped brain in the zip bag and seal it. Place the brain in the dissection tray and secure the lid.

PROCEDURE:
1. Before you begin this exercise, check with your instructor or your course syllabus to see which parts of this dissection you need to complete. 2. Take out the dissection tray, dissection kit, disposable gloves, goggles, surgical face mask and preserved sheep brain from the LabPaq. 3. Take out your A&P textbook and open to diagrams or photographs of the brain. Use these diagrams to help you compare the size and location of human structures to that of sheep structures in your specimen. 4. Log onto the Hands-On Labs website and go to The Central Nervous System. Click on the link for the Labeled Sheep Brain Photos. Here you will find photographs of a dissected sheep brain which will help you with the identification of structures in your specimen. It is recommended that you review these structures before you begin the dissection. 5. Put on the gloves, goggles and mask. 6. Remove the sheep brain from its packaging and place it ventral side down on the dissection tray. 7. Observe the dura mater. Feel the consistency and make note of its toughness. Using your scalpel, cut through the dura mater along the longitudinal fissure which separates the cerebral hemispheres. Gently force the hemispheres apart to expose the corpus collosum which is deep to the longitudinal fissure. 8. Carefully remove the dura mater from the cerebrum. Take your time with this and try not to go deep to prevent damaging the delicate cerebral cortex. Expose the entire cerebrum.
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9. Observe the convolutions on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. Identify the arachnoid mater which appears as a delicate almost cotton-like membrane that spans across the fissures along the surface of the brain. The innermost membrane layer is called the pia mater and if you observe very closely this membrane will follow the contours of the fissures along the surface of the brain. 10. Turn your brain so that the ventral side is now facing upward. Note the oval shaped olfactory bulbs on the anterior most portion of the frontal lobes. Compare the size of the olfactory bulbs on your sheep brain with that of a human brain. Use a diagram from your A&P textbook to help you with this. 11. Posterior to the olfactory bulbs you will notice the X shaped optic chiasma formed by the crossing over of the right and left optic nerve. Identify the optic nerves, optic chiasma and optic tracts. 12. Posterior to the optic chiasma you will see two structures protruding from the hypothalamus, the infundibulum and mammillary body. 13. Moving posteriorly, you will see the cerebral peduncles immediately below the mammillary body on a region called the midbrain. The cerebral peduncles provide fiber tracts that connect the cerebrum and the medulla. You may or may not be able to see the large oculomotor nerve and tiny trochlear nerve endings coming off of the midbrain in the region (dont worry if you cant see the nerves. Identify their location using your textbook). 14. Moving posteriorly from the midbrain identify the pons (first) and then the medulla oblongata which are a part of the hindbrain. 15. The identification of cranial nerves can be a difficult exercise to complete. Specimens vary greatly but you should be able to find at least a couple of cranial nerves. Click on the link for Sheep Cranial Nerves in The Central Nervous System link on the website. Try to identify as many of the cranial nerves as you can on your specimen using the diagram on the website as your guide. Please Note: It is very rare that a single sheep brain will have all or even most of these cranial nerves intact after dissection. Do the best you can and dont worry about how many you see or dont see on your specimen. 16. Moving posteriorly, identify the cerebellum on your specimen. Using your A&P text as a guide, notice that the sheep cerebellum is not divided longitudinally like the human cerebellum. In terms of relative size, is the human or sheep cerebellum larger compared to the rest of each respective brain? Why do you suppose this is? (Think about the functions of the cerebellum and how sheep and humans perform those functions differently).

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17. Place your brain ventral side down on the dissecting tray. Using your scalpel, cut through the brain tissue following the longitudinal fissure from anterior to posterior. Cut through the corpus collosum, midbrain, cerebellum and brain stem straight back until you have separated right and left hemispheres of the brain. 18. Take one of the hemispheres and turn it so that the internal brain structures are facing upward. Using the photographs from the website, identify the thalamus, corpus collosum, fornix, third ventricle, fourth ventricle, cerebellum, cerebral aqueduct and brain stem. What is the function of each of these structures? 19. Review all of the structures of the sheep brain. Go to the lab report and answer the questions for this section (It is recommended that you do this before you clean up so you have your specimen for reference) 20. After you are finished, wrap your brain hemispheres in paper towel and place them in a zip bag. You may dispose of your brain in the trash. Wash all of your equipment thoroughly with soap and water and dry your instruments before storing them away. Questions: A. Which of the four major areas of the brain (cerebrum, diencephalon, cerebellum and brain step) was obviously much larger in the human brain diagram then in the sheep brain? Why do you suppose these structures differ so dramatically? B. What is the significance of the size difference in the olfactory bulbs between humans and sheep? C. The human cerebellum is split in half while the sheep cerebellum is one mass. Why do you suppose this structural difference exists? D. What is the significance in the size difference between the sheep and human brain stems? E. In your own words, explain how (if) this exercise helped you better understand brain anatomy.

Exercise 3: The Cranial Nerves

The brain has twelve pairs of cranial nerves that it uses to remain in direct contact with the areas of the body that provide it with vital information. Most cranial nerves are centered in the head and neck. A notable exception is the Vagus nerve which has branches that extend to the abdomen. Cranial nerves are numbered with Roman numerals and their names often give clues about the areas they serve and their function(s).

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PROCEDURE:
1. Observe the diagram at right. 2. Using your textbook as a reference to identify the function of each cranial nerve. 3. Go to the Lab Report and fill in Data Table 1.

Data Table 1: Cranial Nerves Cranial Nerve I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. Questions:

Function

Is it Sensory/Motor/Both?

A. Which cranial nerves would be involved in the following activities? Smelling a flower: Tasting freshly baked cookies: Shrugging your shoulders: Slowing your heart rate:

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Exercise 4: The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

The relaying of information from the brain and the body relies on the largest nerve in your body, the spinal cord. The spinal cord and its associated nerves allow us to communicate movements, processes and actions between the brain and the body and vice versa. Being a nerve, the spinal cord is inherently fragile. Our body protects it by encasing it in bone in the hopes that it will not become injured. In this activity you will explore the structure of the spinal cord and use diagrams to help learn more about its features.

PROCEDURE:
1. Observe the diagram below. 2. Go to the Lab Report and label the structures indicated on the diagram.

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Reflex and Sensory Physiology

by Laszlo Vass, Ph.D. Version 09-1.02 Review the safety materials and wear goggles when working with chemicals. Read the entire exercise before you begin. Take time to organize the materials you will need and set aside a safe work space in which to complete the exercise.

Objectives: To be able to define a reflex and reflex arc, To describe, perform and discuss several somatic and autonomic reflex exercises in the lab, To describe the relationship between taste and smell, To describe what a blind spot is and why we have afterimages, To be able to discuss the structure of the eye, and To describe the relationship between hearing and balance. Materials From:
Student Provides

Label Box/Bag:

or

Qty
1 1 1 1 1 4 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Item Description:
Meter stick 3x5-inch note card Cotton balls Salt Lemon juice Paper cups Cotton swabs Sugar Coffee Sharp pencil A ticking clock, watch or kitchen timer Handkerchief or towel to use as a blind fold Tongue depressor (craft stick/ice cream stick will work). A partner: you cannot perform these activities alone! Dissection-kit with 7-tools - including the following: Bent Probe, Dropping Pipette, Probe, Ruler in pocket, Scalpel with 2 Blades - Note blades are in the pocket, Scissors, Tweezers Mask with Ear loops (4) in Bag 4" x 7" Assembly Pipette, Empty Short Stem - Taste Tests (4) Dissection Specimen - Cow-eye Dissection Tray #2 Small, opaque - Note several supplies are loaded in this tray Gloves packages - 4 pairs Pencil, marking Reflex hammer Tuning-fork-1000-Hz Flashlight

Aux-Supplies BagAP

Aux-Supplies Bag-AP

Dissection Tray

Dissection Tray

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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Introduction: Reflex and sensory physiology is one of the most interesting things you can test in a lab. We all use our reflexes and senses everyday and rarely realize how much they contribute to our ability to function normally. The bodys innate ability to protect itself through reflexive actions is fascinating. Testing reflexes is fun and exhibits this protective function very well. A reflex is a rapid, involuntary motor response to stimuli. Reflexes can also be predictable. For example, if someone quickly flashes their hand in front of your face, you are likely to flinch to protect your eyes from being hit. All reflexes involve neural pathways called reflex arcs. A reflex arc is the communication pattern that all reflexes follow to initiate an action in the body. Reflex arcs involve a stimulus, an afferent (sensory) neuron to take the information to an integration center in the spinal cord, which responds with a message down an efferent (motor) neuron to the muscles which respond with an action (they are called the effectors). Reflexes can be categorized in two major ways. First, Autonomic reflexes are regulated by the autonomic nervous system and involve reflexes that we do not have control over. These reflexes control things like digestion, blood pressure, salivation, and sweating. Second, we have Somatic reflexes which are controlled by the somatic nervous system and involve the stimulation of skeletal muscles. An example of a somatic reflex would be you accidentally touching a hot stove and rapidly withdrawing your hand. Our senses tell us whats going on around us. They give our brain constant information about our world and help us make decisions about how our bodies should be reacting. You will test the stimuli and physiology for four of your five senses (taste, smell, sight and hearing). In this exercise you will have the chance to explore your reflexes and senses and see some of the ways in which they function.

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Exercise 1: Stretch Reflexes The testing of reflexes is a very important diagnostic tool that physicians use to determine the condition of the nervous system. One of the most important somatic reflexes to test is the stretch reflex. Stretch reflexes help maintain our posture, balance and locomotion. These reflexes involve the stimulation of a tendon to initiate a muscle stretch. In this activity you will test two stretch reflexes. The patellar (knee jerk) reflex and the Achilles (ankle jerk) reflex.

PROCEDURE:
1. You will need a partner or family member to do this exercise with. One person is the subject being tested, the other is the tester. You can choose to be either the subject or the tester. Its up to you. 2. Take out the reflex hammer from the A&P LabPaq. 3. Sit on the edge of a table. Your legs should be dangling freely and not touching the floor. 4. The patellar ligament is located about one finger width below the patella (knee cap). Tap the patellar ligament with the flat (not pointy) end of the reflex hammer to initiate the reflex. You may have to practice several times to get this to work. Be sure to test both knees. A couple of things to keep in mind: The persons legs should be relaxed and dangling freely. Dont tighten up the leg muscles. Make sure to tap the ligament BELOW the patella, not the patella itself (ouch!). 5. Answer Questions A and B for this exercise. 6. Test the effect of a mental distraction on this reflex. Have the subject add up a column of three-digit numbers (ex. 123 + 245+ 367 + 491) while you test the reflex again. 7. Answer Questions C and D. 8. Test the effect of exercise on the reflex by having the subject run in place or up and down some stairs until he or she becomes really fatigued (REALLY FATIGUED, NO SLACKERS ALLOWED!). 9. Have the subject sit on the edge of the table immediately after exercising and test the reflex again. 10. Answer Questions E and F.

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11. Have the subject remove his shoes and socks. Test the Achilles reflex by holding his foot in your hand. Have the subject dorsiflex his foot slightly, then sharply tap the calcaneal (Achilles) tendon (above the heel) with the flat edge of the reflex hammer. You may have to practice this several times to get a result. 12. Answer Questions G and H. Questions: A. Which muscles contracted with the patellar reflex? B. Which nerves carried the stimulus to the spinal cord? C. Is the patellar reflex response greater than or less than the first response? D. What can you conclude about the effect of mental distraction on reflex activity? E. Is the patellar reflex more or less vigorous after exercise? F. Do you think muscle function or nervous system activity caused the changes you observed after exercise? Explain your reasoning. G. Describe the result of the Achilles tendon test. H. Does the gastrocnemius muscle normally do what you observed with this test? (Think about the function of this muscle).

Exercise 2: The Crossed Extensor Reflex

PROCEDURE:
1. Find a sharp pencil. 2. Place a blindfold over the subjects eyes. 3. Have the subject sit at a table with his or her arms out in front and palms up. 4. Suddenly prick the subjects index finger with the pencil. Observe what happens. Questions: A. What happened when you pricked the subjects finger?

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B. Did this reflex seem to be slower than the other reflexes youve observed? Why or why not?

Exercise 3: Cranial Nerve Reflexes Certain reflexes in your body are regulated by the twelve cranial nerves (see your textbook for a list of the nerves and their functions). In this exercise you will test the corneal reflex (controlled by cranial nerve V) and the gag reflex (controlled by cranial nerves IX and X).

PROCEDURE:
1. Get a cotton swab. 2. Stand to one side of the subject and have him look away from you at an opposite wall. 3. Wait a few seconds and then quickly but gently touch the cornea of the subjects eye with the swab. 4. Answer Questions A and B. 5. Get a tongue depressor. 6. Have the subject open his mouth wide. 7. Use the tongue depressor to stroke the oral mucosa on either side of the uvula in the back of the throat. 8. Answer Question C. Questions: A. Describe what happened when you touched the subjects cornea? B. What is the function of the corneal reflex? C. Why do we have a gag reflex? Exercise 4: Cow Eye Dissection Before we perform some reflex exercises on your eye, we will explore the structure of the eye ball by dissecting a preserved cow eye. All mammalian eyes have roughly the same structure, and cow eyes, while larger than human eyes, make a good specimen

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for study because of the easily visible structures. If for any reason you need to interrupt this exercise, wrap the cow eye in some wet paper towels and place it on the dissecting tray. Cover the tray with its lid and secure tightly. The specimen can remain this way for as long as a few days.

PROCEDURE:
1. Get out your dissection tray, dissection kit, preserved cow eye, a pair of disposable gloves, goggles and a face mask from the LabPaq. 2. Go to the Hands on Labs Website. Either click on this link or copy and paste it into your browser: https://labpaq.com/ap1 3. Go to Reflex and Sensory Physiology. Click on the Dissected Cow Eye link to see photographs of a dissected cow eye with labels of structures. Use these photographs to help you identify structures on your own cow eye. It is recommended that you identify the structures before beginning the dissection. 4. Put on the disposable gloves, goggles and mask. 5. Open the preserved cow eye, place it on the dissection tray and discard the packaging. 6. Examine the external surface of the eye. Note the thick layer of adipose tissue (fat) that surrounds the eye. Identify the cut end of the large optic nerve (cranial nerve II) on the posterior aspect of the eye as it leaves the eyeball. Notice the remnants of extrinsic eye muscles (usually brown in appearance), the conjunctiva, the sclera and the gray-cloudy cornea which is transparent in a living eye but becomes clouded when preserved. 7. Using your scalpel and forceps, trim away most of the fat and connective tissue. Be sure to leave the optic nerve intact. 8. Turn the eye so that the cornea is facing downward. Hold the eye firmly in place with one hand. Use the scalpel in your other hand to carefully make an incision into the sclera about 6 mm or inch above the edge of the cornea on the side of the eyeball. (NOTE: The sclera is very tough tissue. You will have to apply pressure to get the scalpel to penetrate the surface). 9. Once you have made the incision into the sclera, turn the eyeball on its side and use your scissors to cut around the edge of the cornea all the way around the circumference of the eye making sure you stay parallel to the edge of the cornea.

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10. Lay the eye on the tray with the cornea facing upward. Using your forceps, carefully remove the cut anterior portion of the eye way from the posterior portion. 11. Examine the anterior part of the eye and identify the following structures: Ciliary Body: Black pigmented body that looks like a halo circling the lens. It also has the appearance of gills found on the inferior portion of a mushroom. Lens: The hard, biconvex structure found within the ciliary body. It appears clouded or opaque in preserved specimens but is clear in the living eye. Suspensory ligament: A ring of delicate fibers that attaches the lens to the ciliary body. Remove this ligament and the lens to identify the next few structures. Iris: Anterior portion of the ciliary body. It forms the colored portion of our eyes. In cows it is usually a dark brown or black pigment. The center hole in the iris is the pupil. Cornea: The clear, anterior portion of the sclera. It is clear in the living eye but clouded in the preserved specimen. 12. Examine the posterior portion of the eyeball. Remove the jelly-like vitreous humor and identify the following structures: Retina: This is the thin membrane covering the posterior surface of the eyeball. It appears yellowish-white and maybe pulled away from portions of the posterior wall. The retina contains the photoreceptors that process light coming into the eye. Choroid coat: This is a thin membrane along with the retina but appears iridescent like a pearl or oyster shell. This specialized surface reflects light coming into the eye and is found in animals that live in low light conditions such as cows and sheep. The iridescent layer is not found in humans. 13. Review all of the structures of the cow eye. Use the images on the website to help you identify specific structures. Answer the questions in the Lab Report. 14. When you are finished, wrap the cow eye structures in paper towel and place them into a small sandwich bag. Dispose of the bag in the trash 15. Wash your dissection tray and dissection instruments with soap and water and be sure to dry them thoroughly with paper towel. Questions: A. What is the function of the retina? B. What is the function of the choroid layer?

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C. What is the difference between rods and cones? D. What is the function of the external ocular muscles?

Exercise 5: Autonomic Reflexes Autonomic reflexes are regulated by the autonomic division of the nervous system. They include the pupillary (light), and ciliospinal reflexes among others. In this exercise you will be testing the effects of these reflexes.

PROCEDURE:
1. Your pupillary reflex involves the retina of your eye (receptor), the optic nerve (cranial nerve II as the sensory afferent neuron), the oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III as the motor efferent neuron), and the smooth muscle of the iris as the effector. 2. You will need a dark room or a room with relatively dim light to do this exercise. 3. Take out the pen light from the LabPaq. 4. Get out the metric ruler. 5. Use the metric ruler to measure the diameter of the subjects pupils in each eye as close as you can. 6. Record the diameter of each pupil in the Lab Report. 7. Stand to the left of the subject and have the subject shield his right eye with his right hand. 8. Shine the pen light into the subjects left eye and carefully observe what happens. Measure the diameter of the pupil with the light shining in it 9. Record your observations in the Lab Report. 10. Observe the right pupil as you shine light into the left eye. Do you see the same reaction in the right pupil as you did in the left pupil? Record your observations in the Lab Report. 11. To initiate the ciliospinal reflex, move to a brightly lit room (or light the room you did your pupillary reflex test in). 12. Face the subject eye-to-eye and gently stroke the skin or the hair on the left side of his or her neck next to their hairline. Watch what happens to the pupils.

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13. If you see no reaction, repeat the test with a gentle pinch in the same area. 14. Record your observations in the Lab Report. Questions: A. What is the function of the pupillary reflex? B. Is the sympathetic or parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system at work during these tests? Explain your reasoning

Exercise 6: Blind Spots and Afterimages In this exercise, you will test two interesting phenomena associated with sight. First we will look for the blind spot which is the area of the retina that lacks photoreceptors. When light hits this area at the right angle an image will disappear from sight. The second phenomenon is the afterimage. Your photoreceptors use chemicals called photo pigments to stimulate membranes and transmit signals to the brain (refer to your textbook for an explanation of this process). The recycling of these chemicals takes time between images and often results in a negative afterimage being seen when your eyes are closed.

PROCEDURE:
1. Get the 3x5-inch note card. 2. Using a metric ruler, measure out an 8x5-cm rectangle on the card and cut it out with scissors. 3. Using the ruler, measure in about 1/2 cm from the center left edge of the cut-out card. Mark this spot with an X using the marker pencil. 4. Using the ruler, measure in about 1/2 cm from the center right edge of the cut-out card. Mark this spot with a dot using the marker pencil. Your card should look like this when its done: 5. Hold the card out about 18 inches from your eyes. Make sure the X is on the left and the dot is on the right. 6. Close your left eye and focus on the X with your right eye. 7. Move the card slowly toward your face and keep your right eye focused on the X.

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8. As you slowly move the card toward you the black dot will disappear. 9. Stop moving the card when the dot disappears. 10. Have your partner measure the distance from your eyes to the card. Record this distance in the Lab Report. 11. Move the card closer and the dot will reappear as you move out of the blind spot. 12. Repeat the exercise for the left eye. This time keep your right eye closed and focus your left eye on the dot. 13. Move the card closer towards you until the X disappears. Have your partner measure the distance from your eyes to card and record the distance in the Lab Report. 14. Stare out of a bright window or at a bright lamp for one minute. 15. Close your eyes for one minute and pay attention to what you see while your eyes are closed. 16. Record the sequence of what you saw with your eyes closed in the Lab Report. These are called afterimages. Questions: A. Why do we have a blind spot? B. What causes an afterimage?

Exercise 7: Taste and Smell Taste and smell are two of our senses that are very much integrated with each other. As a matter of fact, these two senses share afferent pathways to the brain and therefore are influenced by the same stimuli. Both taste buds and olfactory bulbs are in a group of receptors known as chemoreceptors (they respond to chemical stimuli). In the case of smell, its the aromatic gases released by substances that trigger a response. In the case of taste, it is the mixing of flavor chemicals with saliva in the mouth that triggers a response. Interestingly, smell is one of our strongest senses in terms of establishing long term memories. Most people associate special times, places and people in their lives with a particular scent. Baking bread, the perfume your mom wore, the smell of a house you grew up in or a car you once had all evoke memories many years after the memories were established.

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In this exercise you will test the association between taste and smell.

PROCEDURE:
1. You will need a partner or family member to do this exercise. 2. Take out four small cups or glasses and a spoon. Label the cups: salty, sweet, sour and bitter. 3. In the salty cup, make a salt solution by adding 1 teaspoon of salt to 4 oz (1/2 cup) of water. Stir until the salt is dissolved. Rinse off the spoon with tap water. 4. In the sweet cup, make a sugar solution by adding 1 teaspoon of sugar to 4 oz. (1/2 cup) of water. Stir until the sugar is dissolved. Rinse off the spoon with tap water. 5. In the sour cup, pour in 1/2 cup (4 oz) of lemon juice. 6. In the bitter cup, pour in a 1/2 cup of strong, black coffee. 7. Get 4 cotton swabs. Place one swab in each of the cups of solution. 8. Have the subject rinse his or her mouth out with water and dry the tongue with a paper towel. KEEP THE TONGUE OUT! 9. Take the swab from the salty solution and touch it to the center, back, tip and sides of the tongue. 10. Where can the subject taste the salt? Go to the Lab Report and mark the tongue diagram in the observation with Os to indicate the presence of salt receptors. 11. Have the subject rinse his or her mouth out again and repeat the procedure in step 9 for sweet, sour and bitter solutions. BE SURE TO RINSE THE MOUTH OUT BETWEEN EACH TEST. Repeat step 10. Use a W to indicate sweet receptors, a U to indicate sour receptors and a B to indicate bitter receptors. 12. Get out the four labeled empty pipettes from the LabPaq. 13. Place one pipette into each of the cups of solution. 14. Have the subject rinse out his mouth with water. 15. Have the subject open his mouth and place four drops of salty solution on the center of his tongue.

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16. Have the subject close his mouth and taste and swallow the solution. 17. Have the subject pinch his nose shut and repeat the test with the salty solution. Have him close his mouth and taste and swallow with his nose pinched shut the whole time. Was the taste different with the nose shut? 18. Record your observations in the Lab Report. 19. Repeat Steps 14 to 17 for sweet, sour and bitter solutions. MAKE SURE THE SUBJECT RINSES HIS MOUTH OUT WITH WATER BETWEEN EACH TEST.

Questions: A. Why are taste and smell called chemoreceptors? B. Why is taste and smell so closely associated with each other? C. Propose a reason why you lose your appetite when you have a head cold.

Exercise 8: Hearing Hearing works based on the conduction of sound waves into your inner ear. Sound conducts better through liquids and solids. To take advantage of this property of sound, our inner ears use bones and a series of liquid-filled tubes to conduct sound. Receptors for hearing are in a category known as mechanoreceptors (they respond to vibration and pressure). The sound enters the ear and vibrates the tympanic membrane (ear drum) which then stimulates three small bones (the malleus, incus and stapes) to vibrate and send sound waves into the liquid-filled tubes which end at the hair like receptors. The hair-like receptors then stimulate cranial nerve VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve) to send the stimuli up the afferent pathway to the brain. Observe the diagram below or refer to your textbook for other diagrams of these structures.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take out two cotton balls. 2. Get out the watch or a wall clock or kitchen timer that ticks. 3. Have the subject pack one ear with a cotton ball and sit quietly in a chair.

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4. Hold the watch or timer close to the subjects unpacked ear. 5. Slowly move the watch or timer away from the ear until the subject says that he can no longer hear the ticking. 6. Measure the distance from the ear to where the sound was no longer heard. Record this in the Lab Report. 7. Have the subject sit with his eyes closed. 8. Hold the watch or timer about 20 cm from his ear and move it to various locations (front, back, sides and above his head). 9. Have the subject point to where the sound is coming from in each instance. 10. Can sound be localized equally as well from all points? Record your observations in the Lab Report. 11. Take out the tuning fork from the LabPaq. 12. Strike the tuning fork and place the handle medially on the top center of the subjects head. 13. Is the tone equally loud in both ears or is it louder in one ear? Record your observations in the Lab Report. 14. Strike the tuning fork and place the handle on your subjects mastoid process (behind the ear).

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15. When the subject indicates the sound is no longer audible, hold the prongs of the fork close to the ear canal and ask if he hears the fork again. If so, this is a positive test for air conduction and there is no hearing loss. Record your observations in the Lab Report. 16. Repeat the test, but this time do the air conduction at the ear canal first, and then move to the mastoid process. Record your observations in the Lab Report. 17. Repeat these tests with the other ear. Questions: A. How is sound conducted in the ear? B. Why are the cells responsible for hearing called mechanoreceptors?

Exercise 9: Balance The Maculae in the vestibule of the inner ear contain hair cells which are responsible for static equilibrium (balance without movement) and dynamic equilibrium (balance while moving). The hair cells are embedded in a jelly-like membrane called the otolithic membrane which has small grains of calcium carbonate crystals called otoliths (literally this means ear rocks). When your head moves the otoliths move too in response to the gravitational pull. They move the hair cells which stimulate the vestibular nerve and send impulses to the brain. In reality, balance is a complex process. It involves receptors in the ear, the skin and muscles, your eyes judge distance and movement and its processed in two places in the brain, the cerebellum and brain stem. In this activity, you will get the chance to test out your balance.

PROCEDURE:
1. Have the subject walk a straight line placing one foot directly in front of the other. 2. Answer Questions A and B. 3. Have the subject stand straight, feet together, eyes open and looking forward for one minute. 4. Observe the subject carefully and note any signs of swaying or movement. Record what you see in the Lab Report. 5. Repeat the test with the subjects eyes closed. Record your observations in the Lab Report. 6. Have the subject turn left or right so that you are observing him from the side. Have the subject stand eyes-open for one minute.
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7. Observe the subject carefully and note any front to back swaying or movements. Record your observations in the Lab Report. 8. Repeat the test, this time with the subjects eyes closed. Record your observations in the Lab Report. 9. Have the subject stand straight, eyes open, facing you. 10. Have the subject lift one foot off the floor about 12 inches and hold it there for about one minute. 11. Observe the subject carefully and note any movements he makes. Record your observations in the Lab Report. 12. Have the subject rest for two minutes. 13. Repeat the test, this time with the subjects eyes closed. Record your observations in the Lab Report.

Questions: A. Where is balance processed in the brain? B. What can you conclude about the effect of vision on balance? C. What is the function of the otolithic membrane?

Conclusions: What do sensory and reflex tests tell you about the functions of the nervous system as a whole? Questions: D. Where is balance processed in the brain? E. What can you conclude about the effect of vision on balance? F. What is the function of the otolithic membrane?

Conclusions: What do sensory and reflex tests tell you about the functions of the nervous system as a whole?
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APPENDIX

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Final Cleanup Instructions

Congratulations on completing your science courses lab assignments! We hope you had a great science learning experience and that what youve learned in this course will serve you well in the future. Studying science at a distance and performing laboratory experiments independently are certainly not easy tasks, so you should be very proud of your accomplishments. Since LabPaqs often contain potentially dangerous items, it is important that you perform a final cleanup to properly dispose of any left over chemicals, specimens, and unused materials. Please take a few minutes to protect others from possible harm and yourself from future liability by complying with these final cleanup instructions. While students sometimes wish to sell their used LabPaqs, this is not advisable and would be unfair to a potential purchaser. It is unlikely that a student trying to utilize a used LabPaq would have adequate quantities or sufficiently fresh chemicals and supplies to properly perform all the labs and to have an effective science laboratory learning experience. Further it is doubtful that adequate safety information would be passed on to a second student in the same way it is presented to an original LabPaq purchaser. This is a significant concern, one of the reasons why a second user would not be covered by LabPaqs insurance, and why the original purchaser would be responsible for any problems experienced by a subsequent user. Chemical Disposal Due to the minute quantities, low concentrations, and diluted and/or neutralized chemicals used in LabPaqs, it is generally sufficient to blot up any remaining chemicals with paper toweling for solid waste disposal in a trash bin or to flush them down a drain with copious amounts of water. Empty dispensing pipets and bottles can be placed in normal trash bin. These disposal methods are well within acceptable levels of the waste disposal guidelines defined for the vast majority of state and community solid and wastewater regulations. However, since regulations can vary in some communities, if you have any doubts or concerns, you should check with your area authorities to confirm compliance with local regulations and/or if you desire assistance with disposal.

Specimen and Supply Disposal To prepare any used dissection specimens for normal garbage disposal, they should first be wrapped in news or waste paper and sealed in a plastic bag before being placed in a securely covered trash container that will not allow children and animals to access the contents.

Hands-On Labs, Inc.

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Non chemical supplies can also be discarded with household garbage, but should first be wrapped in news or waste paper. Place such items in a securely covered trash container that will not allow children and animals to access the contents.

Lab Equipment Many students choose to keep the durable science equipment included with their LabPaq as most of these items may have future utility to them or be used for future science exploration within their family. However, care should always be taken to store any dangerous items, especially dissection knives and breakable glass, out of the reach of children If you do not wish to keep these items, the science department of your local high school will probably be delighted to have you donate them. Please do not return these items to LabPaqs as we are unable to resell them or to issue you any refund.

Best wishes for a happy and successful future!

The LabPaq Team

Hands-On Labs, Inc.