Contents

Articles
Friedrich Nietzsche The Birth of Tragedy Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense Untimely Meditations (Nietzsche) Hymnus an das Leben Human, All Too Human The Dawn (book) The Gay Science Thus Spoke Zarathustra Beyond Good and Evil On the Genealogy of Morality The Case of Wagner Twilight of the Idols The Antichrist (book) Ecce Homo (book) Nietzsche contra Wagner The Will to Power (manuscript) Amor fati Apollonian and Dionysian Eternal return Nietzsche and free will God is dead Herd behavior Last man Master-slave morality Nietzschean affirmation Perspectivism Ressentiment Transvaluation of values Tschandala bermensch World riddle Will to power 1 19 25 29 30 33 35 40 41 44 51 55 60 61 63 76 78 79 81 82 85 91 96 100 104 105 107 108 110 113 114 116 120 122

Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche

128

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 135 138

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Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Nietzsche

Full name Born Died Era Region School Main interests Notable ideas Signature

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche October 15, 1844 Rcken bei Ltzen, Prussia August 25, 1900 (aged55) Weimar, Saxony, German Empire 19th century philosophy Western Philosophy Weimar Classicism; precursor to Continental philosophy, existentialism, Individualism, postmodernism, poststructuralism aesthetics, ethics, ontology, philosophy of history, psychology, value-theory, poetry Apollonian and Dionysian, death of God, eternal recurrence, herd-instinct, master-slave morality, bermensch, perspectivism, will to power, ressentiment, der letzte Mensch

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 August 25, 1900) (German pronunciation:[fid vlhlm nits]; in English UK:/nit/, US:/niti/[1] ) was a 19th-century German philosopher and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism. Nietzsche's influence remains substantial within and beyond philosophy, notably in existentialism and postmodernism. His style and radical questioning of the value and objectivity of truth have resulted in much commentary and interpretation, mostly in the continental tradition. His key ideas include the death of God, perspectivism, the bermensch, the eternal recurrence, and the will to power. Nietzsche began his career as a classical philologist before turning to philosophy. At the age of 24 he was appointed to the Chair of Classical Philology at the University of Basel (the youngest individual to have held this position), but resigned in 1879 due to health problems that plagued him most of his life. In 1889 he went insane, living out his remaining years in the care of his mother and sister until his death in 1900.

Friedrich Nietzsche

Life
Youth (18441869) Born on October 15, 1844, Nietzsche grew up in the small town of Rcken, near Leipzig, in the Prussian Province of Saxony. He was named after King Frederick William IV of Prussia, who turned 49 on the day of Nietzsche's birth. (Nietzsche later dropped his given middle name, "Wilhelm".)[2] Nietzsche's parents, Carl Ludwig Nietzsche (18131849), a Lutheran pastor and former teacher, and Franziska Oehler (18261897), married in 1843, the year before their son's birth, and had two other children: a daughter, Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche, born in 1846, and a second son, Ludwig Joseph, born in 1848. Nietzsche's father died from a brain ailment in 1849; his younger brother died in 1850. The family then moved to Naumburg, where they lived with Nietzsche's paternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters. After the death of Nietzsche's grandmother in 1856, the family moved into their own house. Nietzsche attended a boys' school and then later a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug and Wilhelm Pinder, both of whom came from very respected families. In 1854, he began to attend Pforta in Naumburg, but after he showed particular talents in music and language, the internationally recognised Schulpforta admitted him as a pupil, and there he continued his studies from 1858 to 1864. Here he became friends with Paul Deussen and Carl von Gersdorff. He also found time to work on poems and musical compositions. At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important introduction to literature, particularly that of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and for the first time experienced a distance from his family life in a small-town Christian environment.

Nietzsche, 1861

Friedrich Nietzsche

After graduation in 1864 Nietzsche commenced studies in theology and classical philology at the University of Bonn. For a short time he and Deussen became members of the Burschenschaft Frankonia. After one semester (and to the anger of his mother) he stopped his theological studies and lost his faith.[3] This may have happened in part because of his reading around this time of David Strauss's Life of Jesus, which had a profound effect on the young Nietzsche,[3] though in an essay entitled Fate and History written in 1862, Nietzsche had already argued that historical research had discredited the central teachings of Christianity.[4] Nietzsche then concentrated on studying philology under Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl, whom he followed to the University of Leipzig the next year. There he became close friends with fellow-student Erwin Rohde. Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after.
Nietzsche, 1864 In 1865 Nietzsche thoroughly studied the works of Arthur Schopenhauer. He owed the awakening of his philosophical interest to reading his Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung and later admitted that he was one of the few thinkers that he respected, dedicating to him his essay Schopenhauer als Erzieher (Schopenhauer as Educator), one of his Untimely Meditations.

In 1866 he read Friedrich Albert Lange's History of Materialism. Schopenhauer and Lange influenced him. Schopenhauer was especially significant in the development of Nietzsche's later thought. Lange's descriptions of Kant's anti-materialistic philosophy, the rise of European Materialism, Europe's increased concern with science, Darwin's theory, and the general rebellion against tradition and authority greatly intrigued Nietzsche. The cultural environment encouraged him to expand his horizons beyond philology and to continue his study of philosophy. In 1867 Nietzsche signed up for one year of voluntary service with the Prussian artillery division in Naumburg. However, a riding accident in March 1868 left him unfit for service.[5] Consequently Nietzsche turned his attention to his studies again, completing them and first meeting with Richard Wagner later that year.[6]

Friedrich Nietzsche Professor at Basel (18691879) In part because of Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received a remarkable offer to become professor of classical philology at the University of Basel. He was only 24 years old and had neither completed his doctorate nor received his teaching certificate. Despite the fact that the offer came at a time when he was considering giving up philology for science, he accepted.[7] To this day, Nietzsche is still among the youngest of the tenured Classics professors on record.[8] Before moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship: for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless.[9] Nevertheless, Nietzsche served in the Prussian forces during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 to 1871 as a medical orderly. In his short time in the military he experienced much, and witnessed the traumatic effects of battle. He also contracted diphtheria and dysentery. Walter Kaufmann speculates that he might also have contracted syphilis along with his other infections at this time, and some biographers speculate that syphilis caused his eventual madness, though there is some disagreement on this matter.[10] [11] On returning to Basel in 1870 Nietzsche observed the establishment of the German Empire and the following era of Otto von Bismarck as an outsider and with a degree of Mid-October 1871. From left: Erwin Rohde, Carl skepticism regarding its genuineness. At the University, he delivered von Gersdorff, Nietzsche his inaugural lecture, "Homer and Classical Philology". Nietzsche also met Franz Overbeck, a professor of theology, who remained his friend throughout his life. Afrikan Spir,[12] a little-known Russian philosopher and author of Denken und Wirklichkeit (1873), and his colleague the historian Jacob Burckhardt, whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended, began to exercise significant influence on Nietzsche during this time. Nietzsche had already met Richard Wagner in Leipzig in 1868, and (some time later) Wagner's wife Cosima. Nietzsche admired both greatly, and during his time at Basel frequently visited Wagner's house in Tribschen in the Canton of Lucerne. The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their most intimate circle, and enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the Bayreuth Festival Theatre. In 1870 he gave Cosima Wagner the manuscript of 'The Genesis of the Tragic Idea' as a birthday gift. In 1872 Nietzsche published his first book, The Birth of Tragedy. However, his colleagues in the field of classical philology, including Ritschl, expressed little enthusiasm for the work, in which Nietzsche eschewed the classical philologic method in favor of a more speculative approach. In a polemic, Philology of the Future, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff dampened the book's reception and increased its notoriety. In response, Rohde (by now a professor in Kiel) and Wagner came to Nietzsche's defense. Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation he felt within the philological community and attempted to attain a position in philosophy at Basel, though unsuccessfully.

Friedrich Nietzsche

Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche published separately four long essays: David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer, On the Use and Abuse of History for Life, Schopenhauer as Educator, and Richard Wagner in Bayreuth. (These four later appeared in a collected edition under the title, Untimely Meditations.) The four essays shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging the developing German culture along lines suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner. In 1873, Nietzsche also began to accumulate notes that would be posthumously published as Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. During this time, in the circle of the Wagners, Nietzsche met Malwida von Meysenbug and Hans von Blow, and also began a friendship with Paul Re, who in 1876 influenced him in dismissing the pessimism in his early writings. However, he was deeply disappointed by the Nietzsche in Basel, ca. 1875 Bayreuth Festival of 1876, where the banality of the shows and the baseness of the public repelled him. He was also alienated by Wagner's championing of 'German culture', which Nietzsche thought a contradiction in terms, as well as by Wagner's celebration of his fame among the German public. All this contributed to Nietzsche's subsequent decision to distance himself from Wagner. With the publication of Human, All Too Human in 1878 (a book of aphorisms on subjects ranging from metaphysics to morality and from religion to the sexes) Nietzsche's reaction against the pessimistic philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer became evident, as well as the influence of Afrikan Spir's Denken und Wirklichkeit.[13] Nietzsche's friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled as well. In 1879, after a significant decline in health, Nietzsche had to resign his position at Basel. (Since his childhood, various disruptive illnesses had plagued him, including moments of shortsightedness that left him nearly blind, migraine headaches, and violent indigestion. The 1868 riding accident and diseases in 1870 may have aggravated these persistent conditions, which continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work became impractical.) Independent philosopher (18791888) Because his illness drove him to find climates more conducive to his health, Nietzsche traveled frequently, and lived until 1889 as an independent author in different cities. He spent many summers in Sils Maria, near St. Moritz in Switzerland, and many winters in the Italian cities of Genoa, Rapallo and Turin and in the French city of Nice. In 1881, when France occupied Tunisia, he planned to travel to Tunis to view Europe from the outside, but later abandoned that idea (probably for health reasons).[14] While in Genoa, Nietzsche's failing eyesight prompted him to explore the use of typewriters as a means of continuing to write. He is known to have tried using the Hansen Writing Ball, a contemporary typewriter device. Nietzsche occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and, especially during this time, he and his sister had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation. He lived on his pension from Basel, but also received aid from friends. A past student of his, Peter Gast (born Heinrich Kselitz), became a sort of private secretary to Nietzsche. To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck remained consistently faithful friends. Malwida von Meysenbug remained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner circle. Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music-critic Carl Fuchs. Nietzsche stood at the beginning of his most productive period. Beginning with Human, All Too Human in 1878, Nietzsche would publish one book (or major section of a book) each year until 1888, his last year of writing, during which he completed five.

Friedrich Nietzsche

6 In 1882 Nietzsche published the first part of The Gay Science. That year he also met Lou Andreas Salom, through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Re. Nietzsche and Salom spent the summer together in Tautenburg in Thuringia, often with Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth as a chaperone. Nietzsche, however, regarded Salom less as an equal partner than as a gifted student. Salom reports that he asked her to marry him and that she refused, though the reliability of her reports of events has come into question.[15] Nietzsche's relationship with Re and Salom broke up in the winter of 1882/1883, partially because of intrigues conducted by Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth. Amidst renewed bouts of illness, living in near isolation after a falling-out with his mother and sister regarding Salom, Nietzsche fled to Rapallo. Here he wrote the first part of Thus Spoke Zarathustra in only ten days.

After severing his philosophical ties with Schopenhauer and his social ties with Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends. Now, with the new style of Zarathustra, his work became even more alienating and the market received it only to the degree required by politeness. Lou Salom, Paul Re and Nietzsche, 1882 Nietzsche recognized this and maintained his solitude, though he often complained about it. His books remained largely unsold. In 1885 he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of Zarathustra, and distributed only a fraction of these among close friends, including Helene von Druskowitz. In 1883 he tried and failed to obtain a lecturing post at the University of Leipzig. It was made clear to him that, in view of the attitude towards Christianity and the concept of God expressed in Zarathustra, he had become in effect unemployable at any German University. The subsequent "feelings of revenge and resentment" embittered him. "And hence my rage since I have grasped in the broadest possible sense what wretched means (the depreciation of my good name, my character and my aims) suffice to take from me the trust of, and therewith the possibility of obtaining, pupils."[16] In 1886 Nietzsche broke with his editor, Ernst Schmeitzner, disgusted by his anti-Semitic opinions. Nietzsche saw his own writings as "completely buried and unexhumeable in this anti-Semitic dump" of Schmeitznerassociating the editor with a movement that should be "utterly rejected with cold contempt by every sensible mind".[17] He then printed Beyond Good and Evil at his own expense, and issued in 18861887 second editions of his earlier works (The Birth of Tragedy, Human, All Too Human, Dawn, and The Gay Science), accompanied by new prefaces in which he reconsidered his earlier works. Thereafter, he saw his work as completed for a time and hoped that soon a readership would develop. In fact, interest in Nietzsche's thought did increase at this time, if rather slowly and in a way hardly perceived by him. During these years Nietzsche met Meta von Salis, Carl Spitteler, and also Gottfried Keller. In 1886 his sister Elisabeth married the anti-Semite Bernhard Frster and traveled to Paraguay to found Nueva Germania, a "Germanic" colonya plan to which Nietzsche responded with mocking laughter.[18] Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued on the path of conflict and reconciliation, but they would meet again only after his collapse. He continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. In 1887 Nietzsche wrote the polemic On the Genealogy of Morals. During the same year Nietzsche encountered the work of Fyodor Dostoevsky, with whom he felt an immediate kinship.[19] He also exchanged letters with Hippolyte Taine, and then also with Georg Brandes. Brandes, who had started to teach the philosophy of Sren Kierkegaard in the 1870s, wrote to Nietzsche asking him to read Kierkegaard, to which Nietzsche replied that he would come to Copenhagen and read Kierkegaard with him. However, before fulfilling this undertaking, he slipped too far into sickness. In the beginning of 1888, in Copenhagen, Brandes delivered one of the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy.

Friedrich Nietzsche Although Nietzsche had in 1886 announced (at the end of On The Genealogy of Morality) a new work with the title The Will to Power: Attempt at a Revaluation of All Values, he eventually seems to have abandoned this particular approach and instead used some of the draft passages to compose Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist (both written in 1888).[20] His health seemed to improve, and he spent the summer in high spirits. In the fall of 1888 his writings and letters began to reveal a higher estimation of his own status and "fate." He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, especially to the recent polemic, The Case of Wagner. On his 44th birthday, after completing Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist, he decided to write the autobiography Ecce Homo. In the preface to this workwhich suggests Nietzsche was well aware of the interpretive difficulties his work would generatehe declares, "Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else."[21] In December, Nietzsche began a correspondence with August Strindberg, and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation Nietzsche Contra Wagner and of the poems that composed his collection Dionysian-Dithyrambs. Mental breakdown and death (18891900) On January 3, 1889, Nietzsche suffered a mental collapse. Two policemen approached him after he caused a public disturbance in the streets of Turin. What actually happened remains unknown, but an often-repeated tale states that Nietzsche witnessed the whipping of a horse at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to the horse, threw his arms up around its neck to protect the horse, and then collapsed to the ground.[22] In the following few days, Nietzsche sent short writingsknown as the Wahnbriefe ("Madness Letters")to a number of friends (including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt). To his former colleague Burckhardt, Nietzsche wrote: "I have had Caiaphas put in fetters. Also, last year I was crucified by the German doctors in a very drawn-out manner. Wilhelm, Bismarck, and all anti-Semites abolished."[23] Additionally, he commanded the German emperor to go to Rome to be shot, and summoned the European powers to take military action against Germany.[24] On January 6, 1889 Burckhardt showed the letter he had received from Nietzsche to Overbeck. The following day Overbeck received a similarly revealing letter, and decided that Nietzsche's friends had to bring him back to Basel. Overbeck traveled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psychiatric clinic in Basel. By that time Nietzsche appeared fully in the grip of a serious mental illness, and his mother Franziska decided to transfer him to a clinic in Jena under the direction of Otto Binswanger. From November 1889 to February 1890 the art historian Julius Langbehn attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the methods of the medical doctors were ineffective in treating Nietzsche's condition. Langbehn assumed progressively greater control of Nietzsche until his secretiveness discredited him. In March 1890 Franziska removed Nietzsche from the clinic, and in May 1890 brought him to her home in Naumburg. During this process Overbeck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche's unpublished works. In January 1889 they proceeded with the planned release of Twilight of the Idols, by that time already printed and bound. In February they ordered a fifty copy private edition of Nietzsche contra Wagner, but the publisher C. G. Naumann secretly printed one hundred. Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing The Antichrist and Ecce Homo because of their more radical content. Nietzsche's reception and
Photo by Hans Olde from the photographic series, The Ill Nietzsche, summer 1899

Friedrich Nietzsche recognition enjoyed their first surge. In 1893 Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth returned from Nueva Germania (in Paraguay) following the suicide of her husband. She read and studied Nietzsche's works, and piece by piece took control of them and of their publication. Overbeck eventually suffered dismissal, and Gast finally cooperated. After the death of Franziska in 1897 Nietzsche lived in Weimar, where Elisabeth cared for him and allowed people, including Peter Gast would "correct" Nietzsche's writings Rudolf Steiner (who in 1895 had written one of the first books praising even after the philosopher's breakdown and did so Nietzsche)[25] to visit her uncommunicative brother. Elisabeth at one without his approvalan action severely point went so far as to employ Steinerat a time when he was still an criticized by contemporary Nietzsche scholars. ardent fighter against any mysticismas a tutor to help her to understand her brother's philosophy. Steiner abandoned the attempt after only a few months, declaring that it was impossible to teach her anything about philosophy.[26] Nietzsche's mental illness was originally diagnosed as tertiary syphilis, in accordance with a prevailing medical paradigm of the time. Although most commentators regard his breakdown as unrelated to his philosophy Georges Bataille drops dark hints (""man incarnate" must also go mad")[27] and Ren Girard's postmortem psychoanalysis posits a worshipful rivalry with Richard Wagner.[28] The diagnosis of syphilis was challenged, and manic-depressive illness with periodic psychosis, followed by vascular dementia was put forward by Cybulska[29] prior Schain's;[30] and Sax's studies;[31] . Orth and Trimble postulate frontotemporal dementia[32] , while other researchers[33] propose a syndrome called CADASIL. In 1898 and 1899 Nietzsche suffered at least two strokes, which partially paralysed him and left him unable to speak or walk. After contracting pneumonia in mid-August 1900 he had another stroke during the night of August 24 / August 25, and died about noon on August 25.[34] Elisabeth had him buried beside his father at the church in Rcken bei Ltzen. His friend, Gast, gave his funeral oration, proclaiming: "Holy be your name to all future generations!"[35] Nietzsche had written in Ecce Homo (at the time of the funeral still unpublished) of his fear that one day his name would be regarded as "holy". Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche compiled The Will to Power from Nietzsche's unpublished notebooks, and published it posthumously. Because his sister arranged the book based on her own conflation of several of Nietzsche's early outlines, and took great liberties with the material, the consensus holds that it does not reflect Nietzsche's intent. Indeed, Mazzino Montinari, the editor of Nietzsche's Nachlass, called it a forgery in The 'Will to Power' does not exist. For example, Elisabeth removed aphorism 35 of The Antichrist, where Nietzsche rewrote a passage of the Bible (see The Will to Power and Nietzsche's criticisms of anti-Semitism and nationalism). Citizenship, nationality, ethnicity Nietzsche is commonly classified as a German philosopher.[36] The modern unified nation-state called Germany did not yet exist at the time of his birth, but the German Confederation of states did, and Nietzsche was a citizen of one of these, Prussiafor a time. When he accepted his post at Basel, Nietzsche applied for the annulment of his Prussian citizenship.[37] The official response confirming the revocation of his citizenship came in a document dated April 17, 1869,[38] and for the rest of his life he remained officially stateless. According to a common myth, Nietzsche's ancestors were Polish. Nietzsche himself subscribed to this story toward the end of his life. He wrote in 1888, "My ancestors were Polish noblemen (Nietzky); the type seems to have been well preserved despite three generations of German mothers."[39] . At one point Nietzsche becomes even more adamant about his Polish Identity. I am a pure-blooded Polish nobleman, without a single drop of bad blood, certainly not German blood.[40] On yet another occasion Nietzsche stated Germany is a great nation only because its people have so much Polish blood in their veins [...] I am proud of my Polish descent.[41] Nietzsche believed his name might have been Germanized, in one letter claiming, "I was taught to ascribe the origin of my blood and name

Friedrich Nietzsche to Polish noblemen who were called Nitzky and left their home and nobleness about a hundred years ago, finally yielding to unbearable suppression: they were Protestants."[42] Most scholars dispute Nietzsche's account of his family's origins. Hans von Mller debunked the genealogy put forward by Nietzsche's sister in favor of a Polish noble heritage.[43] Max Oehler, the curator of Nietzsche Archive at Weimar, argued that all of Nietzsche's ancestors bore German names, even the wives' families.[39] Oehler claims that Nietzsche came from a long line of German Lutheran clergymen on both sides of his family, and modern scholars regard the claim of Nietzsche's Polish ancestry as "pure invention."[44] Colli and Montinari, the editors of Nietzsche's assembled letters, gloss Nietzsche's claims as a "mistaken belief" and "without foundation."[45] The name Nietzsche itself is not a Polish name, but an exceptionally common one throughout central Germany, in this and cognate forms (such as Nitsche and Nitzke). The name derives from the forename Nikolaus, abbreviated to Nick; assimilated with the Slavic Nitz, it first became Nitsche and then Nietzsche.[39] . It is not known why Nietzsche wanted to be thought of as Polish. According to biographer Reginald John Hollingdale, Nietzsche's propagation of the Polish ancestry myth may have been part of the latter's "campaign against Germany".[39]

Philosophy
Nietzsches works remain controversial, and there is widespread disagreement about their interpretation and significance. Part of the difficulty in interpreting Nietzsche arises from the uniquely provocative style of his philosophical writing. Nietzsche frequently delivered trenchant critiques of Christianity in the most offensive and blasphemous terms possible given the context of 19th century Europe. These aspects of Nietzsche's style run counter to traditional values in philosophical writing, and they alienated him from the academic establishment both in his time and, to a lesser extent, today. Some analytic philosophers dismiss Nietzsche as inconsistent and speculative, producing something other than "real" philosophy. A few of the themes that Nietzsche scholars have devoted the most attention to include Nietzsche's views on morality, his view that "God is dead" (and along with it any sort of God's-eye view on the world thus leading to perspectivism), his notions of the will to power and bermensch, and his suggestion of eternal return.

Morality

Friedrich Nietzsche, 1882

In Daybreak Nietzsche begins his "Campaign against Morality".[46] He calls himself an "immoralist" and harshly criticizes the prominent moral schemes of his day: Christianity, Kantianism, and utilitarianism. In Ecce Homo Nietzsche called the establishment of moral systems based on a dichotomy of good and evil a "calamitous error"[47] , and wished to initiate a re-evaluation of the values of the Judeo-Christian world.[48] He indicates his desire to bring about a new, more naturalistic source of value in the vital impulses of life itself. In both these works, Nietzsche's genealogical account of the development of master-slave morality occupies a central place. Nietzsche presents master-morality as the original system of moralityperhaps best associated with Homeric Greece. Here, value arises as a contrast between good and bad, or between 'life-affirming' and 'life-denying': wealth, strength, health, and power, the sort of traits found in a Homeric hero, count as good; while bad is associated with the poor, weak, sick, and pathetic, the sort of traits conventionally associated with slaves in ancient times.

Friedrich Nietzsche Slave-morality, in contrast, comes about as a reaction to master-morality. Nietzsche associates slave-morality with the Jewish and Christian traditions. Here, value emerges from the contrast between good and evil: good being associated with other-worldliness, charity, piety, restraint, meekness, and submission; evil seen as worldly, cruel, selfish, wealthy, and aggressive. Nietzsche sees slave-morality born out of the ressentiment of slaves. It works to overcome the slave's own sense of inferiority before the (better-off) masters. It does so by making out slave weakness to be a matter of choice, by, e.g., relabeling it as "meekness." Nietzsche sees the slave-morality as a source of the nihilism that has overtaken Europe. In Nietzsche's eyes, modern Europe, and its Christianity, exists in a hypocritical state due to a tension between master and slave morality, both values contradictorily determining, to varying degrees, the values of most Europeans (who are "motley"). Nietzsche calls for exceptional people to no longer be ashamed of their uniqueness in the face of a supposed morality-for-all, which Nietzsche deems to be harmful to the flourishing of exceptional people. However, Nietzsche cautions that morality, per se, is not bad; it is good for the masses, and should be left to them. Exceptional people, on the other hand, should follow their own "inner law." A favorite motto of Nietzsche, taken from Pindar, reads: "Become what you are."

10

Death of God, nihilism, perspectivism

The statement "God is dead", occurring in several of Nietzsche's works (notably in The Gay Science), has become one of his best-known remarks. On the basis of it, most commentators[49] regard Nietzsche as an atheist; others (such as Kaufmann) suggest that this statement reflects a more subtle understanding of divinity. In Nietzsche's view, recent developments in modern science and the increasing secularization of European society had effectively 'killed' the Christian God, who had served as the basis for meaning and value in the West for more than a thousand years. Nietzsche claimed the death of God would eventually lead to the loss of any universal perspective on things, and along with it any coherent sense of objective truth.[50] Instead we would retain only our own multiple, diverse, and fluid perspectives. This view has acquired the name "perspectivism". Alternatively, the death of God may lead beyond bare perspectivism to outright nihilism, the belief that nothing has any inherent importance and that life lacks purpose. As Heidegger put the problem, "If God as the suprasensory ground and goal of all reality is dead, if the suprasensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which he can orient himself."[51] Developing this idea, Nietzsche wrote Thus Spoke Zarathustra, therein introducing the concept of a value-creating bermensch. According to Lampert, "the death of God must be followed by a long twilight of piety and nihilism (II. 19; III. 8). [] Zarathustra's gift of the superman is given to a mankind not aware of the problem to which the superman is the solution."[52]

Will to power
An important element of Nietzsche's philosophical outlook is the "will to power" (der Wille zur Macht), which provides a basis for understanding motivation in human behavior. This concept may have wide application, as Nietzsche, in a number of places, also suggests that the will to power is a more important element than pressure for adaptation or survival.[53] According to Nietzsche, only in limited situations the drive for conservation is precedent over the will to power: namely, when life is reduced to a condition of poverty and limitation. The natural condition of life, according to him, is one of profusion.[54] In its later forms Nietzsche's concept of the will to power applies to all living things, suggesting that adaptation and the struggle to survive is a secondary drive in the evolution of animals, less important than the desire to expand ones power. Nietzsche eventually took this concept further still, and speculated that it may apply to inorganic nature as well. He transformed the idea of matter as centers of force into matter as centers of will to power. Nietzsche wanted to dispense with the atomistic theory of matter, a theory which he viewed as a relic of the metaphysics of substance.[55] One study of Nietzsche defines his fully developed concept of the will to power as "the element from which derive both the quantitative difference of related forces and

Friedrich Nietzsche the quality that devolves into each force in this relation" revealing the will to power as "the principle of the synthesis of forces."[56] Nietzsche's notion of the will to power can also be viewed as a response to Schopenhauer's "will to live." Writing a generation before Nietzsche, Schopenhauer had regarded the entire universe and everything in it as driven by a primordial will to live, thus resulting in all creatures' desire to avoid death and to procreate. Nietzsche, however, challenges Schopenhauer's account and suggests that people and animals really want power; living in itself appears only as a subsidiary aimsomething necessary to promote one's power. Defending his view, Nietzsche describes instances where people and animals willingly risk their lives to gain powermost notably in instances like competitive fighting and warfare. Once again, Nietzsche seems to take part of his inspiration from the ancient Homeric Greek texts he knew well: Greek heroes and aristocrats or "masters" did not desire mere living (they often died quite young and risked their lives in battle) but wanted power, glory, and greatness. In this regard he often mentions the common Greek theme of agon or contest. In addition to Schopenhauer's psychological views, Nietzsche contrasts his notion of the will to power with many of the other most popular psychological views of his day, such as that of utilitarianism. Utilitarianisma philosophy mainly promoted, in Nietzsche's days and before, by British thinkers such as Bentham and Stuart Millclaims that all people fundamentally want to be happy. But this conception of happiness found in utilitarianism Nietzsche rejected as something limited to, and characteristic of, English society only.[57] Also Platonism and Christian neo-Platonismwhich claim that people ultimately want to achieve unity with The Good or with Godare philosophies he criticizes. In each case, Nietzsche argues that the "will to power" provides a more useful and general explanation of human behavior.

11

bermensch
Another concept important to an understanding of Nietzsche's thought is the bermensch. While interpretations of Nietzsche's overman vary wildly, here are a few of his quotes from Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Prologue, 34): "I teach you the overman. Man is something that shall be overcome. What have you done to overcome him? All beings so far have created something beyond themselves; and do you want to be the ebb of this great flood, and even go back to the beasts rather than overcome man? What is ape to man? A laughing stock or painful embarrassment. And man shall be that to overman: a laughingstock or painful embarrassment. You have made your way from worm to man, and much in you is still worm. Once you were apes, and even now, too, man is more ape than any ape.... The overman is the meaning of the earth. Let your will say: the overman shall be the meaning of the earth.... Man is a rope, tied between beast and overmana rope over an abyss what is great in man is that he is a bridge and not an end."

Eternal return
The idea of eternal return occurs in a parable in Section 341 of The Gay Science, and also in the chapter "Of the Vision and the Riddle" in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, among other places. Nietzsche calls the idea "horrifying and paralyzing", and says that its burden is the "heaviest weight" imaginable.("das schwerste Gewicht")[58] The wish for the eternal return of all events would mark the ultimate affirmation of life, a reaction to Schopenhauer's praise of denying the willtolive. To comprehend eternal recurrence in his thought, and to not merely come to peace with it but to embrace it, requires amor fati, "love of fate":[59]

Friedrich Nietzsche

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Influence from Heraclitus

The philosophy of Nietzsche, while highly innovative and revolutionary, was indebted to the pre-Socratic Greek thinker Heraclitus. Heraclitus was known for the rejection of the concept of Being as a constant and eternal principle of universe, and his embrace of "flux" and incessant change. His symbolism of the world as "child play" marked by amoral spontaneity and lack of definite rules was appreciated by Nietzsche.[60] From his Heraclitean sympathy Nietzsche was also a vociferous detractor of Parmenides, who opposed Heraclitus and believed all world is a single Being with no change at all.[61]

Reading
As a philologist, Nietzsche had a thorough knowledge of Greek philosophy. He read Immanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill, Arthur Schopenhauer and Afrikan Spir,[62] who became his main opponents in his philosophy, and later Spinoza, whom he saw as his "precursor" in some respects[63] but as a personification of the "ascetic ideal" in others. However, Nietzsche referred to Kant as a "moral fanatic", Mill as a "blockhead", and of Spinoza he said: "How much of personal timidity and vulnerability does this masquerade of a sickly recluse betray?"[64] Nietzsche expressed admiration for 17th century French moralists such as La Rochefoucauld, Jean de La Bruyre and Vauvenargues,[65] as well as for Stendhal.[66]

The residence of Nietzsche's last three years, along with archive in Weimar, Germany, which holds many of Nietzsche's papers

The organicism of Paul Bourget influenced Nietzsche,[67] as did that of Rudolf Virchow and Alfred Espinas.[68] Nietzsche early learned of Darwinism through Friedrich Lange.[69] Notably, he also read some of the posthumous works of Charles Baudelaire,[70] Tolstoy's My Religion, Ernest Renan's Life of Jesus and Fyodor Dostoyevsky's The Possessed.[70] [71] Nietzsche called Dostoevsky "the only psychologist from whom I have anything to learn."[72] Comments in several passages suggest that he responded strongly and favorably to the work of Ralph Waldo Emerson. While Nietzsche never mentions Max Stirner, the similarities in their ideas have prompted a minority of interpreters to suggest he both read and was influenced by him.[73]

Reception
Nietzsches works did not reach a wide readership during his active writing career. However, in 1888 Georg Brandes (an influential Danish critic) aroused considerable excitement about Nietzsche through a series of lectures he gave at the University of Copenhagen. Then in 1894 Lou Andreas-Salom published her book, Friedrich Nietzsche in seinen Werken (Friedrich Nietzsche in His Works). Andreas-Salom had known Nietzsche well in the early 1880s, and she returned to the subject of Nietzsche, years later, in her work Lebensrckblick Grundri einiger Lebenserinnerungen (Looking Back: Memoirs) (written in 1932), which covered her intellectual relationships with Nietzsche, Rilke, and Freud. Nietzsche himself had acquired the publication-rights for his earlier works in 1886 and began a process of editing and re-formulation that placed the body of his work in a more coherent perspective. In the years after his death in 1900, Nietzsche's works became better known, and readers have responded to them in complex and sometimes controversial ways. Many Germans eventually discovered his appeals for greater individualism and personality development in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, but responded to those appeals divergently. He had some following among left-wing Germans in the 1890s; in 18941895 German conservatives wanted to ban his work as subversive. During the late 19th century Nietzsche's ideas were commonly associated with anarchist

Friedrich Nietzsche movements and appear to have had influence within them, particularly in France and the United States.[74] The poet W.B. Yeats helped to raise awareness of Nietzsche in Ireland.[75] H.L. Mencken produced translations of Nietzsche's works that helped to increase knowledge of his philosophy in the United States. By World War I, Nietzsche had acquired a reputation as an inspiration for right-wing German militarism. German soldiers received copies of Thus Spoke Zarathustra as gifts during World War I.[76] [77] The Dreyfus Affair provides another example of his reception: the French anti-semitic Right labelled the Jewish and Leftist intellectuals who defended Alfred Dreyfus as "Nietzscheans".[78] Nietzsche had a distinct appeal for many Zionist thinkers at the turn of the century. It has been argued that his work influenced Theodore Herzl,[79] and Martin Buber went so far as to extoll Nietzsche as a "creator" and "emissary of life".[80] Bertrand Russell, in his History of Western Philosophy was scathing about Nietzsche, calling his work the "mere power-phantasies of an invalid", referring to him as a "megalomaniac", and writing that he was a philosophical progenitor of the Nazis and fascists.[81] Nietzsche's growing prominence suffered a severe setback when he became closely associated with Adolf Hitler and the German Reich. Many political leaders of the twentieth century were at least superficially familiar with Nietzsche's ideas. However, it is not always possible to determine whether or not they actually read his work. Hitler, for example, probably never read Nietzsche, and if he did, his reading was not extensive,[82] although he was a frequent visitor to the Nietzsche museum in Weimar and did use expressions of Nietzsche's, such as "lords of the earth" in Mein Kampf.[83] The Nazis made selective use of Nietzsche's philosophy; this association with National Socialism caused Nietzsche's reputation to suffer following World War II. Mussolini and Charles de Gaulle read Nietzsche.[84] [85] It has been suggested that Theodore Roosevelt read Nietzsche and was profoundly influenced by him,[86] and in more recent years, Richard Nixon read Nietzsche with "curious interest".[87] A decade after World War II, there was a revival of Nietzsche's philosophical writings thanks to exhaustive translations and analyses by Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale. Others, well known philosophers in their own right, wrote commentaries on Nietzsches philosophy, including Martin Heidegger, who produced a four-volume study. Many 20th century thinkers (particularly in the tradition of continental philosophy) cite him as a profound influence, including Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Gilles Deleuze, whose philosophy of immanence has significant similarities to Nietzsche's will to power. In the Anglo-American tradition he has had a profound influence on Bernard Williams due to the scholarship of Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale, which rehabilitated Nietzsche as a philosopher, and American philosophers such as Allan Bloom, Alexander Nehamas, William E. Connolly and Brian Leiter continue to study him today. A vocal minority of recent Nietzschean interpreters (Bruce Detwiler, Fredrick Appel, Domenico Losurdo, Abir Taha) have contested what they consider the popular but erroneous egalitarian misrepresentation of Nietzsche's "aristocratic radicalism".

13

Works
The Birth of Tragedy (1872) On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense (1873) Untimely Meditations (1876) Human, All Too Human (1878; additions in 1879, 1880) The Dawn (1881) The Gay Science (1882) Thus Spoke Zarathustra (18831885) Beyond Good and Evil (1886) On the Genealogy of Morality (1887) The Case of Wagner (1888)

Twilight of the Idols (1888) The Antichrist (1888)

Friedrich Nietzsche Ecce Homo (1888) Nietzsche contra Wagner (1888) The Greek State (1871) (http://nietzsche.holtof.com/Nietzsche_various/the_greek_state.htm) The Will to Power (unpublished manuscripts edited together by his sister) Unpublished Writings (1869-1889) (the whole of Nietzsche's notebooks - from which The Will to Power is only a small selection -, published in Germany for the first time in 1967 - called Nachlass or Legacy -, only recently in Dutch - called Nagelaten Fragmenten - and an English translation is in progress by Stanford University Press in a 20-volume series called "The Complete Works of Friedrich Nietzsche", but the project won't be finished before 2013. Only 3 volumes have been published as of yet. These Unpublished Writings are vital to a good understanding of Nietzsche's philosophy and provide a clue to Nietzsche's political, social, cultural intentions. http://www.sup.org/browse.cgi?x=series& y=The%20Complete%20Works%20of%20Friedrich%20Nietzsche)

14

References
Bibliography
Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp.10111038. ISBN0-13-158591-6. Benson, Bruce Ellis (2007). Pious Nietzsche: Decadence and Dionysian Faith. Indiana University Press. pp.296. Deleuze, Gilles (1983). Nietzsche and Philosophy. trans. Hugh Tomlinson. Athlone Press. ISBN0485112337. Kaufmann, Walter (1974). Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. Princeton University Press. ISBN0691019835. Lampert, Laurence (1986). Nietzsche's Teaching: An Interpretation of "Thus Spoke Zarathustra". New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN0300044305. Magnus and Higgins, "Nietzsche's works and their themes", in The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche, Magnus and Higgins (ed.), University of Cambridge Press, 1996, pp.2158. ISBN 0-521-36767-0 O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, Robert M., "Studies in Nietzsche and the Classical Tradition" (University of North Carolina Press)1979 ISBN 0-08078-8085-X O'Flaherty, James C., Sellner, Timothy F., Helm, Robert M., ""Studies in Nietzsche and the Judaeo-Christian Tradition" (University of North Carolina Press)1985 ISBN 0-8078-8104-X Porter, James I. "Nietzsche and the Philology of the Future" (Stanford University Press, 2000). ISBN 0-8047-3698-7 Porter, James I. "The Invention of Dionysus: An Essay on The Birth of Tragedy" (Stanford University Press, 2000). ISBN 0-8047-3700-2 Seung, T.K. Nietzsche's Epic of the Soul: Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2005. ISBN 0-7391-1130-2 Tanner, Michael (1994). Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0192876805. Wicks, Robert. "Friedrich Nietzsche" [88]. in Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2004 Edition ed.). Young, Julian. Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography (Cambridge University Press; 2010) 649 pages; His thought in the context of Prussian militarism, anti-Semitism, Darwinian science, and other phenomena of his era.

Friedrich Nietzsche

15

External links
Nietzsche Source: Digital version of the German critical edition of the complete works / Digital facsimile edition of the entire Nietzsche estate [89] Works by Friedrich Nietzsche [90] at Project Gutenberg Works by Nietzsche in audio format [91] from LibriVox "Friedrich Nietzsche [92]" article by Robert Wicks in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007-11-14 "Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy [93]" article by Brian Leiter in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007-07-27 http://www.iep.utm.edu/nietzsch/Nietzsche, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article by Dale Wilkerson, 2009 Nietzsche [94] from the radio program Philosophy Talk Friedrich Nietzsche [95] at the Open Directory Project Free scores by Friedrich Nietzsche in the International Music Score Library Project Nietzsche Quotes [96] Searchable database of Nietzsche quotations, with daily quotes Brian Leiter's Nietzsche Blog [97]: News, polls, and discussion about Nietzsche and current events in Nietzsche scholarship from Brian Leiter (University of Chicago). Nietzsche Forum [98]: Nietzsche Forum for discussing Friedrich Nietzsche's life and work.

BBC (1999). "Beyond Good and Evil [99]". Human, All Too Human.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p.478. ISBN0582053838. entry "Nietzsche" Kaufmann, Walter, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, p. 22. Schaberg, William, The Nietzsche Canon, University of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 32 Jrg Salaquarda, "Nietzsche and the Judaeo-Christian tradition," in The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 99. [5] For Nietzsche's account of the accident and injury see his letter to Karl Von Gersdorff: Letter of Friedrich Nietzsche to Karl Von Gersdorff June, 1868 [6] A letter containing Nietzsche's description of the first meeting with Wagner. [7] Kaufmann, p. 25. [8] Paul Bishop, Nietzsche and Antiquity, 2004, p117 [9] Hecker, Hellmuth: "Nietzsches Staatsangehrigkeit als Rechtsfrage", Neue Juristische Wochenschrift, Jg. 40, 1987, nr. 23, p. 1388-1391; and His, Eduard: "Friedrich Nietzsches Heimatlosigkeit", Basler Zeitschrift fr Geschichte und Altertumskunde, vol. 40, 1941, p. 159-186. Note that some authors (among them Deussen and Montinari) mistakenly claim that Nietzsche became a Swiss citizen. [10] "What was the cause of Nietzsche's dementia?" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 12522502). . [11] Richard Schain, The Legend of Nietzsche's Syphilis (Westwood: Greenwood Press, 2001 [12] "A biography of Spir." (http:/ / radicalacademy. com/ adiphilunclassified3. htm#Spir). . [13] Rdiger Safranski, Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography (trans. Shelley Frisch), W. W. Norton & Company, 2003, p. 161: "This work [Denken und Wirklichkeit] had long been consigned to oblivion, but it had a lasting impact on Nietzsche. Section 18 of Human, All Too Human cited Spir, not by name, but by presenting a "proposition by an outstanding logician" (2,38; HH I 18) [14] Stephan Gntzel, "Nietzsche's Geophilosophy" (http:/ / www. hypernietzsche. org/ navigate. php?sigle=sgunzel-4), p.85 in: Journal of Nietzsche Studies 25 (Spring 2003), The Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park (Penn State), 2003-10-15; re-published on HyperNietzsche's website (English)/(German) [15] Kaufmann, p.49 [16] Letter to Peter Gast August 1883 [17] The Nietzsche Channel (http:/ / thenietzschechannel. fws1. com/ corresp. htm), Correspondences [18] Encyclopdia Britannica Online. "Frster-Nietzsche, Elisabeth." Search.EB.com (http:/ / www. search. eb. com. librarypx. lclark. edu/ eb/ article-9034925), Accessed October 10, 2008. [19] Letter to Peter Gast, March 1887. [20] Mazzino Montinari, Friedrich Nietzsche (1974; translated into German in 1991, Friedrich Nietzsche. Eine Einfhrung., Berlin-New York, De Gruyter; and in French, Friedrich Nietzsche, PUF, 2001) [21] From the Preface, section 1 (English translation by Walter Kaufmann) [22] Kaufmann, p. 67. [23] The Portable Nietzsche, trans. Walter Kaufmann.

Friedrich Nietzsche
[24] Zweig, Stefan (1939) Master Builders [trilogy], The Struggle with the Daimon, Viking Press, p. 524. [25] Rudolf Steiner: Friedrich Nietzsche, ein Kmpfer gegen seine Zeit. Weimar 1895 [26] Andrew Bailey, First Philosophy: Fundamental Problems and Readings in Philosophy, Broadview Press, 2002, p704 [27] Georges Bataille & Annette Michelson, Nietzsche's Madness, October, Vol. 36, Georges Bataille: Writings on Laughter, Sacrifice, Nietzsche, Un-Knowing. (Spring, 1986), pp. 4245. [28] Ren Girard, Superman in the Underground: Strategies of MadnessNietzsche, Wagner, and Dostoevsky, MLN, Vol. 91, No. 6, Comparative Literature. (December, 1976), pp. 11611185 [29] Cybulska EM (August 2000). "The madness of Nietzsche: a misdiagnosis of the millennium?". Hospital Medicine 61 (8): 571575. PMID11045229. [31] ""Nietzsche 'died of brain cancer'"" (http:/ / www. smh. com. au/ articles/ 2003/ 05/ 05/ 1051987657451. html). . [32] Orth M, Trimble MR (December 2006). "Friedrich Nietzsche's mental illnessgeneral paralysis of the insane vs. frontotemporal dementia". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 114 (6): 439444; discussion 445. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00827.x. PMID17087793. [33] Hemelsoet D, Hemelsoet K, Devreese D (March 2008). "The neurological illness of Friedrich Nietzsche" (http:/ / www. actaneurologica. be/ acta/ article. asp?lang=en& navid=133& id=14389& mod=acta). Acta Neurologica Belgica 108 (1): 916. PMID18575181. . [34] Concurring reports in Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche's biography (1904) and a letter by Mathilde Schenk-Nietzsche to Meta von Salis, August 30, 1900, quoted in Janz (1981) p. 221. Cf. Volz (1990), p. 251. [35] Schain, Richard. "Nietzsche's Visionary Values Genius or Dementia? (http:/ / www. philosophos. com/ philosophy_article_31. html) [36] General commentators and Nietzsche scholars, whether emphasizing his cultural background or his language, overwhelmingly label Nietzsche as a "German philosopher". For example: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ nietzsche/ ); Source: Nietzsche: A Very Short Introduction (See Preview on Amazon) (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0192854143); Britannica (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9108765/ Friedrich-Nietzsche#387226. hook); The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche, page 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Xeb80itrlRIC& pg=PA1& dq="German+ philosopher"+ Nietzsche& lr=& sig=TGo0nlA9H07fxr4GbfMlDcFRgrQ). Others do not assign him a nationalist category. For example: Edward Craid (editor): The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of philosophy. Abingdon: Routledge, 2005, pages 726741; Simon Blackburn: The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, pages 252253; Jonathan Re and J. O. Urmson, ed (2005) [1960]. The Concise encyclopedia of western philosophy (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. pp.267270. ISBN0-415-32924-8. [37] Er beantragte also bei der preussischen Behrde seine Expatrierung [Translation:] "He accordingly applied to the Prussian authorities for expatrification". Curt Paul Janz: Friedrich Nietzsche: Biographie volume 1. Munich: Carl Hanser, 1978, page 263. [38] German text available as Entlassungsurkunde fr den Professor Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche aus Naumburg in Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari: Nietzsche Briefwechsel: Kritische Gesamtausgabe. Part I, Volume 4. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1993. ISBN 3 11 012277 4, page 566. [39] Hollingdale, R.J: Nietzsche: The Man and His Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 1999. p.6 [40] Some recently translations use this latter text. See: Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. The Anti-Christ, Ecce Homo, Twilight of the Idols, and Other Writings: And Other Writings. Translated by Judith Norman, Aaron Ridley. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 77. [41] Henry Louis Mencken, "The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche", T. Fisher Unwin, 1908, reprinted by University of Michigan 2006, pg. 6, (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=nnEOAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA6& dq=Nietzsche+ Polish& as_brr=3) [42] Letter to Heinrich von Stein, December 1882, KGB III 1, Nr. 342, p. 287; KGW V 2, p. 579; KSA 9 p. 681 [43] von Mller, "Nietzsches Vorfahren," reprinted Nietzsche-Studien 31 (2002): 253275. [44] H.L. Mencken: The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzche. Introduction and comments by Charles Q. Bufe. See Sharp Press, USA, 2003. p.2 [45] Letter to Heinrich von Stein, December 1882, KGB III 7.1 p. 313, and Letter to Georg Brandes, 10. 4. 1888, KGB III 7.3/1 p. 293. [46] Kaufmann, p.187. (Ecce Homo-M I) [47] Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, "Why I Am a Destiny", 3 [48] Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. The Antichrist. Grand Rapids: Kessinger, 2004: 4,8,18,29,37,40,51,57,59. Print. [49] Morgan, George Allen (1941). What Nietzsche Means. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp.36. ISBN083717404X. [50] Lampert, Nietzsche's Teaching, 1718; Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche." [51] Heidegger, "The Word of Nietzsche," 61. [52] Lampert, Nietzsche's Teaching, 18. [53] Beyond Good & Evil 13, Gay Science 349 & Genealogy of Morality II:12 [54] Twilight of the Idols; Skirmishes of an untimely man; 14 [55] Nietzsche comments in many notes about matter being a hypothesis drawn from the metaphysics of substance, see G. Whitlock, "Roger Boscovich, Benedict de Spinoza and Friedrich Nietzsche: The Untold Story," Nietzsche-Studien 25, 1996 p207 [56] Gilles Deleuze, Nietzsche ad Philosophy, translated by Hugh Tomlinson, 2006, p46 [57] Brian Leiter, Routledge guide to Nietzsche on morality, pp. 121 [58] Kundera, Milan. The Unbearable Lightness of Being. 1999, page 5. [59] Dudley, Will. Hegel, Nietzsche, and Philosophy: Thinking Freedom. 2002, page 201. [60] Roochnik, David. Retrieving the Ancients (2004) pg. 3739 [61] Roochnik, pg. 48 [62] Brobjer, Thomas. Nietzsche's Reading and Private Library, 18851889. Published in Journal of History of Ideas. Accessed via JSTOR on May 18, 2007.

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Friedrich Nietzsche
[63] Letter to Franz Overbeck, July 30, 1881 [64] Russell, Bertrand, History of Western Philosophy, Routledge, 2004, pp 693697 [65] Brendan Donnellan, "Nietzsche and La Rochefoucauld" (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0016-8831(197905)52:3<303:NALR>2. 0. CO;2-6& size=LARGE) in The German Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 3 (May, 1979), pp. 303318 (English) [66] See for example Ecce Homo, "Why I am So Clever", 3 [67] Johan Grzelczyk, "Fr et Nietzsche : au sujet de la dcadence" (http:/ / www. hypernietzsche. org/ navigate. php?sigle=jgrzelczyk-4), HyperNietzsche, 2005-11-01 (French). Grzelczyk quotes Jacques Le Rider, Nietzsche en France. De la fin du XIXe sicle au temps prsent, Paris, PUF, 1999, pp.89 [68] Johan Grzelczyk, "Fr et Nietzsche : au sujet de la dcadence" (http:/ / www. hypernietzsche. org/ navigate. php?sigle=jgrzelczyk-4), HyperNietzsche, 2005-11-01 (French). Grzelczyk quotes B. Wahrig-Schmidt, "Irgendwie, jedenfalls physiologisch. Friedrich Nietzsche, Alexandre Herzen (fils) und Charles Fr 1888" in Nietzsche Studien, Band 17, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1988, p.439 [69] Note sur Nietzsche et Lange : le retour ternel (http:/ / fr. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Note_sur_Nietzsche_et_Lange_:__le_retour_ternel_), Albert Fouille, Revue philosophique de la France et de l'tranger. An. 34. Paris 1909. T. 67, S. 519525 (on French Wikisource) [70] Mazzino Montinari, "La Volont de puissance" n'existe pas, ditions de l'clat, 1996, 13 [71] Walter Kaufmann, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, pp. 306340. [72] Twilight of the Idols, Friedrich Nietzsche, 1889, 45). [73] K. Lwith, From Hegel To Nietzsche, New York, 1964, p187; S. Taylor, Left Wing Nietzscheans, The Politics of German Expressionism 19101920, p144, 1990, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York; G. Deleuze, Nietzsche and Philosophy, (translated by Hugh Tomlinson), 2006, pp153-154; R. C. Solomon & K. M. Higgins, The Age of German Idealism, p300, Routledge, 1993; R. A. Samek, The Meta Phenomenon, p70, New York, 1981; T. Goyens, Beer and Revolution: The German Anarchist Movement In New York City, p197, Illinois, 2007; a special treatise on that question is: Bernd A. Laska: Nietzsche's initial crisis (http:/ / www. lsr-projekt. de/ poly/ ennietzsche. html) In: Germanic Notes and Reviews, 33 (2): 109133. [74] O. Ewald, "German Philosophy in 1907", in The Philosophical Review, Vol. 17, No. 4, July, 1908, pp. 400426; T. A. Riley, "Anti-Statism in German Literature, as Exemplified by the Work of John Henry Mackay", in PMLA, Vol. 62, No. 3, September, 1947, pp. 828843; C. E. Forth, "Nietzsche, Decadence, and Regeneration in France, 18911895", in Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 54, No. 1, January, 1993, pp. 97117 [75] Everdell, William (1998). The First Moderns. Chicago: U Chicago Press. pp.508. ISBN0226224813. [76] Steven E. Aschheim notes that "[a]bout 150,000 copies of a specially durable wartime Zarathustra were distributed to the troops" in The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, 18901990, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1992, p135 [77] Kaufmann, p.8 [78] Schrift, A.D. (1995). Nietzsche's French Legacy: A Genealogy of Poststructuralism. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91147-8. [79] Francis R. Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p36; Jacob Golomb, Nietzsche and Zion, Cornell University Press, 2004, pp 2527; against the view of particular influence on Herzl, see: Gabriel Sheffer, U.S.-Israeli Relations at the Crossroads, Routledge, 1997, p170 [80] Jacob Golomb (Ed.), Nietzsche and Jewish Culture, Routledge, 1997, pp 234235 [81] Bertrand Russell, History of Western Philosophy, Routledge, 2004 [82] Weaver Santaniello, Nietzsche, God, and the Jews, SUNY Press, 1994, p41: "Hitler probably never read a word of Nietzsche"; Berel Lang, Post-Holocaust: Interpretation, Misinterpretation, and the Claims of History, Indiana University Press, 2005, p162: "Arguably, Hitler himself never read a word of Nietzsche; certainly, if he did read him, it was not extensively"; Jacob Golomb, Nietzsche and Jewish Culture, Routledge, 1997, p9: "To be sure, it is almost certain that Hitler either never read Nietzsche directly or read very little."; Andrew C. Janos, East Central Europe in the Modern World, Stanford University Press, 2002, p184: "By all indications, Hitler never read Nietzsche. Neither Mein Kampf nor Hitler's Table Talk (Tischgesprache) mentions his name. Nietzschean ideas reached him through the filter of Alfred Rosenberg's Myth of the Twentieth Century, and, more simply, through what was coffeehouse Quatsch in Vienna and Munich. This at least is the impression he gives in his published conversations with Dietrich Eckart." [83] William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, a History of Nazi Germany, Touchstone, 1959, p100-101 [84] Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy, University of California Press, 2000, p44: "In 1908 he presented his conception of the superman's role in modern society in a writing on Nietzsche entitled, "The Philosophy of Force."; Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 19191945, Routledge, 2003, p21: "We know that Mussolini had read Nietzsche" [85] J. L. Gaddis, P. H. Gordon, E. R. May, J. Rosenberg, Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb, Oxford University Press, 1999, p217: "The son of a history teacher, de Gaulle read voraciously as a boy and young man Jacques Bainville, Henri Bergson, Friederich [sic] Nietzsche, Maurice Barres and was steeped in conservative French historical and philosophical traditions." [86] H. L. Mencken (Ed.), The Selected Writings of Friedrich Nietzsche, Wilder Publications, 2008, p153 (referring to Roosevelt's published speech The Strenuous Life): "It is inconceivable that Mr. Roosevelt should have formulated his present confession of faith independently of Nietzsche".; Georges Sorel (trans. J. Stanley), Essays in Socialism and Philosophy, Transaction Publishers, 1987, p214 "J. Bourdeau has pointed out the strange similarity between the ideas of Andrew Carnegie and Roosevelt, and those of Nietzsche: Carnegie deploring the wasting of money on the support of incompetents, Roosevelt appealing to Americans to become conquerors, a race of predators." [87] Monica Crowley, Nixon in Winter, I.B.Tauris, 1998, p351: "He read with curious interest the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche [] Nixon asked to borrow my copy of Beyond Good and Evil, a title that inspired the title of his final book, Beyond Peace."

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Friedrich Nietzsche
[88] [89] [90] [91] [92] [93] [94] [95] [96] [97] [98] [99] http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ archives/ fall2004/ entries/ nietzsche/ http:/ / www. nietzschesource. org/ http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Friedrich_Nietzsche http:/ / librivox. org/ newcatalog/ search. php?title=& author=Friedrich+ Nietzsche& action=Search http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ nietzsche http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ nietzsche-moral-political http:/ / www. philosophytalk. org/ pastShows/ Nietzsche. htm http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Philosophy/ Philosophers/ N/ Nietzsche,_Friedrich/ http:/ / www. nietzsche-quotes. com/ http:/ / www. brianleiternietzsche. blogspot. com/ http:/ / www. nietzscheforum. com http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=-184240591461103528#

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The Birth of Tragedy

19

The Birth of Tragedy

The Birth of Tragedy Out of the Spirit of Music

Cover of the 1993 Penguin edition Author Original title Translator Country Language Subject(s) Genre(s) Publication date Media type Pages ISBN OCLC Number Dewey Decimal LC Classification Followed by Friedrich Nietzsche 'Die Geburt der Tragdie aus dem Geiste der Musik' Shaun Whiteside Germany German Athenian tragedy, the Apollonian/Dionysian opposition Dramatic theory 1872 Paperback, hardcover 160 (1993 Penguin ed.) ISBN 978-0140433395 (1993 Penguin ed.) 30702580
[1]

111/.85 20 B3313.G42 E55 1993 The Untimely Meditations (1876)

The Birth of Tragedy from the Spirit of Music (Die Geburt der Tragdie aus dem Geiste der Musik, 1872) is a 19th-century work of dramatic theory by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. It was reissued in 1886 as The Birth of Tragedy, Or: Hellenism and Pessimism (Die Geburt der Tragdie, Oder: Griechentum und Pessimismus). The later edition contained a prefatory essay, An Attempt at Self-Criticism, wherein Nietzsche commented on this very early work.

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The book
Nietzsche found in classical Athenian tragedy an art form that transcended the pessimism and nihilism of a fundamentally meaningless world. The Greek spectators, by looking into the abyss of human suffering and affirming it, passionately and joyously, affirmed the meaning in their own existence. They knew themselves to be infinitely more than the petty individuals of the apparent summer school trip to Greece, finding self-affirmation, not in another life, not in a world to come, but in the terror and ecstasy alike celebrated in the performance of tragedies. Noah Guiney was particularly moved. Originally educated as a philologist, Nietzsche discusses the history of the tragic form and introduces an intellectual dichotomy between the Dionysian and the Apollonian (very loosely: reality undifferentiated by forms and like distinctions versus reality as differentiated by forms, or the forms themselves). Nietzsche claims life always involves a struggle between these two elements, each battling for control over the existence of humanity. In Nietzsche's words, "Wherever the Dionysian prevailed, the Apollonian was checked and destroyed.... wherever the first Dionysian onslaught was successfully withstood, the authority and majesty of the Delphic god Apollo exhibited itself as more rigid and menacing than ever." Yet neither side ever prevails due to each containing the other in an eternal, natural check, or balance. Nietzsche argues that the tragedy of Ancient Greece was the highest form of art due to its mixture of both Apollonian and Dionysian elements into one seamless whole, allowing the spectator to experience the full spectrum of the human condition. The Dionysiac element was to be found in the music of the chorus, while the Apollonian element was found in the dialogue which gave a concrete symbolism that balanced the Dionysiac revelry. Basically, the Apollonian spirit was able to give form to the abstract Dionysian. Before the tragedy, there was an era of static, idealized plastic art in the form of sculpture that represented the Apollonian view of the world. The Dionysian element was to be found in the wild revelry of festivals and drunkenness, but, most importantly, in music. The combination of these elements in one art form gave birth to tragedy. He theorizes that the chorus was originally always satyrs, goat-men. (This is speculative, although the word tragedy is contracted from trag(o)-aoidi = "goat song" from tragos = "goat" and aeidein = "to sing".) Thus, he argues, the illusion of culture was wiped away by the primordial image of man for the audience; they participated with and as the chorus empathetically, so that they imagined themselves as restored natural geniuses, as satyrs. But in this state, they have an Apollonian dream vision of themselves, of the energy they're embodying. Its a vision of the god, of Dionysus, who appears before the chorus on the stage. And the actors and the plot are the development of that dream vision, the essence of which is the ecstatic dismembering of the god and of the Bacchantes' rituals, of the inseparable ecstasy and suffering of human existence After the time of Aeschylus and Sophocles, there was an age where tragedy died. Nietzsche ties this to the influence of writers like Euripides and the coming of rationality, represented by Socrates. Euripides reduced the use of the chorus and was more naturalistic in his representation of human drama, making it more reflective of the realities of daily life. Socrates emphasized reason to such a degree that he diffused the value of myth and suffering to human knowledge. For Nietzsche, these two intellectuals helped drain the ability of the individual to participate in forms of art, because they saw things too soberly and rationally. The participation mystique aspect of art and myth was lost, and along with it, much of man's ability to live creatively in optimistic harmony with the sufferings of life. Nietzsche concludes that it may be possible to reattain the balance of Dionysian and Apollonian in modern art through the operas of Richard Wagner, in a rebirth of tragedy.

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The Apollonian and the Dionysian

In contrast to the typical Enlightenment view of ancient Greek culture as noble, simple, elegant and grandiose[2] , Nietzsche believed the Greeks were grappling with pessimism. The universe in which we live is the product of great interacting forces; but we neither observe nor know these as such. What we put together as our conceptions of the world, Nietzsche thought, never actually addresses the underlying realities. It is human destiny to be controlled by the darkest universal realities and, at the same time, to live life in a human-dreamt world of illusions. It was precisely this human-dreamt world that the Greeks had developed into perfection from the Homeric legends onward. The Olympian complex of deities, combined with all the details of their heroic lives and their numerous interactions with men and women of earth, formed a world picture in which individual people can live. This picture literally rendered humans as individuals, capable of greatness, always of significance. There is, in this world, objective clarity. The beings are almost sculpted. Hence, Athenians mature within the illusions of a world and life that is under control and that has clear models of personal significance and greatness. It is a beautiful creation. But it is, as Nietzsche observes, an Apollonian aesthetics, Apollo being the god who most typifies the Olympian complex in this regard. (BT, 1, p. 36) Apollo is the god of plastic arts and of illusion. The problemand it is a problem for all times and all human lifeis that the dark side of existence makes itself apparent and forces us to confront whatever we have tried to shut out of our nice, tidy livable world. Thus, for Nietzsche, while the Greeks, and the Athenians in particular, had developed a rich world view based on Apollo and the other Olympian gods, they had rendered themselves largely ignorant of reality's dark side, as represented in the god Dionysus. Only in the distant past, and largely outside of Athens, had Dionysian festivals paved the way to direct (and destructive) experience of life's darkest sidesintoxication, sexual license, absorption by the primal horde, in short, dissolution of the individual (occasionally, actual dismemberment) and re-immersion into a common organic whole. (BT, 2, pp. 3940) The Apollonian in culture he sees as Arthur Schopenhauer's concept of the principium individuationis (principle of individuation) with its refinement, sobriety and emphasis on superficial appearance, whereby man separates himself from the undifferentiated immediacy of nature. Nietzsche claims sculpture as the art-form that captures this impulse most fully: sculpture has clear and definite boundaries and seeks to represent reality, in its perfectly stable form. The Dionysian impulse, by contrast, features immersion in the wholeness of nature, intoxication, non-rationality, and inhumanity; rather than the detached, rational representation of the Apollonian that invites similarly detached observation, the Dionysian impulse involves a frenzied participation in life itself. Nietzsche sees the Dionysian impulse as best realized in music, which tends not to have clear boundaries, is unstable and non-representational, and, in Nietzsche's view, invites participation among its listeners through dance. Nietzsche argues that the Apollonian has dominated Western thought since Socrates, but he sees German Romanticism (especially Richard Wagner) as a possible re-introduction of the Dionysian, which might offer the salvation of European culture. The book shows the influence of Schopenhauer.[3] The issue, then, or so Nietzsche thought, is how to experience and understand the Dionysian side of life without destroying the obvious values of the Apollonian side. It is not healthy for an individual, or for a whole society, to become entirely absorbed in the rule of one or the other. The soundest (healthiest) foothold is in both. Nietzsche's theory of Athenian tragic drama suggests exactly how, before Euripides and Socrates, the Dionysian and Apollonian elements of life were artistically woven together. The Greek spectator became healthy through direct experience of the Dionysian within the protective spirit-of-tragedy on the Apollonian stage.

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Influences
The Birth of Tragedy is a young man's work, and shows the influence of many of the philosophers Nietzsche had been studying. His interest in classical Greece as in some respects a rational society can be attributed in some measure to the influence of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, although Nietzsche departed from Winckelmann in many ways. In addition, Nietzsche uses the term "naive" in exactly the sense used by Friedrich Schiller. More important influences include Hegel, whose concept of the dialectic underlies the tripartite division of art into the Apollonian, its Dionysian antithesis, and their synthesis in Greek tragedy. Also of great importance are the works of Arthur Schopenhauer, especially The World as Will and Representation. The Apollonian experience bears great similarity to the experience of the world as "representation" in Schopenhauer's sense, and the experience of the Dionysian bears similarities to the identification with the world as "will." Nietzsche opposed Schopenhauer's Buddhistic negation of the will. He argued that life is worth living despite the enormous amount of cruelty and suffering that exists.[4]

Reception
The Birth of Tragedy was angrily criticized by many respected professional scholars of Greek literature. Particularly vehement was philologist Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, who denounced Nietzsche's work as slipshod and misleading. Prompted by Nietzsche, Erwin Rohde -- a friend who had written a favorable review that sparked the first derogatory debate over the book -- responded by exposing Wilamowitz-Moellendorf's inaccurate citations of Nietzsche's work. Richard Wagner also issued a response to Wilamowitz-Moellendorf's critique, but his action only served to characterize Nietzsche as the composer's lackey. In his denunciation of The Birth of Tragedy, Wilamowitz says: Herr N. ... is also a professor of classical philology; he treats a series of very important questions of Greek literary history. ... This is what I want to illuminate, and it is easy to prove that here also imaginary genius and impudence in the presentation of his claims stands in direct relation to his ignorance and lack of love of the truth. ... His solution is to belittle the historical-critical method, to scold any aesthetic insight which deviates from his own, and to ascribe a "complete misunderstanding of the study of antiquity" to the age in which philology in Germany, especially through the work of Gottfried Hermann and Karl Lachmann, was raised to an unprecedented height. In suggesting the Greeks might have had problems, Nietzsche was departing from the scholarly traditions of his age, which viewed the Greeks as a happy, perhaps even naive, and simple people. The work is a web of professional philology, philosophical insight, and admiration of musical art. As a work in philology, it was almost immediately rejected, virtually destroying Nietzsche's academic aspirations. The music theme was so closely associated with Richard Wagner that it became an embarrassment to Nietzsche once he himself had achieved some distance and independence from Wagner. It stands, then, as Nietzsche's first complete, published philosophical work, one in which a battery of questions are asked, sketchily identified, and questionably answered. Marianne Cowan, in her introduction to Nietzsche's Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, describes the situation in these words: The Birth of Tragedy presented a view of the Greeks so alien to the spirit of the time and to the ideals of its scholarship that it blighted Nietzsche's entire academic career. It provoked pamphlets and counter-pamphlets attacking him on the grounds of common sense, scholarship and sanity. For a time, Nietzsche, then a professor of classical philology at the University of Basel, had no students in his field. His lectures were sabotaged by German philosophy professors who advised their students not to show up for Nietzsche's courses. By 1886, Nietzsche himself had reservations about the work, and he published a preface in the 1886 edition where he re-evaluated some of his main concerns and ideas in the text. In this post-script, Nietzsche referred to The Birth of Tragedy as "an impossible book... badly written, ponderous, embarrassing, image-mad and image-confused, sentimental, saccharine to the point of effeminacy, uneven in tempo, [and] without the will to logical cleanliness."[5]

The Birth of Tragedy Its reception was such a personal disappointment that he referred to it, once, as "falling stillborn from the press." Still, he defended the "arrogant and rhapsodic book" for inspiring "fellow-rhapsodizers" and for luring them on to "new secret paths and dancing places." In 1888, in Ecce Homo, Nietzsche was back on the attack. He defends the The Birth of Tragedy by stating: "...It is indifferent toward politics,'un-German,' to use the language of the present timeit smells offensively Hegelian, and the cadaverous perfume of Schopenhauer sticks only to a few formulas. An 'idea'the antithesis of the Dionysian and the Apolliniantranslated into the metaphysical; history itself as the development of this 'idea'; in tragedy this antithesis is sublimated into a unity; under this perspective things that had never before faced each other are suddenly juxtaposed, used to illuminate each other, and comprehended... Opera, for example, and the revolution. The two decisive innovations of the book are, first, its understanding of the Dionysian phenomenon among the Greeks: for the first time, a psychological analysis of this phenomenon is offered, and it is considered as one root of the whole of Greek art. The other is the understanding of Socratism: Socrates is recognized for the first time as an instrument of Greek disintegration, as a typical dcadent. 'Rationality' against instinct. 'Rationality' at any price as a dangerous force that undermines life! Profound, hostile silence about Christianity throughout the book. That is neither Apollinian nor Dionysian; it negates all aesthetic valuesthe only values that the 'Birth of Tragedy' recognizes: it is nihilistic in the most profound sense, while in the Dionysian symbol the ultimate limit of affirmation is attained. There is one allusion [The Birth of Tragedy, 24] to Christian priests as a 'vicious kind of dwarfs' who are 'subterranean' ..." In the title of his novel The Magic Mountain, Thomas Mann alludes to a passage from The Birth of Tragedy, and the influence of Nietzsche's work can be seen in the novel's character Mynheer Peepercorn, who embodies the "Dionysian principle."[6]

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Quotations
The joyous necessity of the dream experience has been embodied by the Greeks in their Apollo: Apollo, the god of all plastic energies, is at the same time the soothsaying god, He, who (as the etymology of the name indicates) is the "shining one," the deity of light, is also ruler over the beautiful illusion of the inner world of fantasy. [...] But we must also include in our image of Apollo that delicate boundary which the dream image must not overstep lest it have a pathological effect [...] We must keep in mind the measured restraint, the freedom from the wilder emotions, that calm of the sculptor god. His eye must be "sunlike," as befits his origin; even when it is angry and distempered it is still hallowed by beautiful illusion [...] (translated by Walter Kaufmann) [...] Schopenhauer has depicted for us the tremendous terror which seizes man when he is suddenly dumbfounded by the cognitive form of phenomena because the principle of sufficient reason, in some one of its manifestations, seems to suffer an exception. If we add to this terror the blissful ecstasy that wells from the innermost depths of man, indeed of nature, at this collapse of the principium individuationis, we steal a glimpse into the nature of the Dionysian, which is brought home to us most intimately by the analogy of intoxication. (translated by Walter Kaufmann) Even under the influence of the narcotic draught, of which songs of all primitive men and peoples speak, or with the potent coming of spring that penetrates all nature with joy, these Dionysian emotions awake, and as they grow in intensity everything subjective vanishes into complete self-forgetfulness. In the German Middle Ages, too, singing and dancing crowds, ever increasing in number, whirled themselves from place to place under this same Dionysian impulse. [...] There are some who, from obtuseness or lack of experience, turn away from such phenomena as from "folk-diseases," with contempt or pity born of consciousness of their own "healthy-mindedness." But of course such poor wretches have no idea how corpselike and ghostly their so-called "healthy-mindedness" looks when the glowing life of the Dionysian revelers roars past them. (translated by Walter Kaufmann)

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References
Kaufmann, Walter ed. Basic Writings of Nietzsche. New York: Modern Library, 2000. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. Translated with an introduction by Marianne Cowan. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, Inc., 1962. Porter, James I. The Invention of Dionysus: An Essay on The Birth of Tragedy. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000. Grnder, Karlfried, ed. Der Streit um Nietzsches "Geburt der Tragdie"': Die Schriften von E. Rohde, R. Wagner, und U. von Wilamowitz-Mllendorff. Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1969.

See also
Pessimism Optimism

External links
The text, translated by Ian C. Johnston [7] Die Geburt der Tragdie [8] at Project Gutenberg (German) Original German text [9]

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 30702580 [2] Johann Winckelmann, History of Ancient Art, 1764 [3] As the original title (The Birth of Tragedy Out of the Spirit of Music) claimed, Nietzsche asserted that tragic drama was derived from music. Music, then is more fundamental than tragic drama and is its basis. This is Schopenhauerian in that Schopenhauer's aesthetics place music as the most basic, direct expression of the world's essence, which is blind, impulsive will. [4] Kaufmann, 11. [5] Kaufmann, 18. [6] Nietzsche, Friedrich, The Birth of Tragedy. Trans. Douglas Smith. Oxford University Press, 2008: pgs. xxxii, 28, 109, 140. ISBN 978-0199540143 [7] http:/ / records. viu. ca/ ~johnstoi/ Nietzsche/ tragedy_all. htm [8] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 7206 [9] http:/ / www. zeno. org/ Philosophie/ M/ Nietzsche,+ Friedrich/ Die+ Geburt+ der+ Trag%C3%B6die

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Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks

Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (Philosophie im tragischen Zeitalter der Griechen) is a publication of an incomplete book by Friedrich Nietzsche. He had a clean copy made from his notes with the intention of publication. The notes were written around 1873. In it he discussed five Greek philosophers from the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.. They are Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Parmenides, and Anaxagoras. He had, at one time, intended to include Democritus, Empedocles, and Socrates. The book ends abruptly after the discussion of Anaxagoras's cosmogony.

Early preface
Nietzsche stated that he wanted to present the outlooks of very worthy individuals who originated in ancient Greece from 600 B.C. to 400 B.C.. "The task is to bring to light what we must ever love and honor...." Nietzsche wanted future humans to be able to say, "So this has existed once, at least and is therefore a possibility, this way of life, this way of looking at the human scene."

Later preface
By selecting only a few doctrines for each philosopher, Nietzsche hoped to exhibit each philosopher's personality.

A justification of philosophy
Nietzsche felt that it is important to know about these philosophers because they were dedicated to finding the truth about life and the world. Their concern was with the elaboration of their unique personal point of view. The pre-Socratics existed at a time when Greece was at its height. In such a time of wealthy and successful life, they had the strength and independence to question the general worth of existence. The tragedians of that age addressed the same issue with their plays. With Plato, philosophers then lost their own individual stylistic unities. Their works and personalities were combinations of previous types. They became sectarian and didn't contribute to a unified culture. They did not live their lives in accordance with their personal outlooks. Plato and subsequent philosophers lacked a pure, unified style.

Thales
This philosopher proposed that water is the origin af all things. Nietzsche claimed that this must be taken seriously for three reasons. 1. It makes a statement about the primal origin of all things; 2. It uses language that has nothing to do with fable or myth; 3. It reflects the vision that all things are really one. Thales' generalization was the result of creative imagination and analogy. He did not use reason, logical proof, myth, or allegory. This was a first attempt to think about nature without the use of myths about gods. However, instead of trying to gain knowledge of everything, he wanted to know the one important common property of all things. In order to communicate his vision of oneness, he expressed himself by applying the analogy of water.

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Anaximander
Anaximander of Miletus was the first philosopher who wrote his words. His most famous passage is, "The source of coming-to-be for existing things is that into which destruction, too, happens according to necessity; for they pay penalty and retribution to each other for their injustice according to the assessment of Time." This pessimistic expression presented existence as something that should not be. Any definite thing must pay for its individuality by, after a short time, passing back into its indefinite (apeiron) source. This source cannot also be definite. Therefore it is indefinite and does not pass away. Anaximander was the first Greek to provide an ethical or moral interpretation of existence. By emerging from the primeval oneness, each definite individual thing must pay a price by returning. This meant that the individual, separate existence of each and every thing is unjust. It has no justification or value in itself. His manner of living was in accordance with his thought. He dressed and spoke in a dignified, solemn manner. This unity of style was typical of the pre-Platonic philosophers

Heraclitus
As the opposite of Anaximander, Heraclitus saw no injustice, guilt, evil, or penance in the emergence and disappearance of worldly objects. To him, continuous becoming and passing away is the order of nature. There is a wonderful fixed order, regularity, and certainty that shows itself in all change and becoming. Heraclitus did not think that there is a metaphysical, undefinable indefinite (apeiron) out of which all definite things come into existence. Also, he denied that there is any permanent being. Nietzsche paraphrased him as saying, "You use names for things as though they rigidly, persistently endured; yet even the stream into which you step a second time is not the one you stepped into before." Heraclitus's way of thinking was the result of perception and intuition. He despised rational, logical, conceptual thought. His pronouncements were purposely self-contradictory. "We are and at the same time are not." "Being and nonbeing is at the same time the same and not the same." This intuitive thinking is based on seeing the changing world of experience which is conditioned by never-ending variations in time and space. Every object that is perceived through time and space has an existence that is relative to other objects. Nature and reality are seen as a continuous action in which there is no permanent existence. The unending strife between opposites, which seek to re-unite, is a kind of lawful justice for Heraclitus. In accordance with the Greek culture of contest, the strife among all things follows a built-in law or standard. According to Heraclitus, the one is the many. Every thing is really fire. In passing away, the things of the world show a desire to be consumed in the all-destroying cosmic fire. When they are part of the fire again, their desire is briefly satisfied. But things soon come into being again as a result of the fire's impulse to play a game with itself. Due to the contradictions that occur in Heraclitus's brief sayings, he has been accused of being obscure. However, Nietzsche asserts that he was very clear. The shortness and terseness of Heraclitus's statements may seem to result in their obscurity, but Nietzsche stated that they are unclear only for readers who do not take the time to think about what is being said. Nietzsche interpreted Heraclitus's words, "I sought for myself," as indicating that he possessed great self-esteem and conviction. Without concern as to whether his thoughts appealed to anyone beside himself, he pronounced that he saw fixed law in the continual change of becoming. Also, he intuited that the particular changes that occur with strict necessity are, on the whole, the play of a game. Heraclitus wanted future humanity to know his timeless truths.

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Parmenides
Many of Parmenides's qualities were the direct opposite of Heraclitus. Heraclitus grasped his truths through intuition. He saw and knew the world of Becoming. Parmenides, however, arrived at his truths through pure logic. He calculated and deduced his doctrine of Being. Parmenides had an early doctrine and a later, different, teaching. Nietzsche claimed that Parmenides's two ways of thinking not only divided his own life into two periods but also separated all pre-Socratic thinking into two halves. The earlier way was the Anaximandrean period. This dealt with two worlds: the world of Becoming and the world of Being. The second was the Parmenidean. In this world, there is no becoming, change, or impermanence. There is only Being. The qualities of the world, Parmenides thought, were divided into opposites. There are positive qualities and there are their opposite negations. His division was based on abstract logic and not on the evidence of the senses. This dichotomy of positive and negative then became the separation into the existent and the nonexistent. For things to become, there must be an existent and a non-existent. Desire unites these opposites and creates the world of Becoming. When desire is satisfied, the existent and the nonexistent oppose each other and the things pass away. Nietzsche did not think that an external event led to Parmenides's denial of Becoming. The influence of Xenophanes is made negligible by Nietzsche. Even though both men gave great importance to the concept of unity, Xenophanes communicated in ways that were alien to Parmenides. Xenophanes was a philosophical poet whose view of mystic unity was related to religion. He was an ethicist who rejected the contemporary values of Greece. Nietzsche claimed that the common attribute between Parmenides and Xenophanes was their love of personal freedom and unconventionality, not their emphasis on oneness. The internal event that led to Parmenides's denial of Becoming began when he considered the nature of negative qualities. He asked himself whether something that has no being can have being. Logically, this was the same as asking whether A is not A. Parmenides then realized that what is, is. Also, what is not, is not. His previous thinking about negative qualities was then seen as being very illogical. Heraclitus's contradictory statements were considered to be totally irrational. If that which is, is, and that which is not, is not, then several conclusions follow. That which truly is must be forever present. The existent also is not divisible, because there is no other existent to divide it. It is also immobile and finite. In sum, there is only eternal oneness. The senses lead us to believe otherwise. Therefore, for Parmenides, the senses are illusive, mendacious, and deceitful. He accepted only his logical and rational conclusions. All sensual evidence was ignored. Parmenides only affirmed his extremely abstract, general truth which was totally unlike the reality of common experience. Although logically certain, Parmenides's concept of being was empty of content. No sense perception illustrated this truth. "What is, is" is a judgement of pure thought, not experience. Nietzsche claimed that Parmenides created his concept of being from his own personal experience of feeling himself as alive. He then illogically attributed this general concept of absolute being to everything in the world. Thus, Nietzsche saw being as a subjective concept that was mistakenly asserted to be objective. Nietzsche's paraphrase of Parmenides's truth was, "I breathe, therefore being exists." Along with his disciple Zeno of Elea, Parmenides stated that there is no such thing as infinity. If infinity exists, it would be the indivisible, immobile, eternal unity of being. In other words, it would be finite. Zeno's examples of flying arrows and Achilles chasing a tortoise show that motion over an infinite space would be impossible. But we do experience motion. The world does exhibit finite infinity. Parmenides rejects, then, the perceivable world of motion and asserts that reality agrees only with his logical concepts, which do not include finite infinity. For him, thinking and being are the same. What he thinks is what exists. Objections can be raised against Parmenides's principles that sensual perception does not show true reality and that thinking is unmoving being. If the senses are unreal, how can they deceive? If thinking is immobile being, how does

Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks it move from concept to concept? Instead, it can be stated that the many things that are experienced by the senses are not deceptive. Also, motion can have being. No objection, however, can be made to Parmenides's self-evident main teaching that there is being, or, what is, is.

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Anaxagoras
Anaxagoras raised two objections against Parmenides: 1. the origin of semblance, and 2. the mobility of thought. He did not object, however, to Parmenides's main doctrine that there is only being, not becoming. Anaximander and Heraclitus had claimed that there is becoming and passing away. Thales and Heraclitus had said that the world of multiple qualities comes out of one prime substance. With Anaxagoras, all subsequent philosophers and scientists rejected all coming into existence out of nothing and disappearance into nothing. If the many things that we experience in the world are not mere semblance but do not come from nothing and do not come from one single thing, what is their origin? Since like produces like, the many different things come from many different things. In other words, there are infinitely many different prime substances. Their total is always constant but their arrangements change. Why do the forms and patterns of these real substances change? Because they are in motion. Change and motion are not semblance and are truly real. Does the movement come from within each thing? Is there another external thing that moves each object? Movement is not mere appearance. Movement occurs because each substance is similar to each other substance in that they are all made of the same matter. There is no total isolation or complete difference between substances. This common material substratum allows them to interact. When two substances try to occupy the same space, one of the substances must move away. This is actual motion and change. If it is certain that our ideas appear to us in succession, then they must move themselves because they are not moved by things that are not ideas. This proves that there is something in the world that moves itself. Ideas are also capable of moving things that are different from themselves. They move the body. Therefore, there is a thinking substance that moves itself and other substances. This nous (mind, intelligence) is made out of extremely fine and delicate matter. It is an ordering, knowing, purposeful mover. Nous was the first cause of every subsequent mechanical change in the universe. Originally, before nous moved the first particle of matter, there was a complete mixture which was composed of infinitely small components of things. Each of these was a homoeomery, the small parts being the same as the large whole. For example, a tooth is made of small teeth. This is the result of the thought that like must come from like. After the movement began, individual objects became separated from this mixture when like combined with like. When one substance finally predominated, the accumulation became a particular thing. This process is called "coming to be" or "becoming." Nous is not a part of the original mixture. It started the revolutionary motion which separated things from the primal mixture. The motion is a centrifugal, spiralling vortex in which likes attach to their likes. There is no god who moves things with a purpose in mind. There is only a mechanical whirlpool of movement. Unlike Parmenides's motionless sphere of being, Anaxagoras saw the world as a moving circle of becoming. Nous started the spinning. Thereafter the universe developed on its own, according to lawful necessity. To be able to start and sustain motion against the resistance of the infinite mixture, nous had to use a sudden, infinitely strong and infinitely rapid, force. It also had to move the first point in a circular path that was larger than its own size. In this way, it affected other points. Nous freely chose to start the vortex. It thereby created its own goal and purpose in a playful game. This was not a moral or ethical process. Rather, it was aesthetic, in that nous simply wanted to enjoy the spectacle of its own creation.

Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks Later philosophers, such as Plato, wanted to attribute ethical properties to nous's creation of the world. For them, it should be made in the most perfect, beautiful, useful manner. Anaxagoras, however, did not employ teleology. Nous, for him, was a mechanical, efficient cause, not a final cause. Any future purpose would have eliminated a freely chosen start. Nietzsche's book abruptly ends here with a description of a nous that created the world as a game. The freedom of nous's creative will is opposed to the necessary determinism of its creation, the universe. Nous is referred to as a mind (Geist) that has free, arbitrary choice. The created world, physis, is a determined, mechanical piece of machinery. Any order or efficiency of things is only an outcome of purposeless change.

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References
Nietzsche, Friedrich, Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, Regnery Gateway ISBN 0-89526-944-9

On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense

ber Wahrheit und Lge im auermoralischen Sinn (in English: "On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense", also called "On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense"[1] ) is an (initially) unpublished work of Friedrich Nietzsche written in 1873, one year after The Birth of Tragedy.[2] It deals largely with epistemological questions of truth and language, including the formation of concepts. Every word immediately becomes a concept, inasmuch as it is not intended to serve as a reminder of the unique and wholly individualized original experience to which it owes its birth, but must at the same time fit innumerable, more or less similar caseswhich means, strictly speaking, never equalin other words, a lot of unequal cases. Every concept originates through our equating what is unequal.[3] According to Paul E. Glenn, Nietzsche is arguing that "concepts are metaphors which do not correspond to reality."[4] Although all concepts are human inventions (created by common agreement to facilitate ease of communication), human beings forget this fact after inventing them, and come to believe that they are "true" and do correspond to reality.[4] Thus Nietzsche argues that "truth" is actually: A mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphismsin short, a sum of human relations which have been enhanced, transposed, and embellished poetically and rhetorically, and which after long use seem firm, canonical, and obligatory to a people: truths are illusions about which one has forgotten that this is what they are; metaphors which are worn out and without sensuous power; coins which have lost their pictures and now matter only as metal, no longer as coins.[5] These ideas about truth and its relation to human language have been particular influential among postmodern theorists,[4] and "On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense" is one of the works most responsible for Nietzsche's reputation (albeit a contentious one) as "the godfather of postmodernism."[6]

On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense

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External links
ber Wahrheit und Lge im auermoralischen Sinn [7] at the German Wikisource. On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense [8] at filepedia.org.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Walter Kaufmann's translation, appearing in The Portable Nietzsche, 1976 edition. Viking Press. Portable Nietzsche 42. Portable Nietzsche 46. Glenn, Paul E. (2004-12). "The Politics of Truth: Power in Nietzsche's Epistemology". Political Research Quarterly 57 (4): 576. Portable Nietzsche 46-47. Cahoone, Lawrence E. (2003). From modernism to postmodernism: an anthology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=S5CaF_otgZcC& pg=PT107& lpg=PT107& dq=On+ Truth+ and+ Lies+ in+ a+ Nonmoral+ Sense+ postmodern& source=bl& ots=2PAF9zAVtj& sig=V-fEDCvIMy4ykdhap6vVSP3cARc& hl=en& ei=eTBfS5TWGYnOlAe24t3XCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=8& ved=0CCEQ6AEwBw#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Wiley-Blackwell. pp.109. . [7] http:/ / de. wikisource. org/ wiki/ %C3%9Cber_Wahrheit_und_L%C3%BCge_im_aussermoralischen_Sinn [8] http:/ / filepedia. org/ on-truth-and-lies-in-a-nonmoral-sense

Untimely Meditations (Nietzsche)

Untimely Meditations (in the original German Unzeitgemsse Betrachtungen, and also translated as Unfashionable Observations[1] and in many other ways (see below), consists of four works by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, started in 1873 and completed in 1876. The work comprises a collection of four (out of a projected 13) essays concerning the contemporary condition of European, especially German, culture. A fifth essay, published posthumously, had the title "We Philologists", and gave as a "Task for philology: disappearance".[2] Nietzsche here began to discuss the limitations of empirical knowledge, and presented what would appear compressed in later aphorisms. It combines the naivete of The Birth of Tragedy with the beginnings of his more mature polemical style. It was Nietzsche's most humorous work, especially for "David Strauss: the confessor and the writer," though this levity was not continued by Nietzsche much in later works.

Publication
Unzeitgemsse Betrachtungen has been one of the more difficult of Nietzsche's titles to be translated into English, with each subsequent translation offering a new variation. Thus: Untimely Meditations (Kaufmann), Thoughts Out of Season (Ludovici), Untimely Reflections (Hayman), Unmodern Observations (Arrowsmith) and Inopportune Speculations Unfashionable Observations or Essays in Sham Smashing (Menken). Many different plans for the series are found in Nietzsche's notebooks, most of them showing a total of thirteen essays. The titles and subjects vary with each entry, the project conceived to last six years (one essay every six months.) A typical outline dated "Autumn 1873" reads as follows:

Untimely Meditations (Nietzsche)

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1. The Cultural Philistine 2. History 3. The Philosopher 4. The Scholar 5. Art 6. The Teacher 7. Religion 8. State War Nation 9. The Press 10. Natural Science 11. Folk Society 12. Commerce 13. Language

Nietzsche abandoned the project after completing only four essays, seeming to lose interest after the publication of the third.[3]

David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer

David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer, 1873 (David Strauss: der Bekenner und der Schriftsteller) attacks David Strauss's The Old and the New Faith: A Confession (1871), which Nietzsche holds up as an example of the German thought of the time. He paints Strauss's "New Faith" - scientifically-determined universal mechanism based on the progression of history - as a vulgar reading of history in the service of a degenerate culture, polemically attacking not only the book but also Strauss as a Philistine of pseudo-culture.

On the Use and Abuse of History for Life

On the Use and Abuse of History for Life, 1874 (Vom Nutzen und Nachteil der Historie fr das Leben) offers instead of the prevailing view of "knowledge as an end in itself" an alternative way of reading history, one where living life becomes the primary concern; along with a description of how this might improve the health of a society. It also introduced an attack against the basic precepts of classic humanism. In this essay, Nietzsche attacks both the historicism of man (the idea that man is created through history) and the idea that one can possibly have an objective concept of man, since a major aspect of man resides in his subjectivity. Nietzsche expands the idea that the essence of Draft for the first chapter of the second man dwells not inside of him, but rather above him, in the following essay, "Schopenhauer Unzeitgemsse als Erzieher" ("Schopenhauer as Educator"). Glenn Most argues for the possible translation of Betrachtung the essay as "The Use and Abuse of History Departments for Life", as Nietzsche used the term Historie and not Geschichte. Furthermore, he alleges that this title may have its origins via Jacob Burckhardt, who would have referred to Leon Battista Alberti's treatise, De commodis litterarum atque incommodis (1428 "On the Advantages and Disadvantages of Literary Studies"). Glenn Most argues that the untimeliness of Nietzsche here resides in calling to a return, beyond historicism, to Humboldt's humanism, and, maybe even beyond, to the first humanism of the Renaissance.[2]

Untimely Meditations (Nietzsche)

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Schopenhauer as Educator
Schopenhauer as Educator, 1874 (Schopenhauer als Erzieher) describes how the philosophic genius of Schopenhauer might bring on a resurgence of German culture. Nietzsche gives special attention to Schopenhauer's individualism, honesty and steadfastness as well as his cheerfulness, despite Schopenhauer's noted pessimism.

Richard Wagner in Bayreuth

Richard Wagner in Bayreuth (1876 - that is, after a gap of two years from the previous essay) investigates the music, dama and personality of Richard Wagner less flatteringly than Nietzsche's friendship with his subject might suggest. The original draft was in fact more critical than the final version. Nietzsche considered not publishing it because of his changing attiudes to Wagner and his art. He was persuaded to reraft the article by his friend, the enthusiastic Wagnerian Peter Gast who helped him prepare a less contentious version.[4] Shortly after its publication, Nietzsche visited Bayreuth for the opening of the Bayreuth Festival. The essay was well-received by Wagner and his circle. However in the event the Festival confirmed Nietzsche's growing misgivings. The essay thus foreshadows the philosopher's imminent split with Wagner and his ideas.

References
Schaberg, William H. (1995). The Nietzsche Canon: A Publication History and Bibliography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.281. ISBN0226735753. Friedrich Nietzsche, tr. Richard T. Grey, Unfashionable Observations, Stanford, 1995 ISBN 0804734038

External links
Unzeitgeme Betrachtungen, original German text [5]

References
[1] Nietzsche (1995) [2] Glenn W. Most, "On the use and abuse of ancient Greece for life" (http:/ / www. hypernietzsche. org/ navigate. php?sigle=gmost-1), HyperNietzsche, 2003-11-09 (English) [3] Schaberg, pp.31-2 [4] Nietzsche (1995), 406 [5] http:/ / www. zeno. org/ Philosophie/ M/ Nietzsche,+ Friedrich/ Unzeitgem%C3%A4%C3%9Fe+ Betrachtungen

Hymnus an das Leben

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Hymnus an das Leben

The Hymn to Life is a musical composition for mixed chorus and orchestra by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Oft-regarded to be idiosyncratic for a philosopher, Nietzsche accorded to his music that it played a role in the understanding of his philosophical thought. In particular, this was laden upon Hymn to Life. This song's melody was also used earlier in Hymn to Friendship for piano, which was once conducted by Nietzsche at Bayreuth for the Wagners and had, according to Cosima Wagner, led to the first sign of a break with his friend Richard, in 1874. In spite of Nietzsche's intonations about his music, his music has largely been regarded as a biographical curiosity, irrelevant to his philosophical work.

Origin
Nietzsche stated, after communicating the main idea of Zarathustra along with an aspect of his "gaya scienza", in Ecce Homo: "...that Hymn to Life...a scarcely trivial symptom of my condition during that year when the Yes-saying pathos par excellence, which I call the tragic pathos, was alive in me to the highest degree. The time will come when it will be sung in my memory" (trans. Walter Kaufmann). The composition Hymn to Life was partly done by Nietzsche in August and September 1882, supported by the second stanza of the poem Lebensgebet by Lou Andreas-Salome. During 1884, Nietzsche wrote to Gast: "This time, 'music' will reach you. I want to have a song made that could also be performed in public in order to seduce people to my philosophy." With this request Lebensgebet was further emended to Friendship and orchestrated by "maestro Pietro Gasti"[1] , who modestly denied any reference in publication to his alterations of what Nietzsche had done previously. (Some, on the other hand, including Benjamin Moritz, conclude that these changes are significant enough to demerit Life as an unfeigned work by Nietzsche and classify it as a work by Kselitz.) Thereafter it was published under Nietzsche by E. W. Fritzsch in Leipzig as the first edition amid the summer of 1887, which is Friendship simply put to Andreas-Salome's Lied and with orchestral alterations, entitled Hymnus an das Leben. In October of the same year, Nietzsche wrote a letter to the German conductor Felix Mottl, to whom he expressed about his composition Life that which pertains to its high aesthetical import for his philosophical oeuvre: "I wish that this piece of music may stand as a complement to the word of the philosopher which, in the manner of words, must remain by necessity unclear. The affect of my philosophy finds its expression in this hymn." The following December, he wrote to Georg Brandes a letter in which he commented: "A choral and orchestral work of mine is just being published, a Hymn to Life. It is the one composition of mine that is meant to survive and to be sung one day 'in my memory'...."

See also
List of works by Friedrich Nietzsche Nietzsche Music Project

External links
Nietzsche Music Project [2] John Bell Young's discography, displays of his work on Nietzsche's music are included. [3] Customer review by John Bell Young on Nietzsche's music with criticism of the reviewed CD, Lauretta Altman, etc. [4]

Hymnus an das Leben "The Music and Thought of Friedrich Nietzsche"a dissertation by Ben Moritz (PDF) [5]: "the original Hymnus an die Freundschaft is a generally well-written and delightful work, worthy of inclusion in the piano repertoire." Nietzsche's music in four volumes. [6] Nietzsche as Composer [7]

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Ecce Homo, trans. Walter Kaufmann http:/ / nietzschemusicproject. org http:/ / www. johnbellyoung. com/ frame-discography. html http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ product/ B0000049P9 http:/ / sitemaker. umich. edu/ bmoritz/ nietzsche_project http:/ / www. nietzsche. ru/ english/ music. php3 http:/ / www. virtusens. de/ walther/ n_komp_e. htm

Human, All Too Human

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Human, All Too Human

Human, All Too Human
Author Original title Translator Country Language Genre(s) Publication date Published in English Media type Pages ISBN OCLC Number Dewey Decimal LC Classification Preceded by Followed by Friedrich Nietzsche Menschliches, Allzumenschliches Marion Faber, with Stephen Lehmann/ or R.J. Hollingdale Germany German philosophy, psychology 1878 1984 Paperback 275 0-8032-8368-7 33165928 128 20 B3313.M52 E5 1996 Untimely Meditations (1873-1876) The Dawn (1881)
[1]

Human, All Too Human (Menschliches, Allzumenschliches), subtitled A Book for Free Spirits (Ein Buch fr freie Geister), is a book by 19th century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, originally published in 1878. A second part, Assorted Opinions and Maxims (Vermischte Meinungen und Sprche), was published in 1879, and a third part, The Wanderer and his Shadow (Der Wanderer und sein Schatten), followed in 1880. Reflecting an admiration of Voltaire as a free thinker, but also a break in his friendship with composer Richard Wagner two years earlier, Nietzsche dedicated the original 1878 edition to the memory of Voltaire on the celebration of the anniversary of his death, May 30, 1778. Instead of a preface, the first part originally included a quotation from Descartes Discourse on the Method. Nietzsche later republished all three parts as a two-volume edition in 1886, adding a preface to each volume, and removing the Descartes quote as well as the dedication to Voltaire.

Style and structure

Unlike his first book, The Birth of Tragedy, which was written in essay style, Human, All Too Human is a collection of aphorisms, a style which he would use in many of his subsequent works. The aphoristic style was suited to many of the ideas and thoughts in the book, which are as short as a sentence, to as long as a few pages. It was also likely due to Nietzsches decline in health at the time, when he was already frequently suffering from vision problems as well as painful migraine headaches that would have made reading and writing very difficult. In 1879, a year after publishing the first installment, he was forced to leave his professorship at Basel University because of his deteriorating health. The first installments 638 aphorisms are divided into nine sections by subject, and a short poem as an epilogue. The second and third installments are an additional 408 and 350 aphorisms respectively.

Human, All Too Human This book represents the beginning of Nietzsche's "middle period", with a break from German Romanticism and from Wagner and with a definite positivist slant. Note the style: reluctant to construct a systemic philosophy, Nietzsche composed these works as a series of several hundred aphorisms, ranging in length from a single line to a few pages. This book comprises more a collection of debunkings of unwarranted assumptions than an interpretation, though it offers some elements of Nietzsche's thought in his arguments: he uses his perspectivism and the idea of the will to power as explanatory devices, though the latter remains less developed than in his later thought.

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Of First and Last Things

In this first section Nietzsche deals with metaphysics, specifically its origins as relating to dreams, the dissatisfaction with oneself, and language as well.

On the History of Moral Feelings

This section, named in honor of his friend Paul Res On the Origin of Moral Sensations, Nietzsche challenges the Christian idea of good and evil [2] , and as it was philosophized by Arthur Schopenhauer. Excerpt: "At the waterfall. When we see a waterfall, we think we see freedom of will and choice in the innumerable turnings, windings, breakings of the waves; but everything is necessary; each movement can be calculated mathematically. Thus it is with human actions; if one were omniscient, one would be able to calculate each individual action in advance, each step in the progress of knowledge, each error, each act of malice. To be sure the acting man is caught in his illusion of volition; if the wheel of the world were to stand still for a moment and an omniscient, calculating mind were there to take advantage of this interruption, he would be able to tell into the farthest future of each being and describe every rut that wheel will roll upon. The acting man's delusion about himself, his assumption that free will exists, is also part of the calculable mechanism. [3]

Religious Life
Here Nietzsche attacks religious worship, asserting that "Christianity wants to destroy, shatter, stun, intoxicate. [4]

From the Soul of Artists and Writers

Nietzsche uses this section to denounce the idea of divine inspiration in art, claiming great art is the result of hard work, not a higher power or genius. [5] This can be interpreted as a subliminal attack on his former friend Wagner (a strong believer in genius) though Nietzsche never mentions him by name, instead simply using the term the artist. [6]

Signs of Higher and Lower Culture

Here Nietzsche criticizes Darwin, as he frequently does, as naive and derivative of Hobbes and early English economists and without an account of life from the "inside" (and consider in this light Darwin's own introduction to the first edition of Origin) (consider also Nietzsche's critique to the effect that Darwinism, as typically understood, is trading in a new version of the Providential): Wherever progress is to ensue, deviating natures are of greatest importance. Every progress of the whole must be preceded by a partial weakening. The strongest natures retain the type, the weaker ones help to advance it. Something similar also happens in the individual. There is rarely a degeneration, a truncation, or even a vice or any physical or "moral" loss without an advantage somewhere else. In a warlike and restless clan, for example, the sicklier man may have occasion to be alone, and may therefore become quieter and wiser; the one-eyed man will have one eye the stronger; the blind man may see deeper inwardly (if there is a "inward" in Nietzsche?) (isn't surface all?), and certainly hear better. To this extent, the famous theory of the survival of the fittest does not seem to be the only viewpoint from which to explain the progress of strengthening of a

Human, All Too Human man or of a race. [7] (See Twilight of the Idols for more of Nietzsche's critique of Darwin.) Nietzsche writes of the free spirit or free thinker (Freigeist), and his role in society, [8] A sort of proto-bermensch, forming the basis of a concept he extensively explores in his later work Thus Spoke Zarathustra. A free spirit is one who goes against the herd, and onwards along the path of wisdom in order to better society. [9] "Better," for Nietzsche, appears to mean ordered toward the production of rare genius and is hardly to be confused with what "a newspaper reader," as Nietzsche might put it, would expect. The essential thing to keep in mind in considering Zarathustra, of course, is that Nietzsche presents Zarathustra as failing. One is compelled to wonder why, in general, Nietzsche considers that the world must be "redeemed," and if there is not something Christian (residual in the modern and especially in the "post-modern" or Nietzschean) in the concern for saving the world?

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Man in Society and Women and Child

These two sections are made up of mostly very short aphorisms on mans and women and childs natures or "evolution," in Nietzsche's subtle and anti-Darwinian sense. While section six is relatively mild, section seven, which is highly paradoxical, has resulted in Nietzsches "popular" reputation for misogyny, on account of shallow interpretations, or doctrinaire demands as to what may or may not be said. Consider thoughtfully, and without kneejerk reaction, for example, #412 together with #411. The entire section bears comparison to Republic V. He believes or at least says in one aphorism that free spirits will not marry and prefer to fly alone. [10]

A Look at the State

Here Nietzsche studies power in a state, and speaks strongly against war and nationalism. He also speaks on Europes Jews, worrying that in the literature of nearly all present-day nationsthere is an increase in the literary misconduct that leads the Jews to the slaughterhouse, as scapegoats for every possible public and private misfortune. [11] He continues, saying that they have had the most sorrowful history of all peoples, and to whom we owe the noblest human being (Christ), the purest philosopher (Spinoza), the mightiest book, and the most effective code in the world. [12] Though not anti-Semitic, this would eventually be one of his works taken out of context and reinterpreted by the Nazis to paint Nietzsche as an early philosopher of Nazism.

Man Alone with Himself

Like sections six and seven, Nietzsches aphorisms here are mostly short, but also poetic and at times could be interpreted as semi-autobiographical, in anticipation of the next volumes: He who has come only in part to a freedom of reason cannot feel on earth otherwise than as a wanderer. [13] Nietzsche also distinguishes the obscurantism of the metaphysicians and theologians from the more subtle obscurantism of Kant's critical philosophy and modern philosophical skepticism, claiming that obscurantism is that which obscures existence rather than obscures ideas alone: "The essential element in the black art of obscurantism is not that it wants to darken individual understanding but that it wants to blacken our picture of the world, and darken our idea of existence. [14]

Reception and translation

Within his lifetime, prior to his mental breakdown in 1889, few of Nietzsches books sold particularly well, and Human, All Too Human is no exception. The first installment was originally printed in 1,000 copies in 1878, and sold only 120 of these, and still less than half of these by 1886 when it was resold as the complete two-volume set. [15] Though his friendship with Richard Wagner was nearly over, Wagner actually received a signed copy, though he never read it, saying Nietzsche would thank him for this one day. [16] It was first translated into English in 1909 by writer Helen Zimmern as part of a complete edition of Nietzsches books in English, but was never translated by

Human, All Too Human Walter Kaufmann when he translated most of Nietzsches works into English in the 1950s and 60s. Finally, in the 1980s the first part was translated by Marion Faber and completely translated by R.J. Hollingdale the same decade. Most notoriously, Human, All Too Human was used by archivist Max Oehler, a strong supporter of Hitler, as supposed evidence of Nietzsches support for nationalism and anti-Semitism, both of which he writes against. Oehler wrote an entire book, Friedrich Nietzsche und die Deutsche Zukunft, dealing with Nietzsche and his connection to nationalism (specifically National Socialism) and anti-Semitism, using quotes from Human, All Too Human, though out of context. [17] Nietzsche would speak against anti-Semitism in other works including Thus Spoke Zarathustra and, most strongly, in The Antichrist [18] : An anti-Semite is certainly not any more decent because he lies as a matter of principle. [19] In Zarathustra, Nietzsche set up Wagner as a straw man, lampooning his anti-semitism in the process. Oehler also had control of Nietzsches archive during the Nazis rule, which he shared with Nietzsches sister, Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche, a Hitler supporter herself, until her death, when he took it over. It wasnt until much of Walter Kaufmanns work in the 1950s through the 1970s that Nietzsche was able to shed this connection with nationalism and anti-Semitism.

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Bibliography
Copleston, Frederick C. A History of Philosophy, Volume VII: Modern Philosophy: From the Post-Kantian Idealists to Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. New York: Doubleday, 1994. Craig, Gordon A. Germany: 1866-1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978. Kaufmann, Walter A. Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. 4th ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974. Nietzsche, Friedrich W. Basic Writings of Nietzsche. Trans. Walter A. Kaufmann. New York: Modern Library, 2000. Nietzsche, Friedrich W. Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits. Trans. Marion Faber, with Stephen Lehmann. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. Nietzsche, Friedrich W. Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Nietzsche, Friedrich W. The Portable Nietzsche. Trans. Walter A. Kaufmann. New York: Viking Press, 1954. Tanner, Michael, et al. German Philosophers: Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

External links
Human, All Too Human [20] - online book Menschliches, Allzumenschliches [21] at Project Gutenberg (German) [22] Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits. Hebrew Translation from Magnes Press Friedrich Nietzsche [23] by Robert Wicks. Ed. Edward N. Zalta (The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Nietzsche Chronicle [24] by Malcolm Brown. (Dartmouth College)

Human, All Too Human

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References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 33165928 [2] Nietzsche, Friedrich W. Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits. Trans. Marion Faber, and Stephen Lehmann. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. pp.43-4,67-8. 39,96. [3] Ibid., P. 74 106. [4] Ibid., P.189, 114. [5] Ibid., Pp.107-08, 155-57. [6] Ibid., Pp. 103-04, 146. [7] Ibid., Pp. 138-39. 224 [8] Ibid., P.139, 225. [9] Ibid., P.174, 292 [10] Ibid., P.205, 426. [11] Ibid., P.229, 475 [12] Ibid., P.229, 475 [13] Ibid., P. 266, 638. [14] Nietzsche, Friedrich W. Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits. Trans. R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. P. 220, 27. [15] Ibid., Introduction, xii. [16] Tanner, Michael, et al. German Philosophers: Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. P. 370 [17] Kaufmann, Walter A. Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. 4th ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974. The Master Race, Pp. 288-92. [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] Ibid., P. 298 Nietzsche, Friedrich W. The Portable Nietzsche. Trans. Walter A. Kaufmann. New York: Viking Press, 1954. P. 641, 55 http:/ / nietzsche. holtof. com/ Nietzsche_human_all_too_human/ index. htm http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 7207 http:/ / www. magnespress. co. il/ website/ index. asp?id=2986 http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ nietzsche/ http:/ / www. dartmouth. edu/ ~fnchron/ index. html

The Dawn (book)

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The Dawn (book)

The Dawn

Author Original title Country Language Genre(s)

Friedrich Nietzsche Morgenrthe Germany German philosophy, psychology

Publication date 1881 Preceded by Followed by Human, All Too Human (1878) The Gay Science (1882)

The Dawn (Morgenrte. Gedanken ber die moralischen Vorurteile) is a book written by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in 1881 (also translated as "The Dawn of Day" and Daybreak: Reflections on Moral Prejudices). Nietzsche de-emphasizes the role of hedonism as a motivator and accentuates the role of a "feeling of power". His relativism, both moral and cultural, and his critique of Christianity also reaches greater maturity. In Daybreak Nietzsche devoted a lengthy passage to his criticism of Christian biblical exegesis, including its arbitrary interpretation of objects and images in the Old Testament as prefigurements of Christ's crucifixion. The clear, calm and intimate style of this aphoristic book seems to invite a particular experience, rather than showing concern with persuading his readers to accept any point of view. He would develop many of the ideas advanced here more fully in later books. Early English translator JM Kennedy says of The Dawn, "This book was written for psychologists."

The Gay Science

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The Gay Science

The Gay Science

Author Original title Country Language Subject(s) Genre(s)

Friedrich Nietzsche Die frhliche Wissenschaft Germany German the death of God philosophy, poetry

Publication date 1882 Preceded by Followed by Dawn (1881) Thus Spoke Zarathustra (18831885)

The Gay Science [German: Die frhliche Wissenschaft], is a book written by Friedrich Nietzsche, first published in 1882 and followed by a second edition, which was published after the completion of Thus Spoke Zarathustra and Beyond Good and Evil, in 1887. This substantial expansion includes a fifth book and an appendix of songs. It was noted by Nietzsche to be "the most personal of all [his] books", and contains the greatest number of poems in any of his published works.

Title
The book's title uses a phrase that was well known at the time. It was derived from a Provenal expression for the technical skill required for poetry writing that had already been used by Ralph Waldo Emerson and E. S. Dallas and, in inverted form, by Thomas Carlyle (see The dismal science). The book's title was first translated into English as The Joyous Wisdom, but The Gay Science has become the common translation since Walter Kaufmann's version in the 1960s. Kaufmann cites The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (1955) that lists "The gay science (Provenal gai saber): the art of poetry." In Ecce Homo Nietzsche refers to the poems in the Appendix of The Gay Science, saying they were, written for the most part in Sicily, are quite emphatically reminiscent of the Provenal concept of gaya scienzathat unity of singer, knight, and free spirit which distinguishes the wonderful early culture of the Provenals from all equivocal cultures. The very last poem above all, "To the Mistral", an exuberant dancing song in which, if I may say so, one dances right over morality, is a perfect Provenalism. This alludes to the birth of modern European poetry that occurred in Provence around the 12th century, whereupon, after the culture of the troubadours fell into almost complete desolation and destruction due to the Albigensian Crusade (12091229), other poets in the 14th century ameliorated and thus cultivated the gai saber or gaia scienza.

The Gay Science In a similar vein, in Beyond Good and Evil Nietzsche observed that, love as passionwhich is our European speciality[was invented by] the Provenal knight-poets, those magnificent and inventive human beings of the "gai saber" to whom Europe owes so many things and almost owes itself. (Section 260) Another indicator of the deficiency of the original translation as The Joyous Wisdom is that the German Wissenschaft never indicates "wisdom" (wisdom = Weisheit), but a propensity toward any rigorous practice of a poised, controlled, and disciplined quest for knowledge, and is typically translated as "science". The book is usually placed within Nietzsche's middle period, during which his work extolled the merits of science, skepticism, and intellectual discipline as routes to mental freedom. The affirmation of the Provenal tradition is also one of a joyful "yea-saying" to life.

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Content
In The Gay Science Nietzsche experiments with the notion of power but does not advance any systematic theory. The book contains the first consideration of the idea of the eternal recurrence, a concept which would become critical in his next work Thus Spoke Zarathustra and underpins much of the later works.[1] "What, if some day or night a demon were to steal after you into your loneliest loneliness and say to you: 'This life as you now live it and have lived it, you will have to live once more and innumerable times more' ... Would you not throw yourself down and gnash your teeth and curse the demon who spoke thus? Or have you once experienced a tremendous moment when you would have answered him: 'You are a god and never have I heard anything more divine.' " - [341]

"God is dead"
Here also is the first occurrence of the famous formulation "God is dead," first in section 108. After Buddha was dead people showed his shadow for centuries afterwards in a cave,an immense frightful shadow. God is dead: but as the human race is constituted, there will perhaps be caves for millenniums yet, in which people will show his shadow.And wewe have still to overcome his shadow! - 108 Section 125 depicts the parable of the madman who is searching for God. He accuses us all of being the murderers of God. "'Whither is God?' he cried; 'I will tell you. We have killed him- you and I. All of us are his murderers..."

References
Kaufmann, Walter, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, Princeton University Press, 1974. The Gay Science: With a Prelude in Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs by Friedrich Nietzsche; translated, with commentary, by Walter Kaufmann (Vintage Books, March 1974, ISBN 0-394-71985-9)

External links
Die frhliche Wissenschaft [2] at Nietzsche Source Oscar Levy's 1924 English edition, trans. Thomas Common at the Internet Archive [3] Free audio download of the Levy translation [4] from LibriVox

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Kaufmann, p. 188. http:/ / www. nietzschesource. org/ texts/ eKGWB/ FW http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ completenietasch10nietuoft http:/ / librivox. org/ the-joyful-wisdom-by-friedrich-nietzsche

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Thus Spoke Zarathustra

Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None

Title page of the first edition. Author Original title Country Language Genre(s) Publisher Friedrich Nietzsche Also sprach Zarathustra: Ein Buch fr Alle und Keinen Germany German philosophical novel, prose poetry Ernst Schmeitzner

Publication date 18831885 Media type Preceded by Followed by Hardcover, paperback The Gay Science Beyond Good and Evil

Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None (German: Also sprach Zarathustra: Ein Buch fr Alle und Keinen) is a philosophical novel by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, composed in four parts between 1883 and 1885. Much of the work deals with ideas such as the "eternal recurrence of the same", the parable on the "death of God", and the "prophecy" of the Overman, which were first introduced in The Gay Science.[1] Described by Nietzsche himself as "the deepest ever written," the book is a dense and esoteric treatise on philosophy and morality, featuring as protagonist a fictionalized prophet descending from his recluse to mankind, Zarathustra. A central irony of the text is that Nietzsche mimics the style of the Bible in order to present ideas which fundamentally oppose Christian and Jewish morality and tradition.

Genesis
Thus Spoke Zarathustra was conceived while Nietzsche was writing The Gay Science; he made a small note, reading "6,000 feet beyond man and time," as evidence of this.[2] More specifically, this note related to the concept of the Eternal Recurrence, which is, by Nietzsche's admission, the central idea of Zarathustra; this idea occurred to him by a "pyramidal block of stone" on the shores of Lake Silvaplana in the Upper Engadine, a high alpine region whose valley floor is at 6,000 ft. Nietzsche planned to write the book in three parts over several years. He wrote that the ideas for Zarathustra first came to him while walking on two roads surrounding Rapallo, according to Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche in the introduction of Thomas Common's early translation of the book. While developing the general outlook of the book, he subsequently decided to write an additional three parts; ultimately, however, he composed only the fourth part, which is viewed to constitute an intermezzo.

Thus Spoke Zarathustra Nietzsche commented in Ecce Homo that for the completion of each part: "Ten days sufficed; in no case, neither for the first nor for the third and last, did I require more" (trans. Kaufmann). The first three parts were first published separately, and were subsequently published in a single volume in 1887. The fourth part remained private after Nietzsche wrote it in 1885; a scant forty copies were all that were printed, apart from seven others that were distributed to Nietzsche's close friends. In March 1892, the four parts were finally reprinted as a single volume. Since then, the version most commonly produced has included all four parts. The original text contains a great deal of word-play. An example of this exists in the use of the words "over" or "super" and the words "down" or "abyss/abysmal"; some examples include "superman" or "overman", "overgoing", "downgoing" and "self-overcoming".

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Synopsis
The book chronicles the fictitious travels and pedagogy of Zarathustra. The name of this character is taken from the ancient prophet usually known in English as Zoroaster (Avestan: Zarautra), the Persian founder of Zoroastrianism. Nietzsche is clearly portraying a "new" or "different" Zarathustra, one who turns traditional morality on its head. He goes on to characterize "what the name of Zarathustra means in my mouth, the mouth of the first immoralist:" [F]or what constitutes the tremendous historical uniqueness of that Persian is just the opposite of this. Zarathustra was the first to consider the fight of good and evil the very wheel in the machinery of things: the transposition of morality into the metaphysical realm, as a force, cause, and end in itself, is his work. [] Zarathustra created this most calamitous error, morality; consequently, he must also be the first to recognize it. [] His doctrine, and his alone, posits truthfulness as the highest virtue; this means the opposite of the cowardice of the "idealist who flees from reality []Am I understood?The self-overcoming of morality, out of truthfulness; the self-overcoming of the moralist, into his oppositeinto methat is what the name of Zarathustra means in my mouth. Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, "Why I Am a Destiny", 3, trans. Walter Kaufmann Zarathustra has a simple characterisation and plot,[3] narrated sporadically throughout the text. It possesses a unique experimental style, one that is, for instance, evident in newly invented "dithyrambs" narrated or sung by Zarathustra. Likewise, the separate Dithyrambs of Dionysus was written in autumn 1888, and printed with the full volume in 1892, as the corollaries of Zarathustra's "abundance". Some speculate that Nietzsche intended to write about final acts of creation and destruction brought about by Zarathustra. However, the book lacks a finale to match that description; its actual ending focuses more on Zarathustra recognizing that his legacy is beginning to perpetuate, and consequently choosing to leave the higher men to their own devices in carrying his legacy forth. Zarathustra also contains the famous dictum "God is dead", which had appeared earlier in The Gay Science.[4] In his autobiographical work Ecce Homo, Nietzsche states that the book's underlying concept is discussed within "the penultimate section of the fourth book" of The Gay Science (Ecce Homo, Kaufmann). It is the Eternal recurrence of the same events. This concept first occurred to Nietzsche while he was walking in Switzerland through the woods along the lake of Silvaplana (close to Surlei); he was inspired by the sight of a gigantic, towering, pyramidal rock. Before Zarathustra, Nietzsche had mentioned the concept in the fourth book of The Gay Science (e.g., sect. 341); this was the first public proclamation of the notion by him. Apart from its salient presence in Zarathustra, it is also echoed throughout Nietzsche's work. At any rate, it is by Zarathustra's transfiguration that he embraces eternity, that he at last ascertains "the supreme will to power".[5] This inspiration finds its expression with Zarathustra's Roundelay, featured twice in the book, once near the story's close:

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O man, take care! What does the deep midnight declare? "I was asleep From a deep dream I woke and swear: The world is deep, Deeper than day had been aware. Deep is its woe Joydeeper yet than agony: Woe implores: Go! But all joy wants eternity Wants deep, wants deep eternity."

Another singular feature of Zarathustra, first presented in the prologue, is the designation of human beings as a transition between apes and the "bermensch" (in English, either the "overman" or "superman"; or, superhuman or overhuman. English translators Thomas Common and R. J. Hollingdale use superman, while Kaufmann uses overman, and Parkes uses overhuman). The bermensch is one of the many interconnecting, interdependent themes of the story, and is represented through several different metaphors. Examples include: the lightning that is portended by the silence and raindrops of a travelling storm cloud; or the sun's rise and culmination at its midday zenith; or a man traversing a rope stationed above an abyss, moving away from his uncultivated animality and towards the bermensch. The symbol of the bermensch also alludes to Nietzsche's notions of "self-mastery", "self-cultivation", "self-direction", and "self-overcoming". Expostulating these concepts, Zarathustra declares: "I teach you the overman. Man is something that shall be overcome. What have you done to overcome him? "All beings so far have created something beyond themselves; and do you want to be the ebb of this great flood and even go back to the beasts rather than overcome man? What is the ape to man? A laughingstock or a painful embarrassment. And man shall be just that for the overman: a laughingstock or a painful embarrassment. You have made your way from worm to man, and much in you is still worm. Once you were apes, and even now, too, man is more ape than any ape. "Whoever is the wisest among you is also a mere conflict and cross between plant and ghost. But do I bid you become ghosts or plants? "Behold, I teach you the overman! The overman is the meaning of the earth. Let your will say: the overman shall be the meaning of the earth! I beseech you, my brothers, remain faithful to the earth, and do not believe those who speak to you of otherworldly hopes! Poison-mixers are they, whether they know it or not. Despisers of life are they, decaying and poisoned themselves, of whom the earth is weary: so let them go!" Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Prologue, 3, trans. Walter Kaufmann The book embodies a number of innovative poetical and rhetorical methods of expression. It serves as a parallel and supplement to the various philosophical ideas present in Nietzsche's body of work. He has, however, said that "among my writings my Zarathustra stands to my mind by itself" (Ecce Homo, Preface, sec. 4, Kaufmann). Emphasizing its centrality and its status as his magnum opus, it is stated by Nietzsche that: With [Thus Spoke Zarathustra] I have given mankind the greatest present that has ever been made to it so far. This book, with a voice bridging centuries, is not only the highest book there is, the book that is truly characterized by the air of the heightsthe whole fact of man lies beneath it at a tremendous distanceit is also the deepest, born out of the innermost wealth of truth, an inexhaustible well to which no pail descends without coming up again filled with gold and goodness. Ecce Homo, Preface, 4, trans. Walter Kaufmann Since, as stated, many of the book's ideas are also present in his other works, Zarathustra is seen to have served as a precursor to his later philosophical thought. With the book, Nietzsche embraced a distinct aesthetic assiduity. He

Thus Spoke Zarathustra later reformulated many of his ideas, in his book Beyond Good and Evil and various other writings that he composed thereafter. He continued to emphasize his philosophical concerns; generally, his intention was to show an alternative to repressive moral codes and to avert "nihilism" in all of its varied forms. Other aspects of Thus Spoke Zarathustra relate to Nietzsche's proposed "Transvaluation of All Values". This incomplete project began with The Antichrist.

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Themes
Nietzsche injects myriad ideas into the book, but there are a few recurring themes. The overman (bermensch), a self-mastered individual who has achieved his full power, is an almost omnipresent idea in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Man as a race is merely a bridge between animals and the overman. Nietzsche also makes a point that the overman is not an end result for a person, but more the journey toward self-mastery. The eternal recurrence, found elsewhere in Nietzsche's writing, is also mentioned. The eternal recurrence is the idea that all events that have happened will happen again, infinitely many times. Such a reality can serve as the litmus test for an overman. Faced with the knowledge that he would repeat every action that he has taken, an overman would be elated as he has no regrets and loves life. The will to power is the fundamental component of human nature. Everything we do is an expression of the will to power. The will to power is a psychological analysis of all human action and is accentuated by self-overcoming and self-enhancement. Contrasted with living for procreation, pleasure, or happiness, the will to power is the summary of all man's struggle against his surrounding environment as well as his reason for living in it. Copious criticisms of Christianity can be found in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, in particular Christian values of good and evil and its belief in an afterlife. Nietzsche sees the complacency of Christian values as fetters to the achievement of overman as well as on the human spirit.

Style
Harold Bloom calls Thus Spoke Zarathustra a "gorgeous disaster", adding that its rhapsodic fiction is "now unreadable".[6] Noteworthy for its format, the book comprises a philosophical work of fiction whose style often lightheartedly imitates that of the New Testament and of the Platonic dialogues, at times resembling pre-Socratic works in tone and in its use of natural phenomena as rhetorical and explanatory devices. It also features frequent references to the Western literary and philosophical traditions, implicitly offering an interpretation of these traditions and of their problems. Nietzsche achieves all of this through the character of Zarathustra (referring to the traditional prophet of Zoroastrianism), who makes speeches on philosophic topics as he moves along a loose plotline marking his development and the reception of his ideas. One can view this characteristic (following the genre of the bildungsroman) as an inline commentary on Zarathustra's (and Nietzsche's) philosophy. All this, along with the book's ambiguity and paradoxical nature, has helped its eventual enthusiastic reception by the reading public, but has frustrated academic attempts at analysis (as Nietzsche may have intended). Thus Spoke Zarathustra remained unpopular as a topic for scholars (especially those in the Anglo-American analytic tradition) until the second half of the twentieth century brought widespread interest in Nietzsche and his unconventional style that does not distinguish between philosophy and literature.[7] It offers formulations of eternal recurrence, and Nietzsche for the first time speaks of the bermensch: themes that would dominate his books from this point onwards. A vulnerability of Nietzsche's style is that his nuances and shades of meaning are very easily lost and all too easily gained in translation. The bermensch is particularly problematic: the equivalent "Superman" found in dictionaries and in the translations by Thomas Common and R.J. Hollingdale may create an unfortunate association with the heroic comic-character "Superman", while simultaneously detracting from Nietzsche's repeated play on "ber" as well as losing the gender-neutrality of the German.

Thus Spoke Zarathustra The "bermensch" is the being that overcomes the "great nausea" associated with nihilism; that overcomes that most "abysmal" realization of the eternal return. He is the being that "sails over morality", and that dances over gravity (the "spirit of gravity" is Zarathustra's devil and archenemy). He is a "harvester" and a "celebrant" who endlessly affirms his existence, thereby becoming the transfigurer of his consciousness and life, aesthetically. He is initially a destructive force, excising and annihilating the insidious "truths" of the herd, and consequently reclaiming the chaos from which pure creativity is born. It is this creative force exemplified by the bermensch that justifies suffering without displacing it in some "afterworld".

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Translations
The English translations of Zarathustra differ according to the sentiments of the translators. The Thomas Common translation favors a classic English approach, in the style of Shakespeare or the King James Version of the Bible. Common's poetic interpretation of the text, which renders the title Thus Spake Zarathustra, received wide acclaim for its lambent portrayal. Common reasoned that because the original German was written in a pseudo-Luther-Biblical style, a pseudo-King-James-Biblical style would be fitting in the English translation. The Common translation, which improved on Alexander Tille's earlier attempt,[8] remained widely accepted until the more critical translations, titled Thus Spoke Zarathustra, separately by R.J. Hollingdale and Walter Kaufmann, which are considered to convey more accurately the German text than the Common version. Kaufmann's introduction to his own translation included a blistering critique of Common's version; he notes that in one instance, Common has taken the German "most evil" and rendered it "baddest", a particularly unfortunate error not merely for his having coined the term "baddest", but also because Nietzsche dedicated a third of The Genealogy of Morals to the difference between "bad" and "evil".[8] This and other errors led Kaufmann to wondering if Common "had little German and less English".[8] The translations of Kaufmann and Hollingdale render the text in a far more familiar, less archaic, style of language, than that of Common. Clancy Martin's 2005 translation opens with criticism and praise for these three seminal translators, Common, Hollingdale, and Kaufmann. He notes that the German text available to Common was considerably flawed, and that the German text from which Hollingdale and Kaufmann worked was itself untrue to Nietzsche's own work in some ways. Martin criticizes Kaufmann for changing punctuation, altering literal and philosophical meanings, and dampening some of Nietzsche's more controversial metaphors.[9] Kaufmann's version, which has become the most widely available, features a translator's note suggesting that Nietzsche's text would have benefited from an editor; Martin suggests that Kaufmann "took it upon himself to become his editor".[9] Graham Parkes describes his own 2005 translation as trying "above all to convey the musicality of the text (which was not a priority for Walter Kaufmann or R.J. Hollingdale, authors of the best English translations so far)."[10]

Musical adaptation
The book inspired Richard Strauss to compose the tone poem Also sprach Zarathustra, which he designated "freely based on Friedrich Nietzsche." [11] Zarathustra's Roundelay is set as part of Gustav Mahler's Third Symphony (1895-6), originally under the title What Man Tells Me, or alternatively What the Night tells me (of Man). Frederick Delius based his major choral-orchestral work A Mass of Life (1904-5) on texts from Thus Spoke Zarathustra. The work ends with a setting of Zarathustra's Roundelay which Delius had composed earlier, in 1898, as a separate work. Carl Orff also composed a three-movement setting of part of Nietzsche's text as a teenager, but this work remains unpublished.

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Editions of Thus Spoke Zarathustra

1st - 1909 - (limited to 2,000) 2nd - 1911 - (limited to 1,500) 3rd - 1914 - (limited to 2,000) 4th - 1916 - (limited to 2,000) of Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spake Zarathustra: A Book for All and None translated by Thomas Common, published by the MacMillan Company in 1916, printed in Great Britain by The Darwien Press of Edinburgh. Also sprach Zarathustra, edited by Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari, Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag (study edition of the standard German Nietzsche edition) Thus Spoke Zarathustra, translated by Walter Kaufmann, New York: Random House; reprinted in The Portable Nietzsche, New York: The Viking Press, 1954 and Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1976 Thus Spoke Zarathustra, translated by R. J. Hollingdale, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1961 Thus Spoke Zarathustra, translated by Graham Parkes, Oxford: Oxford World's Classics, 2005 Thus Spoke Zarathustra, translated by Adrian del Caro and edited by Robert Pippin, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006

Commentaries on Thus Spoke Zarathustra

Gustav Naumann 1899-1901 Zarathustra-Commentar, 4 volumes. Leipzig : Haessel Higgins, Kathleen. 1990. Nietzsche's Zarathustra. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Lampert, Laurence. 1989. Nietzsche's Teaching: An Interpretation of Thus Spoke Zarathustra. New Haven: Yale University Press. Rosen, Stanley. 2004. The Mask of Enlightenment: Nietzsche's Zarathustra. New Haven: Yale University Press. Seung, T. K. 2005. Nietzsche's Epic of the Soul: Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Introduction to Thus Spoke Zarathustra

Rdiger Schmidt Nietzsche fr Anfnger: Also sprach Zarathustra - Eine Lese-Einfhrung (introduction in German to the work)

Essay collections on Thus Spoke Zarathustra

Essays on Thus Spoke Zarathustra: Before Sunrise, edited by James Luchte, London: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2008. ISBN 1847062210

External links
Also Sprach Zarathustra [12] at Nietzsche Source Project Gutenberg's etext of Also Sprach Zarathustra (the German original) [13] Project Gutenberg's etext of Thus Spake Zarathustra, translated by Thomas Common [14] Free audio download of the Common translation [15] from LibriVox

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References
[1] C. Guignon, D. Pereboom. Existentialism: Basic Writings, 2nd ed., Hackett, 2001. pp. 101-113 [2] Gutmann, James. "The "Tremendous Moment" of Nietzsche's Vision". The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 51, No. 25. American Philosophical Association Eastern Division: Papers to be presented at the Fifty-First Annual Meeting, Goucher College, December 28-30, 1954. pp. 837-842. [3] Pippin, Robert. "Nietzsche: Thus Spoke Zarathustra". Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy, University of Chicago, 2006. ISBN 0-5216-0261-0. p. ix. [4] Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. "The Gay Science: With a Prelude in German Rhymes and an Appendix of Songs". (Edition) Random House, 1974. p. xii. [5] The Will to Power, sect. 617; trans. Kaufmann [6] Bloom, Harold, The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages, Riverhead Books, 1994, p. 261, 422 [7] Behler, Ernst, Nietzsche in the Twentieth Century in The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche, Magnus and Higgins (ed), Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 281-319 [8] Nietzsche, Friedrich. Trans. Kaufmann, Walter. The Portable Nietzsche. 1976, page 108-9. [9] Nietzsche, Friedrich. Trans. Martin, Clancy. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. 2005, page xxxiii. [10] Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, Graham Parkes. Thus spoke Zarathustra. 2005, page xxxv [11] Bernard Jacobson. "Richard Strauss, Also Sprach Zarathustra, Op. 30 (1896)" (http:/ / www. americansymphony. org/ dialogues_extensions/ 99_2000season/ 2000_03_08/ strauss. cfm). American Symphony Orchestra: Dialogues and Extensions. . Retrieved 2007-12-11. [12] http:/ / www. nietzschesource. org/ texts/ eKGWB/ Za-I [13] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 7205 [14] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 1998 [15] http:/ / librivox. org/ thus-spake-zarathustra-by-friedrich-nietzsche/

Beyond Good and Evil

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Beyond Good and Evil

Beyond Good and Evil

Title page of the first edition. Author Original title Country Language Subject(s) Genre(s) Friedrich Nietzsche 'Jenseits von Gut und Bse. Vorspiel einer Philosophie der Zukunft' Germany German ethics, metaphysics philosophy

Publication date 1886 Preceded by Followed by Thus Spoke Zarathustra (18831885) On the Genealogy of Morality (1887)

Beyond Good and Evil (German: Jenseits von Gut und Bse), subtitled "Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future" (Vorspiel einer Philosophie der Zukunft), is a book by the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, first published in 1886. It takes up and expands on the ideas of his previous work, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, but approached from a more critical, polemical direction. In Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche attacks past philosophers for their alleged lack of critical sense and their blind acceptance of Christian premises in their consideration of morality. The work moves into the realm "beyond good and evil" in the sense of leaving behind the traditional morality which Nietzsche subjects to a destructive critique in favour of what he regards as an affirmative approach that fearlessly confronts the perspectival nature of knowledge and the perilous condition of the modern individual.

Background and themes

Of the four "late-period" writings of Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil most closely resembles the aphoristic style of his middle period. In it he exposes the deficiencies of those usually called "philosophers" and identifies the qualities of the "new philosophers": imagination, self-assertion, danger, originality, and the "creation of values". He then contests some of the key presuppositions of the old philosophic tradition like "self-consciousness," "knowledge," "truth," and "free will", explaining them as inventions of the moral consciousness. In their place he offers the will to power as an explanation of all behavior; this ties into his "perspective of life", which he regards as "beyond good and evil", denying a universal morality for all human beings. Religion and the master and slave moralities feature prominently as Nietzsche re-evaluates deeply-held humanistic beliefs, portraying even domination, appropriation and injury to the weak as not universally objectionable.

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Structure of the work

The work consists of 296 numbered sections and an "epode" (or "aftersong") entitled "From High Mountains". The sections are organized into nine parts: Part One: On the Prejudices of Philosophers Part Two: The Free Spirit Part Three: The Religious Essence Part Four: Maxims and Interludes Part Five: On the Natural History of Morals Part Six: We Scholars Part Seven: Our Virtues Part Eight: Peoples and Fatherlands Part Nine: What is Noble?

On philosophers, free spirits, and scholars

In the opening two parts of the book, Nietzsche discusses in turn the philosophers of the past, whom he accuses of a blind dogmatism plagued by moral prejudice masquerading as a search for objective truth; and the "free spirits", like himself, who are to replace them. He casts doubt on the project of past philosophy by asking why we should want the "truth" rather than recognizing untruth "as a condition of life." He offers an entirely psychological explanation of every past philosophy: each has been an "involuntary and unconscious memoir" on the part of its author (6) and exists to justify his moral prejudices, which he solemnly baptizes as "truths". In a startling passage (34), Nietzsche tells us that "from every point of view the erroneousness of the world in which we believe we live is the surest and firmest thing we can get our eyes on". Philosophers are wrong to rail violently against the risk of being deceived. "It is no more than a moral prejudice that truth is worth more than appearance". Life is nothing without appearances; it appears to Nietzsche that it follows from this that the abolition of appearances would imply the abolition of "truth" as well. In an even more extreme leap of logic, Nietzsche is led to ask the question, "what compels us to assume there exists any essential antithesis between 'true' and 'false'?" Nietzsche singles out the Stoic precept of "living according to nature" (9) as showing how philosophy "creates the world in its own image" by trying to regiment nature "according to the Stoa". But nature, as something uncontrollable and "prodigal beyond measure", cannot be tyrannized over in the way Stoics tyrannize over themselves. Further, there are forceful attacks on several individual philosophers. Descartes' cogito presupposes that there is an I, that there is such an activity as thinking, and that I know what thinking is (16). Spinoza masks his "personal timidity and vulnerability" by hiding behind his geometrical method (5), and inconsistently makes self-preservation a fundamental drive while rejecting teleology (13). Kant, "the great Chinaman of Knigsberg" (210), reverts to the prejudice of an old moralist with his categorical imperative, the dialectical grounding of which is a mere smokescreen (5). His "faculty" to explain the possibility of synthetic a priori judgements is likened to the explanation of the narcotic quality of opium in terms of a "sleepy faculty" in Molire's comedy Le Malade imaginaire. Schopenhauer is mistaken in thinking that the nature of the will is self-evident (19), which is in fact a highly complex instrument of control over those who must obey, not transparent to those who command. "Free spirits", by contrast to the philosophers of the past, are "investigators to the point of cruelty, with rash fingers for the ungraspable, with teeth and stomach for the most indigestible" (44). Nietzsche warns against those who would suffer for the sake of truth, and exhorts his readers to shun these indignant sufferers for truth and lend their ears instead to "cynics" those who "speak 'badly' of man - but do not speak ill of him" (26). There is a kind of fearless scholars who are truly independent of prejudice (6), but these "philosophical labourers and men of science in general" should not be confused with philosophers, who are "commanders and law-givers"

Beyond Good and Evil (211). Nietzsche also subjects physics to critique. "Nature's conformity to law" is merely one interpretation of the phenomena which natural science observes; Nietzsche suggests that the same phenomena could equally be interpreted as demonstrating "the tyrannically ruthless and inexorable enforcement of power-demands" (22). Nietzsche appears to espouse a strong brand of scientific anti-realism when he asserts that "It is we alone who have fabricated causes, succession, reciprocity, relativity, compulsion, number, law, freedom, motive, purpose" (21).

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On morality and religion

In the "pre-moral period of mankind", actions were judged by their consequences. Over the past 10,000 years, however, a morality has developed where actions are judged by their origins (their motivations) not their consequences. This morality of intentions is, according to Nietzsche, a "prejudice" and "something provisional [...] that must be overcome" (32). Nietzsche criticizes "unegoistic morality" and demands that "Moralities must first of all be forced to bow before order of rank" (221). Every "high culture" begins by recognizing "the pathos of distance"[1] (257). Nietzsche contrasts southern (Catholic) and northern (Protestant) Christianity; northern Europeans have much less "talent for religion" (48) and lack "southern delicatezza" (50). As elsewhere, Nietzsche praises the Old Testament while disparaging the New Testament (52). Religion has always been connected to "three dangerous dietary prescriptions: solitude, fasting and sexual abstinence" (47), and has exerted cruelty through demanding sacrifice according to a "ladder" with different rungs of cruelty, which has ultimately caused God Himself to be sacrificed (55). Christianity, "the most fatal kind of self-presumption ever", has beaten everything joyful, assertive and autocratic out of man and turned him into a "sublime abortion" (62). If, unlike past philosophers such as Schopenhauer, we really want to tackle the problems of morality, we must "compare many moralities" and "prepare a typology of morals" (186). In a discussion that anticipates On the Genealogy of Morality, Nietzsche claims that "Morality is in Europe today herd-animal morality" (202)i.e., it emanates from the ressentiment of the slave for the master (see also 260, which leads into the discussion in Genealogy, I).

On nations, peoples and cultures

Nietzsche discusses the complexities of the German soul (244), praises the Jews and heavily criticizes the trend of German anti-Semitism (251). He praises France as "the seat of Europe's most spiritual and refined culture and the leading school of taste" (254). He finds the English coarse, gloomy, more brutal than the Germans, and declares that "they are no philosophical race", singling out Bacon, Hobbes, David Hume and John Locke as representing a "debasement and devaluation of the concept 'philosopher' for more than a century" (252). Nietzsche also touches on problems of translation and the leaden quality of the German language (28). In a prophetic statement, Nietzsche proclaims that "The time for petty politics is past: the very next century will bring with it the struggle for mastery over the whole earth" (208).

Aphorisms and poetry

Between 62 and 186 Nietzsche inserts a collection of mostly single-sentence aphorisms, modelled on French aphorists such as La Rochefoucauld. Twelve of these ( 84, 85, 86, 114, 115, 127, 131, 139, 144, 145, 147, 148) concern women or the distinction between men and women. Other subjects touched on include his doctrine of the eternal recurrence (70), music (106) and utilitarianism (174), among more general attempts at trenchant observations about human nature.

Beyond Good and Evil The work concludes with a short ode to friendship in verse form (continuing Nietzsche's use of poetry in The Gay Science and Thus Spoke Zarathustra).

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Editions
Jenseits von Gut und Bse. Zur Genealogie der Moral, edited by Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari, Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2002 (study edition of the standard German Nietzsche edition) Beyond Good and Evil, translated by Walter Kaufmann, New York: Random House, 1966; reprinted in Vintage Books, and as part of Basic Writings of Nietzsche, New York: Modern Library, 2000 Beyond Good and Evil, translated by R. J. Hollingdale, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1973; revised reprint 1990 with introduction by Michael Tanner Beyond Good and Evil, translated by Helen Zimmern, 1906, reprinted in Courier Dover Publications, New York, 1997, ISBN 0-486-29868-X Beyond Good and Evil, translated by Marion Faber, Oxford: Oxford World's Classics, 1998 Beyond Good and Evil, translated by Judith Norman and edited by Rolf-Peter Horstmann, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002

External links
Beyond Good and Evil [2] at Project Gutenberg English-language edition. Beyond Good and Evil [3] at Project Gutenberg German-language edition. Beyond Good and Evil [4], available freely as an English-language audiobook, at LibriVox. A searchable, self-referential edition with concordance [5] An outline for Friedrich Nietzsche selections [6], Dr. Bob Zunjic, University of Rhode Island "On the Significance of Genealogy in Nietzsche's Critique of Morality" [7], by Carsten Korfmacher

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Nietzsche: On the Genealogy of Morals (http:/ / www. unc. edu/ ~megw/ Nietzsche. html), summary by Meg Wallace http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 4363 http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 7204 http:/ / librivox. org/ beyond-good-and-evil-by-friedrich-nietzsche http:/ / www. doc. ic. ac. uk/ ~rac101/ concord/ texts/ bge/ http:/ / www. uri. edu/ personal/ szunjic/ philos/ beyond. htm http:/ / www. carsten-korfmacher. com/ PHILOSOPHY/ Papers/ fngenealogy. html

On the Genealogy of Morality

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On the Genealogy of Morality

On the Genealogy of Morality

Title page of the first edition. Author Original title Country Language Subject(s) Genre(s) Friedrich Nietzsche 'Zur Genealogie der Moral' Germany German Ethics Philosophy

Publication date 1887 Preceded by Followed by Beyond Good and Evil (1886) The Case of Wagner (1888)

On the Genealogy of Morality, or On the Genealogy of Morals (German: Zur Genealogie der Moral), subtitled "A Polemic" (Eine Streitschrift), is a work by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, composed and first published in 1887 with the intention of expanding and following through on certain new doctrines sketched out in his previous work Beyond Good and Evil. The most straightforward of Nietzsche's books and the least aphoristic in form and style, it is considered by Nietzsche scholars to be a work of sustained brilliance and power, and Nietzsche's masterpiece.[1] It consists of a preface and three interrelated Abhandlungen ("treatises" or "essays"), which trace episodes in the evolution of moral concepts with a view to undermining "moral prejudices", and specifically the morality of Christianity.

On the Genealogy of Morality

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Summary
Preface
The subject of Nietzsche's treatises are his thoughts "on the origin of our moral prejudices", thoughts a long time in the making and already given brief and imperfect expression in his Human, All Too Human. Nietzsche attributes the desire to publish his "hypotheses" on the origins of morality to reading his friend Paul Re's book The Origin of the Moral Sensations (1877) and finding the "genealogical hypotheses" offered there unsatisfactory. Nietzsche has come to believe that "a critique of moral values" is in order, that "the value of these values themselves must be called into question." To this end it is necessary to provide an actual history of morality, rather than a hypothetical account in the style of Re, whom Nietzsche refers to as an "English psychologist" (evidently using the word "English" to designate a certain intellectual temperament rather than a nationality).

First Treatise: "'Good and Evil', 'Good and Bad'"

In the "First Treatise" Nietzsche is concerned to show that the valuations "good/evil" and "good/bad" have distinct origins and that the two senses of "good" are, in their origins, radically opposed in meaning. The noble mode of valuation calls what it itself stands for "good", that is, everything which is powerful and life-asserting. In the "good/evil" distinction, which is the product of what he calls "slave morality", what is called "evil" equates to what aristocratic morality calls "good". This valuation develops out of the ressentiment of the powerful experienced by the weak. Nietzsche indicts the "English psychologists" for lacking historical sense. They seek to do moral genealogy by explaining altruism in terms of the utility of altruistic actions, which is subsequently forgotten as such actions become the norm. But the judgment "good", according to Nietzsche, originates not with the beneficiaries of altruistic actions. Rather, the good themselves (the powerful) coined the term "good". Further, Nietzsche contends that it is psychologically absurd to suggest that altruism derives from a utility which is forgotten: if it is useful, what is the incentive to forget it? Rather such a value-judgment gains currency by being increasingly burned into the consciousness. From the aristocratic mode of valuation another mode of valuation branches off which develops into its opposite: the priestly mode of valuation. Nietzsche suggests this process is encouraged through a confrontation between the priestly caste and the warrior caste where they are unable to settle. The priests, who are powerless in a situation of combat, develop a deep and poisonous hatred of the powerful. This is the origin of what Nietzsche calls the "slave revolt in morality", which according to him begins with Judaism (7), for its being the source of Christianity. Slave morality in feeling ressentiment does not seek redress for its grievances by taking revenge through action, as the noble would, but by setting up an imaginary revenge. It therefore needs enemies in order to sustain itself, unlike noble morality, which hardly takes enemies seriously and forgets about them instantly having dealt with them. The weak deceive themselves into thinking that the meek are blessed and will win everlasting life, thereby ultimately vanquishing the strong. They invent the term "evil" to apply to the strong, i.e. precisely to the "good" according to the noble valuation. These latter call their inferiors "bad"in the sense of "worthless" and "ill-born" (as in the Greek words and )not "evil." It is in the First Treatise that Nietzsche introduces one of his most controversial images, the "blond beast". Nietzsche had previously employed this metaphor of the "blond beast" to represent the lion, an image that is central to his philosophy and which makes its first appearance in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Nietzsche expressly insists that it is a mistake to hold beasts of prey to be "evil" for their actions, which stem from their inherent strength rather than any malicious intent. One should not blame them for their "thirst for enemies and resistances and triumphs" (13). Similarly, it is also a mistake to resent the strong for their actions because, according to Nietzsche, there is no metaphysical subject. Only the weak need the illusion of the subject (or soul) to

On the Genealogy of Morality hold their actions together as a unity. But they have no right "to make the bird of prey accountable for being a bird of prey." Nietzsche concludes the First Treatise by considering that the two opposing valuations "good/bad" and "good/evil" have been locked in a tremendous struggle for thousands of years, a struggle that originated with the war between Rome (good/bad) and Judea (good/evil). What began with Judea was the triumph of ressentiment; its hold was broken for a moment by the Renaissance, but reasserted by the Reformation (which, in Nietzsche's view, restored the church) and refreshed again by the French Revolution (in which the "ressentiment instincts of the rabble" triumphed).

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Second Treatise: "'Guilt', 'Bad Conscience', and the Like"

In the "Second Treatise" Nietzsche advances his thesis that the origin of the institution of punishment is in a straightforward (pre-moral) creditor/debtor relationship. Man relies on the apparatus of forgetfulness which has been bred into him in order not to become bogged down in the past. This forgetfulness is, according to Nietzsche, an active "faculty of repression", not a mere inertia or absentmindedness. Man needs to develop an active faculty to work in opposition to this in order that promises can be made that are necessary for exercising control over the future: this is memory. This control over the future allows a "morality of custom" to get off the ground. (Such a morality is to be sharply differentiated from Christian or other "ascetic" moralities.) The product of this morality, the autonomous individual, comes to see that he may inflict harm on those who break their promises to him. Punishment, then, is a transaction in which the injury to the autonomous individual is compensated for by the pain inflicted on the culprit. Such punishment is meted out without regard for moral considerations about the free will of the culprit, his accountability for his actions, and the like: it is simply an expression of anger. The creditor is compensated for the injury done by the pleasure he derives from the infliction of cruelty on the debtor. Hence the concept of guilt (Schuld) derives from the concept of debt (Schulden). Nietzsche develops the "major point of historical methodology" that one must not equate the origin of a thing and its utility. The origin of punishment, for example, is in a procedure that predates punishment. Punishment has not just one purpose, but a whole range of "meanings" which "finally crystallizes into a kind of unity that is difficult to dissolve, difficult to analyze and [...] completely and utterly undefinable" (13). The process by which the succession of different meanings is imposed is driven by the "will to power"the basic instinct for domination underlying all human action. Nietzsche lists eleven different uses (or "meanings") of punishment, and suggests that there are many more. One utility it does not possess, however, is that of awakening remorse. The psychology of prisoners shows that punishment "makes hard and cold; it concentrates; it sharpens the feeling of alienation" (14). The real explanation of bad conscience is quite different. A form of social organization, i.e. a "state," is imposed by a conqueror race. Such a race is able to do so even if those they subject to their power are vastly superior in numbers because these subjects are "still formless, still roaming about", while the conquerors are characterized by an "instinctive creating of forms, impressing of forms" (17). Under such conditions the destructive, sadistic instincts of man, who is by nature a nomadic hunter, find themselves constricted and thwarted; they are therefore turned inward. Instead of roaming in the wilderness, man now turns himself into "an adventure, a place of torture". Bad conscience is thus man's instinct for freedom (his "will to power") "driven back, suppressed, imprisoned within" (17). Nietzsche accounts for the genesis of the concept "god" by considering what happens when a tribe becomes ever more powerful. In a tribe, the current generation always pays homage to its ancestors, offering sacrifices to them as a demonstration of gratitude to them. As the power of the tribe grows the need to offer thanks to the ancestors does not decline, but rather increases as it has ever more reason to pay homage to the ancestors and to fear them. At the maximum of fear, the ancestor is "necessarily transfigured into a god" (19). Nietzsche ends the Treatise with a positive suggestion for a counter-movement to the "conscience-vivisection and cruelty to the animal-self" imposed by the bad conscience: this is to "wed to bad conscience the unnatural

On the Genealogy of Morality inclinations", i.e. to use the self-destructive tendency encapsulated in bad conscience to attack the symptoms of sickness themselves. It is much too early for the kind of free spirita Zarathustra-figurewho could bring this about to emerge, although he will come one day: he will emerge only in a time of emboldening conflict, not in the "decaying, self-doubting present" (24).

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Third Treatise: "What do ascetic ideals mean?"

Nietzsche's purpose in the "Third Treatise" is "to bring to light, not what [the ascetic] ideal has done, but simply what it means; what it indicates; what lies hidden behind it, beneath it, in it; of what it is the provisional, indistinct expression, overlaid with question marks and misunderstandings" (23). As Nietzsche tells us in the Preface, the Third Treatise is a commentary on the aphorism prefixed to it. Textual studies have shown that this aphorism consists of 1 of the Treatise (not the epigraph to the Treatise, which is a quotation from Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra). This opening aphorism confronts us with the multiplicity of meanings that the ascetic ideal has for different groups: (a) artists, (b) philosophers, (c) women, (d) physiological casualties, (e) priests, and (f) saints. The ascetic ideal, we may thus surmise, means very little in itself, other than as a compensation for humanity's need to have some goal or other. As Nietzsche puts it, man "will rather will nothingness than not will". (a) For the artist, the ascetic ideal means "nothing or too many things". Nietzsche confines his attention to the composer Richard Wagner. Artists, he concludes, always require some ideology to prop themselves up. Wagner, we are told, relied on Schopenhauer to provide this underpinning; therefore we should look to philosophers if we are to get closer to finding out what the ascetic ideal means. (b) For the philosopher, it means a "sense and instinct for the most favorable conditions of higher spirituality," which he needs to satisfy his desire for independence. It was only in the guise of the ascetic priest that the philosopher was first able to make his appearance without attracting suspicion of his overweening will to power. As yet, every "true" philosopher has retained the trappings of the ascetic priest; his slogans have been "poverty, chastity, humility." (e) For the priest, it is the "'supreme' license for power." He sets himself up as the "saviour" of (d) the physiologically deformed, offering them a cure for their exhaustion and listlessness (which is in reality only a therapy which does not tackle the roots of their suffering). Nietzsche suggests a number of causes for widespread physiological inhibition: (i) the crossing of races; (ii) emigration of a race to an unsuitable environment (e.g. the Indians to India); (iii) the exhaustion of a race (e.g. Parisian pessimism from 1850); (iv) bad diet (e.g. vegetarianism); (v) diseases of various kinds, including malaria and syphilis (e.g. German depression after the Thirty Years' War) (17). The ascetic priest has a range of strategies for anesthetizing the continuous, low-level pain of the weak. Four of these are innocent in the sense that they do the patient no further harm: (1) a general deadening of the feeling of life; (2) mechanical activity; (3) "small joys", especially love of one's neighbour; (4) the awakening of the communal feeling of power. He further has a number of strategies which are guilty in the sense that they have the effect of making the sick sicker (although the priest applies them with a good conscience); they work by inducing an "orgy of feeling" (Gefhls-Ausschweifung). He does this by "altering the direction of ressentiment," i.e. telling the weak to look for the causes of their unhappiness in themselves (in "sin"), not in others. Such training in repentance is responsible, according to Nietzsche, for phenomena such as the St Vitus' and St John's dancers of the Middle Ages, witch-hunt hysteria, somnambulism (of which there were eight epidemics between 1564 and 1605), and the delirium characterized by the widespread cry of evviva la morte! ("long live death!"). Given the extraordinary success of the ascetic ideal in imposing itself on our entire culture, what can we look to to oppose it? "Where is the counterpart to this closed system of will, goal, and interpretation?" (23) Nietzsche considers as possible opponents of the ideal: (a) modern science; (b) modern historians; (c) "comedians of the ideal" (27).

On the Genealogy of Morality (a) Science is in fact the "most recent and noblest form" of the ascetic ideal. It has no faith in itself, and acts only as a means of self-anesthetization for sufferers (scientists) who do not want to admit that they are such. In its apparent opposition to the ascetic ideal, it has succeeded merely in demolishing the ideal's "outworks, sheathing, play of masks, [...] its temporary solidification, lignification, dogmatization" (25). By succeeding in dismantling the claims to the theological importance of man, it has merely come to substitute the self-contempt of man as the ideal of science. (b) Modern historians, in trying to hold up a mirror to ultimate reality, are not only ascetic but highly nihilistic. As deniers of teleology, their "last crowings" are "To what end?," "In vain!," "Nada!" (26) (c) An even worse kind of historian is what Nietzsche calls the "contemplatives": self-satisfied armchair hedonists who have arrogated to themselves the praise of contemplation (Nietzsche gives the example of Ernest Renan). Europe is full of such "comedians of the Christian-moral ideal." In a sense, if anyone is inimical to the ideal it is they, because they at least "arouse mistrust" (27). The will to truth that is bred by the ascetic ideal has in its turn led to the spread of a truthfulness the pursuit of which has brought the will to truth itself in peril. What is thus now required, Nietzsche concludes, is a critique of the value of truth itself (24).

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Influence
On the Genealogy of Morality is considered by many[2] academics to be Nietzsche's most important work, and, despite its polemical style, out of all of his works it perhaps comes closest to a systematic and sustained exposition of his ideas.[3] It is a matter of contention whether there is any such thing as a "genealogical method" as practised by Nietzsche, but there have been attempts, notably by Michel Foucault, to apply "genealogy" as a novel method of research in sociology (evinced principally in "histories" of sexuality and punishment). Others have adapted "genealogy" in a looser sense to inform their work. An example is the attempt by the British philosopher Bernard Williams to vindicate the value of truthfulness using lines of argument derived from genealogy in his book Truth and Truthfulness (2002).

Editions
Jenseits von Gut und Bse. Zur Genealogie der Moral, edited by Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari, Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2002. On The Genealogy of Morals and Ecce Homo, translated and edited by Walter Kaufmann (translation of On the Genealogy in collaboration with R. J. Hollingdale), New York: Vintage, 1967; this version also included in Basic Writings of Nietzsche, New York: Modern Library, 2000, ISBN 0679724621. On the Genealogy of Morality, translated by Carol Diethe and edited by Keith Ansell-Pearson, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0521871239. On the Genealogy of Morals, translated and edited by Douglas Smith, Oxford: Oxford World's Classics, 1996, ISBN 019283617X. On the Genealogy of Morality, translated and edited by Maudemarie Clark and Alan J. Swensen, Indianapolis: Hackett, 1998, ISBN 0872202836. The Genealogy of Morals, translated by Horace Barnett Samuel, New York: Courier Dover Publications, 2003, ISBN 0486426912. The Birth of Tragedy & the Genealogy of Morals, translated by Francis Golffing, Anchor Books, 1956, ISBN 0-385-09210-5

On the Genealogy of Morality

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External links
Nietzsche, Friedrich. 1887. On the Genealogy of Morals - A Polemical Tract. [4] (Translated into English by Ian Johnston of Malaspina University-College, Nanaimo, BC). Zur Genealogie der Moral. Eine Streitschrift [5] online German text at Nietzsche Source Zur Genealogie der Moral. Eine Streitschrift [6] online German text at Projekt Gutenberg-DE

References
[1] C. Janaway, Beyond Selflessness: Reading Nietzsche's Genealogy (OUP, 2007), p. 1 [2] Schacht, Richard, ed. Nietzsche, Genealogy, Morality: Essays on Nietzsche's Genealogy of Morals. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. [3] See B. Leiter, Nietzsche on Morality (Routledge, 2002), p. 73; W. Stegmaier, Nietzsches "Genealogie der Moral" (Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1994), p. 7.; G. Deleuze, Nietzsche et la philosophie (PUF, 1962), pp. 99. [4] http:/ / records. viu. ca/ ~johnstoi/ Nietzsche/ genealogytofc. htm [5] http:/ / www. nietzschesource. org/ texts/ eKGWB/ GM [6] http:/ / gutenberg. spiegel. de/ nietzsch/ genealog/ genealog. htm

The Case of Wagner

The Case of Wagner (Der Fall Wagner) is a German book by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, originally published in 1888. Subtitled "A Musician's Problem", it has also been known as "The Wagner Case" in English.

Contents
The book is a critique of Richard Wagner and the announcement of Nietzsche's rupture with the German artist, who had involved himself too much, in Nietzsche's eyes, in the Vlkisch movement and antisemitism. His music is no longer represented as a possible "philosophical affect," and Wagner is ironically compared to Georges Bizet. However, Wagner is presented by Nietzsche as only a particular symptom of a broader "disease" which is affecting Europe, that is nihilism. The book shows Nietzsche as a capable music-critic, and provides the setting for some of his further reflections on the nature of art and on its relationship to the future health of humanity. This work is in sharp contrast with the second part of Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy, wherein he praised Wagner as fulfilling a need in music to go beyond the analytic and dispassionate understanding of music. Nietzsche also praised Wagner fulsomely in his essay 'Wagner at Bayreuth' (part of the Untimely Meditations), but his disillusion with Wagner the composer and the man was first seen in his 1878 work Human, All Too Human. One of the last works that Nietzsche wrote returned to the critical theme of The Case of Wagner. In Nietzsche contra Wagner Nietzsche pulled together excerpts from his works to show that he consistently had the same thoughts about music, only that he had misapplied them to Wagner in the earliest works.

External links
"The Case of Wagner" [1] at Nietzsche Source

References
[1] http:/ / www. nietzschesource. org/ texts/ eKGWB/ WA

Twilight of the Idols

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Twilight of the Idols

Twilight of the Idols, or, How to Philosophize with a Hammer
Author Original title Translator Country Language Genre(s) Friedrich Nietzsche Gtzen-Dmmerung R.J. Hollingdale Germany German philosophy

Publication date 1888 Media type Pages ISBN Paperback, hardcover 208 (1990 Penguin Classics ed.) ISBN 978-0140445145 (1990 Penguin Classics ed.)

OCLC Number 22578979 [1] Preceded by Followed by The Case of Wagner (1888) The Anti-christ (1888)

Twilight of the Idols, or, How to Philosophize with a Hammer (original German title Gtzen-Dmmerung, oder, Wie man mit dem Hammer philosophiert) is a book by Friedrich Nietzsche, written in 1888, and published in 1889.

Genesis
Twilight of the Idols was written in just over a week, between 26 August and 3 September 1888, while Nietzsche was on holiday in Sils-Maria.[2] As Nietzsche's fame and popularity was spreading both inside and outside Germany, he felt that he needed a text that was a short introduction to his work; Twilight of the Idols is his attempt at this.[2] Originally titled A Psychologist's Idleness, it was renamed Twilight of the Idols, or, How to Philosophize with a Hammer. The latter title, Gtzen-Dmmerung in German, is a pun on the title of Richard Wagner's opera, Gtterdmmerung, or 'Twilight of the Gods'. Gtzen is a diminutive of gtter; thus, gtzen can be translated as either "idol" or "false god".

Synopsis
Nietzsche criticizes German culture of the day as unsophisticated, and shoots some disapproving arrows at key French, British, and Italian cultural figures. In contrast to all these alleged representatives of cultural "decadence", Nietzsche applauds Caesar, Napoleon, Goethe, Thucydides and the Sophists as healthier and stronger types. The book states the transvaluation of all values as Nietzsche's final and most important project, and gives a view of antiquity wherein the Romans for once take precedence over the ancient Greeks. He establishes early on in the section The Problem of Socrates that the value of life cannot be estimated and any judgment concerning it only reveals the person's life-denying or life-affirming tendencies. He tries to show how philosophers from Socrates onwards were "decadents," employing dialectics as a tool for self-preservation as the authority of tradition breaks down. In the chapter The Four Great Errors, he suggests that people, especially Christians, confuse the effect for the cause, and that they project their ego, their subjectivity to other things, thereby

Twilight of the Idols creating the illusionary concept of being, and therefore also of God. He critiques the concept of accountability and will and suggests everything is necessary in a unity that can be neither judged nor condemned. In suggesting that the concept of "free will" is an illusion, Nietzsche concludes that what people typically deem "vice" is in fact merely "the inability not to react to a stimulus". In this light, the concept of morality becomes purely a means of control: "the doctrine of will has been invented essentially for the purpose of punishment, that is of finding guilty." Men were thought of as free so that they could become guilty: consequently, every action had to be thought of as willed, the origin of every action as lying in the consciousness... ...Today, when we have started to move in the reverse direction, when we immoralists especially are trying with all our might to remove the concept of guilt and the concept of punishment from the world and to purge psychology, history, nature, the social institutions and sanctions of them, there is in our eyes no more radical opposition than that of the theologians, who continue to infect the innocence of becoming with 'punishment' and 'guilt' by means of the concept of the 'moral world-order'. Christianity is a hangman's metaphysics. The Four Great Errors

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Chapters
"Foreword" "Maxims and Arrows" "The Problem of Socrates" "Reason in Philosophy" "How the Real World at Last Became a Myth" "Morality as Anti-Nature" "The Four Great Errors" "The Improvers of Mankind" "What the Germans Lack" "Expeditions of an Untimely Man" "What I Owe to the Ancients" "The Hammer Speaks"

External links
Gtzen-Dmmerung [3] at Project Gutenberg German language edition. English translation by Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale [4] Twilight of the Idols audio book at librivox.org [5]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 22578979 Large, Duncan (trans). Twilight of the Idols (Oxford: Oxford University Press) ix http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 7203 http:/ / www. handprint. com/ SC/ NIE/ GotDamer. html http:/ / librivox. org/ the-twilight-of-the-idols-by-friedrich-nietzsche/ ''

The Antichrist (book)

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The Antichrist (book)

The Anti-Christ

Cover of the 2005 Cosimo edition. Author Original title Translator Country Language Subject(s) Genre(s) Friedrich Nietzsche Der Antichrist H.L. Mencken Germany German Christianity, Jesus philosophy

Publication date 1888 Media type Pages ISBN Preceded by Followed by Paperback, hardcover, audiobook 96 (2005 Cosimo ed.) ISBN 978-1-59605-681-7 (2005 Cosimo ed.) The Twilight of the Idols (1888) Ecce Homo (1888)

The Anti-Christ (German: Der Antichrist) (also could be translated as The Anti-Christian) is a book by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, originally published in 1895. Although it was written in 1888, its controversial content made Franz Overbeck and Heinrich Kselitz delay its publication, along with Ecce Homo.[1] The German title can be translated into English as both "The Anti-Christ" and "The Anti-Christian." The English word "Christian" is called a weak noun in German and, in the singular nominative case, it is translated as "der Christ." Given the content of the book, the title is likely to imply both connotations (the same way as the word "Antichristianity" would in English).[2] [3]

The Antichrist (book)

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Content
Nietzsche's readers
Nietzsche claimed in the Foreword to have written the book for a very limited readership. In order to understand the book, he asserted that the reader "...must be honest in intellectual matters to the point of hardness to so much as endure my seriousness, my passion."[4] The reader should be above politics and nationalism. Also, the usefulness or harmfulness of truth should not be a concern. Characteristics such as "Strength which prefers questions for which no one today is sufficiently daring; courage for the forbidden"[4] are also needed. He disdained all other readers.[5] When Nietzsche says in the preface, "Let us look one another in the face. We are Hyperboreans...", he was alluding to a mysterious, occult subject in Greek mythology, which spoke of the Hyperboreans (or Thuleans) as the original civilized and gifted race of mankind (cf. Julius Evola). Nietzsche cleverly refers to the Hyperboreans to indirectly extol the heritage of pre-Christian, Indo-European paganism as compared to the deficient "southerliness" of the modern Judeo-Christian, egalitarian tradition.

Decadent values
In 1, Nietzsche expressed his dissatisfaction with modernity. He disliked the contemporary "lazy peace," "cowardly compromise," "tolerance," and "resignation."[6] This related to Schopenhauer's claim that knowledge of the inner nature of the world and life results in "...perfect resignation, which is the innermost spirit of Christianity ... ."[7] Nietzsche introduced his concept of will to power in 2. He defined the concepts of good, bad, and happiness in relation to the will to power. "What is good? All that heightens the feeling of power, the will to power, power itself in man. What is bad? All that proceeds from weakness. What is happiness? The feeling that power increases that a resistance is overcome."[8] German militarists found pronouncements such as "Not contentment, but more power; not peace at all, but war ..."[8] useful. Nietzsche's words were provocative and shocking in passages such as: "The weak and illconstituted shall perish: first principle of our philanthropy. And one shall help them to do so. What is more harmful than any vice? Active sympathy for the illconstituted and weak Christianity ... ".[8] This is an example of Nietzsche's reaction against Schopenhauer, who had based all morality on compassion.[9] Nietzsche, on the contrary, praised "...virtue free of moralic acid.".[8] Nietzsche went on to say that mankind, out of fear, has bred a weak, sick type of human. He blamed Christianity for demonizing strong, higher humans. Pascal, he claimed, was an intellectually strong man who was depraved by Christianity's teaching of original sin.[10] [11] Mankind, according to Nietzsche, is corrupt and its highest values are depraved. He asserted that " ... all the values in which mankind at present summarizes its highest desiderata are decadence values."[12] Mankind is depraved because it has lost its instincts and prefers what is harmful to it. "I consider life itself instinct for growth, for durability, for accumulation of forces, for power : where the will to power is lacking there is decline."[12] Depravity results because " ... nihilistic values dominate under the holiest names."[12]

Christian pity
Christianity, as the religion of pity, is despised by Nietzsche. Pity leads to depression, loss of vitality and strength, and is harmful to life. Pity also preserves that which should naturally be destroyed. For a noble morality, pity is a weakness, but for Christianity, it is a virtue. In Schopenhauer's philosophy, which was the most nihilistic and opposed to life, pity is the highest virtue of all. But, for Nietzsche, pity " ... multiplies misery and conserves all that is miserable, and is thus a prime instrument of the advancement of decadence: pity persuades men to nothingness! Of course, one does not say 'nothingness.' One says 'the Beyond' or 'God' or ' true life' or 'Nirvana,' 'salvation,' 'redemption,' 'blessedness.' ... Schopenhauer was hostile to life: therefore pity became a virtue for him."[13] The moderns Leo Tolstoy and Richard Wagner adopted Schopenhauer's viewpoint. Aristotle, on the other hand,

The Antichrist (book) recognized the unhealthiness of pity and prescribed tragedy as a purgative. "In our whole unhealthy modernity there is nothing more unhealthy than Christian pity."[13]

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Theologians, priests, and philosophers

Theology and philosophy, practiced by priests and idealists, are antithetical to reality and actuality. They are supposed to represent a high, pure, and superior spirit that is above and has " ... benevolent contempt for the 'understanding,' the 'senses,' 'honors,' 'good living,' and 'science' ..."[14] But, to Nietzsche, "Pure spirit is pure lie"[14] and he called the priest a " ... denier, slanderer, and poisoner of life ... " who is a " ... conscious advocate of nothingness and negation ... " and who stands truth upside down on its head.[14] Theologians were placed by Nietzsche in the same class as priests. He defined the faith that they fostered as "...closing one's eyes with respect to oneself once and for all, so as not to suffer from the sight of incurable falsity."[15] Seeing falsely is then valued as the highest morality. This reversal of values is considered, by Nietzsche, to be harmful to life. When the theologians seek political power, "...the will to the end, the nihilistic will wants power."[15] In his native Germany, philosophy is corrupt because it is theological, according to Nietzsche. Kant supported theological ideals by his discussions of the concepts of "true world" and "morality as the essence of the world." Kant's skeptical procedure was to show that these concepts could not be refuted, even though they could not be proved.[16] Nietzsche was especially critical of Kant's Categorical Imperative because it was not the result of a personal necessity and choice. Its origin from concepts and logic was decadent because it was not a product of life, growth, selfpreservation, and pleasure.[17] Kant's practical reason was an attempt to give scientific legitimacy to his lack of intellectual conscience. "...he invented a special kind of reason for cases in which one need not bother about reason that is, when morality, when the sublime command 'thou shalt,' makes itself heard."[18] Kant's selfdeceptive fraudulence is a result of the influence of priestly theology on his philosophy.

Scientific method
Nietzsche considered himself to be a free spirit who was undertaking a revaluation of all values. Prior to Nietzsche's time, he claimed, the method of searching for truth and knowledge was unscientific. A quiet, cautious, modest manner was seen with contempt.[19] Our present modesty compels us to recognize man's derivation from animals, not divinities. Also, we know that man is not superior to other animals. By reducing man to a mere machine, devoid of free will, we have learned much about his physiology. Will is now known to be a necessary reaction to a stimulus. Consciousness and spirit derive from instinct.[20]

Christian God
Nietzsche claimed that the Christian religion and its morality are based on imaginary fictions. However, " ... this entire fictional world has its roots in hatred of the natural (actuality!)."[21] Such hatred results from Christianity's decadence, according to Nietzsche. The Christian God reflects Christianity's decadence. If Christians were naturally strong and confident, they would have a God who is destructive as well as good. A God who counsels love of enemy, as well as of friend, is a God of a people who feel themselves as perishing and without hope.[22] Weak, decadent, and sick people, whose will to power has declined, will give themselves a God who is purely good, according to Nietzsche. They will then attribute evil and deviltry to their masters' God. Metaphysicians have eliminated the attributes of virile (mnnlichen) virtues, such as strength, bravery, and pride, from the concept of God. As a result, it deteriorated into an insubstantial ideal, pure spirit, Absolute, or thing in itself.[23] Nietzsche opposed the Christian concept of God because it "...degenerated into the contradiction of life, instead of being life's transfiguration and eternal 'Yes'!"[24] The Christian God is a "...declaration of war against life, against nature, against the will to live!"[24] This God is a "...formula for every slander against 'this world,' for every lie about the 'beyond'!"[24] Recalling Schopenhauer's description of the denial of the will to live and the subsequent empty nothingness,[25] Nietzsche proclaimed that the Christian God is "...the sanctification of the will to nothingness!"[24]

The Antichrist (book) Nietzsche criticized the "strong races of northern Europe" for accepting the Christian God and not creating a new god of their own. "Almost two thousand years and not a single new god!"[26] Nietzsche maintained that the traditional Christian God of "monotono-theism" (MonotonoTheismus) supports "...all the instincts of decadence, all cowardices and weariness of the soul ... ."[26]

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Buddhism and Christianity

Although he considered both Christianity and Buddhism to be nihilistic, decadent religions, Nietzsche did consider Buddhism more realistic because it posed objective problems and didn't use the concept of God. In all religious history, Nietzsche believed, Buddhism was the only positivistic religion because it struggles against actual suffering, which is experienced as fact or illusion (the concept of Maya) in various traditions of Buddhism. Christianity, on the contrary, struggles against sin, while suffering can have a redemptive quality. Nietzsche claimed that Buddhism is "beyond good and evil" because it has developed past the "...selfdeception of moral concepts...."[27] Buddha created the religion in order to assist individuals in ridding themselves of the suffering of life. "The supreme goal is cheerfulness, stillness, absence of desire, and this goal is achieved."[28] Buddhism had its roots in higher and also learned classes of people, whereas Christianity was the religion of the lowest classes, Nietzsche wrote. He also believed Christianity had conquered barbarians by making them sick.[29] Buddhism objectively claims "I suffer." Christianity, on the other hand, interprets suffering as being related to sin.[30] Buddhism is too positivistic and truthful, according to Nietzsche, to have advocated the Christian virtues of faith, hope, and charity. Nietzsche called these virtues the three Christian shrewdnesses. Faith and belief are opposed to reason, knowledge, and inquiry, he believed. Hope, to him, in the Beyond sustains the unhappy multitudes.[30]

Origin of Christianity
Jewish priesthood Jewish, and subsequently, to a greater degree, Christian, priests survived and attained power by siding with decadents, Nietzsche claimed. They turned against the natural world. Their resentment against those who were wellconstituted led them to "...invent another world from which that lifeaffirmation would appear evil ... ."[31] In order to survive, the Jewish priests made use of the decadents and their large population. The Jews were not decadents, themselves. According to Nietzsche, they have "...the toughest national will to life which has ever existed on earth."[32] However, they pretended to be decadents so they could " ... place themselves at the head of all decadence movements ( as the Christianity of Paul ) so as to make of them something stronger than any party that affirms life.[31] Five stages of denaturalizing values (1.) Israel's Yahweh "...was the expression of their consciousness of power, of their delight in themselves, their hopes of themselves."[33] Because he was their God, they considered him to be the God of justice. The Jews affirmed themselves, realized their own power, and had a good conscience. Even after internal anarchy and Assyrian invasions weakened Israel, it retained its worship of God as a king who is both soldier and judge. (2.) Concept of God is falsified. Yahweh became a demanding god of justice who is "...no longer at one with Israel or an expression of national self-confidence... ."[33] (3.) Concept of morality is falsified. Morality is no longer an expression of life and growth. Instead, morality opposes life by presenting wellbeing as a dangerous temptation. Priestly agitators " ... interpret all good fortune as a reward, all misfortune as punishment for disobedience of God, for 'sin,'...."[33] (4.) History of Israel is falsified. The great epoch becomes an epoch of decay. The Exile is an "...eternal punishment for the great epoch an epoch in which the priest was as yet nothing."[34] The past is translated into religious terms. It was a record of guilt, punishment, piety, and reward in relation to Yahweh. A moral world order is established which assigns value to actions that obey the will of God (and which claims that this general will, i.e. the right way of

The Antichrist (book) life for everyone, is eternal and unchanging). Priests teach that "...the ruling power of the will of God, expressed as punishment and reward according to the degree of obedience, is demonstrated in the destiny of a nation, of an individual... ."[34] (5.) God's will is revealed in the holy scripture. The sacred book formulates the will of God and specifies what is to be given to the priests. Priests become parasites. "...[A]ll things of life are so ordered that the priest is everywhere indispensable; at all the natural events of life, at birth, marriage, sickness, death. Not to speak of 'sacrifice' (mealtimes)... ."[34] Natural values become utterly valueless. The priest sanctifies and bestows all value. Disobedience of God (the priest) is 'sin.' Subjection to God (the priest) is redemption. Priests use 'sin' to gain and hold power. Revolt against Jewish priesthood The Jewish church opposed and negated nature, reality, and the world as being sinful and unholy. Christianity then negated the Jewish church and its holy, chosen people, according to Nietzsche. "...[T]he little rebellious movement which is baptized with the name Jesus of Nazareth represents the Jewish instinct once morein other words, the priestly instinct which can no longer stand the priest as a reality, the invention of an even more abstract form of existence, an even more unreal vision of the world ... ."[32] The Jewish church and the Jewish nation received this rebellion as a threat to its existence. "That holy anarchist who roused up the people at the bottom, the outcasts and 'sinners,' the Chandalas within Judaism, to opposition against the dominant order ... was a political criminal ... . That is what brought him to the cross ... where he died for his own guilt."[32] The Redeemer type Nietzsche criticized Ernest Renan's attribution of the concepts genius and hero to Jesus. Nietzsche thought that the word idiot best described Jesus. According to Walter Kaufmann,[35] he might have been referring to the nave protagonist of Dostoevsky's book The Idiot. With an antipathy toward the material world, Jesus was "...at home in a world undisturbed by reality of any kind, a merely 'inner' world, a 'real' world, an 'eternal' world'....The kingdom of God is within you'...."[36] According to Nietzsche, the redeemer type is determined by a morbid intolerance of pain. Extreme sensitivity results in avoidance of the world. Also, any feeling of resistance to the world is experienced as pain. Even evil is therefore not resisted. "The fear of pain, even of the infinitely small in pain, cannot end otherwise than in a religion of love...."[37] Jesus was a distorted version of the redeemer type. The first disciples, in their Gospels, described him as having Old Testament characteristics such as prophet, Messiah, miracleworker, moral preacher, etc. Dostoevsky could have revealed his sickliness and childishness.[38] According to Jesus, "...the kingdom of heaven belongs to 'children'...."[39] Everyone has an equal right to become a child of God. His spirituality is infantile, a result of delayed puberty. Jesus does not resist or contend with the world because he doesn't recognize the importance of the world. His life is its own kingdom of God at every moment. Early Christians used Semitic concepts to express his teaching, but his antirealism could just as easily have been a characteristic of Taoism or Hinduism. Nietzsche asserted that the psychological reality of redemption was "...[a] new way of life, not a new faith."[40] It is "...[t]he deep instinct for how one must live, in order to feel oneself 'in heaven'...."[40] The Christian is known by his acts. He offers no resistance to evil, He has no anger and wants no revenge. Blessedness is not promised on conditions, as in Judaism. The Gospel's glad tidings are that there is no distinction between God and man. There is no Judaic concern for sin, prayers, rituals, forgiveness, repentance, guilt, punishment, or faith. "[E]vangelic practice alone leads to God, it is God!" "[I]t is only in the practice of life that one feels 'divine,' 'blessed,' 'evangelical,' at all times a 'child of God.'"[40] There were two worlds for the teacher of the Gospel's glad tidings. The real, true world is an inner experience of the heart in which all things are blessedly transfigured (Verklrung), eternalized, and perfected. The apparent world, however, is only a collection of psychological symbols, signs, and metaphors. These symbols are expressed in terms of space, time, history, and nature. Examples of these mere symbols are the concepts of "God as a person," "the son of man," "the hour of death," and "the kingdom of heaven."[41] Jesus did not want to redeem anyone. He wanted to show how to live. His legacy was his

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The Antichrist (book) bearing and behavior. He did not resist evildoers. He loved evildoers. Nietzsche has Jesus tell the thief on the cross that he is in Paradise now if he recognizes the divinity of Jesus' comportment.[42]

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History of Christianity
Opposite development Nietzsche saw a worldhistorical irony in the way that the Christian Church developed in antithetical opposition to the Evangel and the Gospel of early Christianity.[43] The fable of Christ as miracleworker and redeemer is not the origin of Christianity. Christianity's history is a "...progressively cruder misunderstanding of an original symbolism...": the death on the cross.[44] Christianity became more diseased, base, morbid, vulgar, low, barbaric and crude. "As the Church, this morbid barbarism itself finally assumes power the Church, that form of mortal hostility to all integrity, to all loftiness of soul, to discipline of spirit, to all openhearted and benevolent humanity. Christian values noble values... ."[44] Nietzsche expressed contempt for his contemporaries because they mendaciously called themselves Christians but did not act like true Christians. Modern people act with worldly egoism, pride, and will to power in opposition to Christianity's denial of the world. Nietzsche considered this falseness to be indecent. Unlike past ages, his contemporaries knew that sham and unnatural concepts such as "God," "moral worldorder," "sinner," "Redeemer," "free will," "beyond," "Last Judgment," and "immortal soul" are consciously employed in order to provide power to the church and its priests.[45] "[T]here was only one Christian, and he died on the cross."[46] "...[O]nly Christian practice, a life such as he lived who died on the cross, is Christian." Thereafter, the opposite kind of life was called Christian. Belief in redemption through Christ is not originally Christian. Genuine, original, primitive Christianity is not a faith. It is state of being that consists of "...a doing, above all a notdoing of many things... ."[46] Jesus' wanted his death on the cross to be an example of how a person can be free from resentment, revenge, and rebellion. The disciples, however, wanted revenge against the Jewish ruling class and high priests who had delivered him to Pilate. They elevated Jesus into being the Messiah and Son of God and promised future judgment and punishment in the kingdom of God.[47] This was in opposition to Jesus' doctrine that everyone could be a child of God and experience Heaven in their present lives by acting in a gentle, loving manner. Paul and the promise of eternal life The apostles claimed that Jesus' death was a sacrifice of an innocent man for the sins of the guilty. But "...Jesus had done away with the concept 'guilt' itself he had denied any chasm between God and man, he lived this unity of God and man as his 'glad tidings'...."[48] In order to claim that there is life after death, the apostles ignored Jesus' example of blessed living. Paul made immortality the main point in 1 Corinthians 15:17 when he said "...if Christ be not raised, your faith is vain." "Paul himself even taught personal immortality as a reward."[48] Paul used the promise of life after death as a way to seize tyrannical power over the masses of lower class people.[49] This changed Christianity from a peace movement that achieves actual happiness into a religion whose final judgment offers possible resurrection and eternal life. Paul falsified the history of Christianity, the history of Israel, and the history of mankind by making them all seem to be a preparation for the crucifixion. "The great lie of personal immortality destroys all rationality, all natural in the instinctsall that is healthy, all that is lifepromoting, all that guarantees a future now arouses mistrust."[50] The meaning of life is that there is no meaning to present life. One lives for life in the beyond. By offering immortal life after death to everyone, Christianity appealed to everyone's egoism. The laws of nature would be broken for the salvation of everyone. "...[I]t is to this pitiable flattery of personal vanity that Christianity owes its victory it is with this that it has persuaded over to its side everything illconstituted, rebelliousminded, underprivileged, all the scum and refuse of mankind."[50] This influenced politics and led to revolutions against aristocracies. Nietzsche claimed that Paul's pretence of holiness and his use of priestly concepts were typically Jewish. Christianity separated itself from Judaism as though it was the chosen religion, "...as if only the 'Christian' were the meaning, the salt, the measure and also the Last Judgment of all the rest."[51] Christianity then divided itself from the world by appropriating "...the concepts 'God,' 'truth,' 'light,' 'spirit,' 'love,' 'wisdom,' 'life'

The Antichrist (book) as if these were synonyms of themselves... ."[51] According to Nietzsche, "In Christianity, as the art of holy lying, the whole of Judaism...attains its ultimate perfection." "The Christian is only a Jew of a 'more liberal' persuasion."[51] Gospel of resentment Nietzsche asserted that the Christian "...is a rebel in his lowest instincts against everything privileged he always lives and struggles for 'equal rights' ... . If one wants to be, in one's own person, 'chosen of God' ...then every other principle of selection, for example on the basis of integrity, manliness and pride, beauty and liberality of heart, is simply 'world' evil as such.."[52] Against science The Christian God is harmful and a crime against life. "The God that Paul created is a negation of God."[53] Christianity, in its opposition to reality, is "...mortally hostile to the 'wisdom of this world,' which means science." "Paul understood the need for the lie, for 'faith'...."[53] Nietzsche claimed that Paul willed to ruin the 'wisdom of this world' and, in Jewish fashion, Paul gave the name of "God" and Torah to his own will. In the Old Testament, Genesis 3:5, God's, and therefore the priests', hellish anxiety regarding science has been chronicled, according to Nietzsche. Man tasted knowledge and "...there is an end to priests and gods if man becomes scientific!"[54] Priests used the concepts of "sin," "guilt," and "punishment" to oppose knowledge, science, and the concepts of cause and effect. Sinful, suffering humans believe in supernatural agents. Such sinners are dependent on their priests for salvation, redemption, and forgiveness. "...[T]he priest rules through the invention of sin."[55]

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Psychology of belief
Belief is "...a sign of decadence, of a broken will to live... ."[56] The Christian "proof of strength" is "Belief makes blessed: thus it is true." But blessedness is something that the priest promises for the future. It, itself, is an object of belief. Also, blessedness, or pleasure, cannot be a proof of truth. "[W]hen on earth was it established that true judgments give more enjoyment than false ones... ?"[56] It could be said, "Belief makes blessed: thus it is lies." Triumph of the ill Nietzsche alleged that "...one is not 'converted ' to Christianity one must be sufficiently sick for it."[57] The decadent and sick types of people came to power through Christianity. From everywhere, the aggregate of the sick accumulated in Christianity and outnumbered the healthy. "The majority became master; the democratism of the Christian instincts conquered...."[57] The meaning of the God on the Cross is that "...[e]verything that suffers, everything that hangs on the Cross, is divine...."[57] "Because sickness belongs to the essence of Christianity, the typical Christian condition, 'belief,' has to be a form of sickness. Every straightforward, honest, scientific road to knowledge has to be repudiated by the Church as a forbidden road. Even doubt is a sin."[58] Knowledge requires caution, intellectual moderation, discipline, and selfovercoming. But Christianity uses sick reasoning, such as martyrdom, to try to prove its truth. Christians think that "...there must be something to a cause for which someone is willing to die."[59] In response, Nietzsche quoted a passage from his earlier work: "And if someone goes through fire for his doctrine what does that prove?"[60] "[T]he need for belief, for some unconditional Yes and No,...is a need born of weakness."[61] The Holy Lie and belief Lying, or not wanting to see as one sees, is a trait of those who are devoted to a party or faction. Lying is utilized by all priests, whether pagan, Jewish, or Christian. "...[T]he right to lie and the shrewdness of a 'revelation' (Offenbarung) pertains to the priestly type...The 'Law,' the 'will of God,' the 'sacred book,' 'inspiration' all merely words for the conditions under which the priest comes to power, by which he maintains his power... ."[62] Christianity's lies are not holy. They serve ...bad ends: the poisoning, slandering, denying of life, contempt for the body, the denigration and selfviolation of man through the concept of sin... ."[63] Unlike the Jewish/Christian Bible,

The Antichrist (book) the Hindu LawBook of Manu lies for a good purpose. "...[I]t is the means by which the noble orders, the philosophers and warriors, keep the mob under control... ."[63] It affirms life, wellbeing, and happiness. The purpose of the Christian Holy Lie is bad because it "...is born of weakness, of envy, of revenge."[64] Christianity lied about guilt, punishment, and immortality in order to destroy Imperial Rome, an organization that was designed to promote life. Paul realized that "...with the symbol 'God on the Cross' one could sum up everything downtrodden, everything in secret revolt, the entire heritage of anarchist agitation in the Roman empire, into a tremendous power."[65] His vision on the road to Damascus was "...that to deprive 'the world' of value he needed the belief in immortality, that the concept 'Hell' will master even Rome that with the 'Beyond' one kills life ... Nihilist and Christian (Nihilist und Christ): they rhyme, and do not merely rhyme ... ."[65]

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Lost Labor
Greece and Rome Christianity deprived us of the benefits of Greek and Roman cultures. Over two thousand years ago, the Greeks and the Romans had discovered the scientific method. They possessed "...the methodical research, the genius of organization and administration, the faith in, the will to, man's future, the great Yes to all things... ."[66] But it was "...ruined by cunning, stealthy, invisible, anemic vampires.... Hidden vengefulness, petty envy became master...."[66] Islam Why did Christianity trample down the culture of Islam? "...[B]ecause Islam was noble, because it owed its origin to manly instincts, because it said Yes to life even in the rare and exquisite treasures of Moorish life!"[67] The Crusades were "higher piracy."[67] "For in itself there should be no choice in the matter when faced with Islam and Christianity, as little as there should when faced with an Arab and a Jew. The decision is given in advance; no one is free to choose here. One either is Chandala or one is not. War to the knife with Rome! Peace and friendship with Islam!". "...I can't grasp how a German could ever have felt Christian."[67] Renaissance The European Renaissance of Greek and Roman values was "[t]he revaluation of Christian values, the attempt, undertaken with every means, with every instinct, with all genius, to bring about the victory of opposing values, of noble values."[68] But Martin Luther thought that the Pope was corrupt. Actually, the papacy was rid of corrupt Christianity. "...Christianity no longer sat on the Papal throne! Life sat there instead! The triumph of life! The great Yes to all lofty, beautiful, daring things! ... ."[68] Luther's Reformation spoiled this by restoring the church.

Condemnation
Christianity "...turned every value into an disvalue, every truth into a lie... it created distress in order to eternalize itself."[69] It has "...contempt for every good and honest instinct..., and its Beyond is its will to negate every reality... ."[69] Nietzsche believed that Christianity is a conspiracy "...against health, beauty, whatever has turned out well, courage, intellect, goodness of the soul, against life itself."[69] He considered Christianity to be a curse and a corruption. In accordance with his revaluation of all values, Nietzsche suggested that time be calculated from the date of this book, instead of from the date of Christ's birth. Year One would begin, then, on September 30, 1888.

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Jesus
Nietzsche did not demur of Jesus, saying he was the "only one true Christian". He presented a Christ whose own inner life consisted of "blessedness in peace, in gentleness, in the inability for enmity."[36] There is much criticism by Nietzsche of the organized institution of Christianity and its class of priests. Christ's evangelism consisted of the good news that the kingdom of God is within you. "What are the 'glad tidings'? True life, eternal life is foundit is not promised, it is here, it is within you: as life lived in love...."[36] " 'Sin', every kind of distancing relationship between God and man, is abolished - precisely this is the 'glad tidings'.[40] "The 'glad tidings' are precisely that there are no more opposites...."[39] Nietzsche does however explicitly consider Jesus as a mortal, and furthermore as ultimately misguided, the antithesis of a true hero, whom he posits with his concept of a Dionysian hero.

Christian
For Nietzsche, the institution or eponym, Christian, was both ironic and hypocritical. However, it was not the Romans this time, it was the Christians who had killed him and his idea. "And time has been reckoned from that dies nefastus, the beginning day of this disaster, from Christianity's first day! Why not rather from its last dayfrom today?Revaluation of all values!"

Title
The reference to the Antichrist is not intended to refer to the biblical Antichrist but is rather an attack on the "slave morality" and apathy of Western Christianity. Nietzsche's basic claim is that Christianity (as he saw it in the West) is a poisoner of western culture and perversion of the words of and practice of Jesus. In this light, the provocative title is mainly expressing Nietzsche's animus toward Christianity, as such. In this book, Nietzsche is very critical of institutionalized religion and its priest class, from which he himself was descended. The majority of the book is a systematic, logical and detailed attack upon the interpretations of Christ's words by St. Paul and those who followed him. It can therefore be argued that it does a disservice to the English-speaking reader to translate the title as The Antichrist at all. As has been said the German title Der Antichrist is open to two interpretations ('Antichrist'/'Anti-Christian') but the English The Antichrist is not, and thus the question becomes: does that title reflect Nietzsche's use of the German word in the text? In fact Nietzsche employs the word Antichrist only one time in the work so-titled, and there its sense is clearly 'Anti-Christian.' He uses its plural Antichristen once also, again the meaning is 'anti-Christians.' In fact at no point in the text does Nietzsche use any form of the German word Christ other than to mean 'Christian.' One would therefore be better readied for the content of the book were its title rendered "The Anti-Christian," which more accurately states the foe against whom Nietzsche sets out to do battle. After all, even to acknowledge the existence of an Antichrist, let alone to prop oneself up as one, presupposes the existence of a Christ, of a Messiah. Nietzsche recognized no such entity. His argument is entirely with those who would attempt to make a Christ, a Messiah, out of Jesus of Nazareth, which is to say, with "Christians." Consider too that the title itself is part of the polemic Nietzsche makes here against Ernest Renan. Renan's 1873 L'antchrist saw an "authorized German-language edition" published the same year under the title, Der Antichrist.

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Sanity
This book was written shortly before Nietzsche's nervous breakdown. However, as one scholar noted, "the Antichrist is unrelievedly vituperative, and would indeed sound insane were it not informed in its polemic by a structure of analysis and a theory of morality and religion worked out elsewhere ... ."[70]

Suppressed passages
The word idiot
29 contains three words that were suppressed by Nietzsche's sister in 1895. The words are: "the word idiot (das Wort Idiot)." H.L. Mencken's English translation does not contain these words. However, in 1931, the words were reinstated by Josef Hofmiller. The English translations of Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale contain them. According to Kaufmann, Nietzsche was referring to Dostoevsky's book The Idiot and its nave protagonist.

Christ's words to the thief on the cross

In 35, Nietzsche wanted to convey the idea that, to Christ, Heaven is a subjective state of mind.[71] In order to accomplish this goal, Nietzsche parodied a passage from the New Testament, which the Nietzsche-Archiv, headed by Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche, decided to suppress so that there would be no doubt as to the strict correctness of Nietzsche's use of the Bible[72] According to Nietzsche,[73] one of the thieves, who was also being crucified, said, "This was truly a divine man, a child of God!" Nietzsche had Christ reply, "If you feel this, you are in Paradise, you are a child of God."[74] In the Bible, only Luke related a dialogue between Christ and the thief in which the thief said, "This man has done nothing wrong" to which, Christ replied, "Today I tell you, you will be with me in Paradise." (Luke 23: 39-43) Nietzsche had the thief speaking the words that the centurion later spoke in Luke 23: 47, Matthew 27: 54, and Mark 15: 39. In these passages, Christ was called the Son of God by the soldier. The Nietzsche Archives' suppression was lifted in later editions and now appears exactly as Nietzsche wrote.[75] [76]

A young prince
In 38, there is a reference to a young prince who professes to be a Christian but acts in a very worldly manner. The passage about this "junger Frst, an der Spitze seiner Regimenter" [young prince at the head of his regiments] was suppressed in order to avoid comparison to Wilhelm II.

A.D.
Nietzsche, in 62, criticized the reckoning of time from Christ's birth (anno Domini). "...one calculates time from the unlucky day on which this fatality arose -- from the first day of Christianity!" This passage was judged by Franz Overbeck and Heinrich Kselitz to be unworthy of publication.

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Decree
Nietzsche's "Decree against Christianity" was also suppressed. It can be read here [77].

Bibliography
Danto, Arthur, Nietzsche as Philosopher, Macmillan, 1965 Nietzsche, Friedrich, Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist, Penguin Books, 1991, ISBN 0-14-044514-5 Schopenhauer, Arthur, The Basis of Morality, Dover, 2005, ISBN 0-486-44653-0 Schopenhauer, Arthur, The World as Will and Representation, Volume I, Dover,1969, ISBN 0-486-21761-2 Sommer, Andreas Urs, "Friedrich Nietzsche: Der Antichrist. Ein philosophisch-historischer Kommentar", Basel, 2000, ISBN 3-7965-1098-1 (the comprehensive standard commentary on "The Antichrist" - only available in German)

See also
Chandala The Idiot (novel)

External links
The Antichrist, full text and audio. [78] The Antichrist complete text [79] Free audiobook [80] from LibriVox (H.L. Mencken translation) "The Antichrist" complete text from WikiSource

References
[1] Nietzsche Chronicle: 1889 (http:/ / www. dartmouth. edu/ ~fnchron/ 1889. html) (English) [2] "... in German Der Antichrist can mean either The AntiChrist or The AntiChristian," Nietzsche, Friedrich, The AntiChrist, Introduction by Michael Tanner, Translated by R.J. Hollingdale, Penguin Books, 1990, ISBN 0-14-044514-5 [3] "The title is ambiguous. It first calls to mind the apocalyptic Antichrist, and this more sensational meaning is in keeping with the author's intention to be as provocative as possible. But the title could also mean 'The AntiChristian,' and this interpretation is much more in keeping with the contents of the book, and in sections 38 and 47 the word is used in a context in which this is the only possible meaning." The Antichrist, Editor's Preface, The Portable Nietzsche, Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Penguin Books, 1982, ISBN 0-14-015062-5 [4] The Antichrist, Foreword. [5] "...Such men alone are my readers, my right readers, my predestined readers: what matter the rest? The restthat is merely mankind. One must be above mankind in strength, in loftiness of soulin contempt.", The Antichrist, Preface [6] The Antichrist, 1 [7] Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. I, 48 [8] The Antichrist, 2 [9] "It is this Compassion alone which is the real basis of all voluntary justice and all genuine lovingkindness. Only insofar as an action springs therefrom, has it moral value; and all conduct that proceeds from any other motive whatever has none." Arthur Schopenhauer, The Basis of Morality, Part III, Chapter V. [10] The Antichrist, 3, 4, 5 [11] Nietzsche's opinion of Pascal is again the opposite of Schopenhauer's. In Volume I of his main work, 66, Schopenhauer considered Pascal's asceticism and quietism as examples of justice and goodness. With regard to original sin, Schopenhauer wrote: "The doctrine of original sin (affirmation of the will) and of salvation (denial of the will) is really the great truth which constitutes the kernel of Christianity, while the rest is in the main only clothing and covering, or something accessory."( 70) [12] The Antichrist, 6 [13] The Antichrist, 7 [14] The Antichrist, 8 [15] The Antichrist, 9 [16] The Antichrist, 10 [17] The Antichrist, 11

The Antichrist (book)

[18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] The Antichrist, 12 Ibid., 13 Ibid., 14 The Antichrist, 15 The Antichrist, 16 The Antichrist, 17 The Antichrist, 18 Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Representation, Vol. I, 71 The Antichrist, 19 The Antichrist, 20 The Antichrist, 21 The Antichrist, 22 The Antichrist, 23 The Antichrist, 24 The Antichrist, 27 The Antichrist, 25 The Antichrist, 26 The Portable Nietzsche, note, p. 601 The Antichrist, 29 The Antichrist, 30 The Antichrist, 31 The Antichrist, 32 The Antichrist, 33 The Antichrist, 34 The Antichrist, 35 The Antichrist, 36 The Antichrist, 37 The Antichrist, 38 The Antichrist, 39 The Antichrist, 40 The Antichrist, 41 The Antichrist, 42 The Antichrist, 43 The Antichrist, 44 The Antichrist, 46 The Antichrist, 47 The Antichrist, 48 The Antichrist, 49 The Antichrist, 50 The Antichrist, 51 The Antichrist, 52 The Antichrist, 53 Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Part II, "Of the Priests" The Antichrist, 54 The Antichrist, 55 The Antichrist, 56 The Antichrist, 57 The Antichrist, 58 The Antichrist, 59 The Antichrist, 60 The Antichrist, 61 The Antichrist, 62 Arthur Danto, Nietzsche as Philosopher, Chapter 6, 5 Cf. Nietzsche, The Antichrist. 29 "True life, eternal life is found it is not promised, it is here, it is within you ... ." 29 "'The kingdom of God is within you ' ..." This is a reference to Luke 17:21. 34 "The 'kingdom of Heaven' is a condition of the heart ... ."

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34 "The 'kingdom of God' is not something one waits for; it has no yesterday or tomorrow, it does not come 'in a thousand years' it is an experience within a heart... ."

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35 "His words to the thief on the cross contain the whole Evangel. 'That was verily a divine man, a child of God' says the thief. 'If thou feelest this' answers the redeemer ' thou art in Paradise ... .' " [72] Quoted from the English translation of The Antichrist as shown at The Nietzsche Channel website (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ thenietzschechannel/ ): "Nietzsche refers to the conversion of one of the two thieves crucified with Jesus, which is only reported in the tale of suffering by Luke (23: 39-43; compare it with Matthew 27: 44; Mark 15, 31-32). However, the words which Nietzsche puts into the mouth of the thief are those of the captain after Christ's death: compare Luke 23: 47; Matthew. 27: 54; Mark 15: 39. Perhaps the Nietzsche-Archive didn't want to see the 'cohesiveness of the Bible' disputed by Nietzsche, hence the suppression of this part; compare Josef Hofmiller: Nietzsche, 'Sddeutsche Monatshefte' November 1931, p. 94ff." [73] Microsoft Word - Jesus.doc (http:/ / www. mic. ul. ie/ stephen/ vol10/ Jesus. pdf) [74] In his notebook, Nietzsche wrote: "When even the criminal undergoing a painful death declares: 'the way this Jesus suffers and dies, without rebelling, without enmity, graciously, resignedly, is the only right way,' he has affirmed the gospel: and with that he is in Paradise" [Will to Power, Edited by Walter Kaufmann, Vintage, 1968, 162] [75] The Antichrist, "Translator's Note," Penguin Books, 1990. "... omissions from the [1895] text were subsequently published and are restored in Karl Schlechta's edition (Werke in drei Bnden, vol. II, 1955)." [76] Kaufmann, Walter, Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist, Appendix, Princeton University Press, 1974. "[Erich] Podach's (1961) version of The Antichrist differs from most previous editions in two respects. First, he restores words that had been omitted in three places when the book was first published in 1895. These words are also found in Schlechta's edition ... Indeed, the deleted words were published by Josef Hofmiller in 1931. ... In section 35, a few lines were omitted after "... he loves with those, in those, who do him evil" and before "Not to resist, not to be angry ... ." They read: "The words to the malefactor on the cross contain the whole evangel. 'That was truly a godlike man, "a child of God," ' says the malefactor. 'If you feel that' replies the Redeemer ' then you are in Paradise, then you, too, are a child of God.' " This was presumably omitted because it is not found in the Gospels this way. But the reaction to this deletion was surely as misguided as the deletion itself. Hofmiller crowed that the words 'are still today [1931] suppressed by the editors because they are not right. "Truly this was the Son of God!" is said not by the malefactor but by the centurion, and only after the Savior has died (Matt. 27:54). The words of the malefactor (Luke 23:40) are importantly different. What is characteristic of this kind of criticism of religion is its nave dilettantism.' ... what a common failing it is to recall a Gospel passage inaccurately! Of course, Nietzsche should have checked it; but he was trying feverishly to finish several books and this was the sort of thing that his young friend Gast, who got one set of the proofs, had full authority to delete. Hence it is misleading to speak of 'suppression.' " [77] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hd1zz4ETREEC& pg=PA146& lpg=PA146& dq=Decree+ against+ Christianity+ Nietzsche& source=bl& ots=-wagQeUM88& sig=MRB1sq9VTiwHXfpnTJ9HIcokE1E& hl=en& ei=4u8FS8K5HJDWlQf5wIT_DA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CAwQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=Decree%20against%20Christianity%20Nietzsche& f=false [78] http:/ / publicliterature. org/ books/ antichrist/ xaa. php [79] http:/ / www. handprint. com/ SC/ NIE/ antich. html [80] http:/ / librivox. org/ the-antichrist-by-nietzsche/

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Ecce Homo (book)

Ecce Homo: How One Becomes What One Is

Cover of the 1908 Insel edition designed by Henry van de Velde. Author Original title Translator Country Language Genre(s) Publication date Media type Pages ISBN OCLC Number LC Classification Preceded by Followed by Friedrich Nietzsche Ecce Homo: Wie man wird, was man ist R. J. Hollingdale Germany German Philosophy, autobiography 1888 Paperback, hardcover 144 (2005 Penguin Classics ed.) ISBN 978-0140445152 (2005 Penguin Classics ed.) 27449286
[1]

B3316.N54 A3413 1992 The Antichrist Nietzsche Contra Wagner

For other uses of Ecce Homo, see Ecce Homo (disambiguation) Ecce Homo: How One Becomes What One Is (German: Ecce homo: Wie man wird, was man ist) is the title of the last original book written by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche before his final years of insanity that spanned until his death in 1900. It was written in 1888 and was not published until 1908. According to one of Nietzsche's most prominent English translators, Walter Kaufmann, the book offers "Nietzsche's own interpretation of his development, his works, and his significance" (Kaufmann 1967: 201). The book contains several chapters with self-laudatory titles, such as "Why I Am So Wise", "Why I Am So Clever", "Why I Write Such Good Books" and "Why I Am a Destiny". In many ways, Ecce Homo is a quintessential reflection of Nietzsche's humility as a philosopher, writer and thinker.

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Within this work, Nietzsche is self-consciously striving to present a new image of the philosopher and of himself, for example, a philosopher "who is not an Alexandrian academic nor an Apollonian sage, but Dionysian" (Kaufmann 1967: 202). On these grounds, Kaufmann considers Ecce Homo a literary work comparable in its artistry to Van Gogh's paintings. Just as Socrates was presented in Peter Gast would "correct" Nietzsche's writings Plato's Apology as the wisest of men precisely because he freely even after the philosopher's breakdown and so admitted to his own ignorance, Nietzsche argues that he is a great without his approval - something heavily philosopher because of the scorn he has suffered during his life. criticized by today's Nietzsche scholarship. Nietzsche insists that his suffering is not noble but tragic and proclaims the goodness of everything that has happened to him (including his father's early death and his near-blindness an example of amor fati). In this regard, the wording of his title was not meant to draw parallels with the Christ, but suggest a contrast, that Nietzsche truly is "a man." Nietzsche's point is that to be "a man" alone is to be more than Christ. One of the main purposes of Ecce Homo was to offer Nietzsche's own perspective on his work as a philosopher and human being. He wrote: "Under these circumstances I have a duty against which my habits, even more the pride of my instincts, revolt at bottomnamely, to say: Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else!" Throughout the course of the book, he expounds in the characteristically hyperbolic style found in his later period (18861888) upon his life as a child, his tastes as an individual, and his vision for humanity. He gives reviews and insights about his various works, including: The Birth of Tragedy, The Untimely Meditations, Human, All Too Human, The Dawn, The Gay Science, Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Beyond Good and Evil, On the Genealogy of Morality, Twilight of the Idols and The Case of Wagner. The last chapter of Ecce Homo, entitled "Why I Am a Destiny", is primarily concerned with reiterating Nietzsche's thoughts on Christianity, corroborating Christianity's decadence and his ideas as to uncovering Christian morality. He signs the book "Dionysus versus the Crucified."

References
Kaufmann, Walter 1967 "Editor's Introduction" in On the Genealogy of Morals (translated by Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale) and Ecce Homo (translated by Walter Kaufmann), edited by Walter Kaufmann. 201-209. New York: Vintage.

External links
Ecce homo, Wie man wird, was man ist [2] at Project Gutenberg (In original German) "Eize homo, Ani Aliz" by A. Telzner [3] at Project Gutenberg (In original Russian)

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 27449286 [2] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 7202 [3] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 3004

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Nietzsche contra Wagner

Nietzsche contra Wagner

Cover of the 2004 Quadrata edition. Author Translator Country Language Subject(s) Genre(s) Friedrich Nietzsche Thomas Common Germany German Richard Wagner, anti-semitism, philosophy of art philosophy

Publication date 1895 Media type ISBN Preceded by Followed by Paperback, hardcover ISBN 978-9871139156 (2004 Quadrata ed.) Ecce Homo (1888) The Will to Power (1901)

"Nietzsche contra Wagner" is a critical essay by Friedrich Nietzsche, written in his last year of lucidity (18881889). It was not published until 1895, six years after Nietzsche's mental collapse. In it Nietzsche describes why he parted ways with his one-time idol and friend, Richard Wagner. Nietzsche attacks Wagner's views in this short work, expressing disappointment and frustration in Wagner's life choices (such as his conversion to Christianity, perceived as a sign of weakness). Nietzsche evaluates Wagner's philosophy on tonality, music and art; he admires Wagner's power to emote and express himself, but largely disdains what Nietzsche calls his religious biases. The work is significant for a number of reasons. It illustrates Nietzsche's evolution from a younger philosopher. It also gives the lie to those that would label Nietzsche as anti-Semitic, as is often alleged, and instead makes clear Nietzche's opposition to such ideas: "[Wagner] had condescended step by step to everything I despise even to anti-Semitism."

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References
"Nietzsche". Encyclopdia Britannica. 24. Britannica. 2006.

The Will to Power (manuscript)

The Will to Power (German: "Der Wille zur Macht") is the title given to a book of selectively reordered notes (with a few revisionist additions and changes) from the notebooks (or Nachlass) of Friedrich Nietzsche by his sister Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche and Heinrich Kselitz ("Peter Gast"). The Will to Power is also the title of a work that Nietzsche had considered writing, but later abandoned in favor of Revaluation of All Values, which Nietzsche was unable to complete.

Initial publication
The first rendition of this collection was released with other unpublished writings in 1901, edited by Heinrich Kselitz, Ernst Horneffer, and August Horneffer, under the influence of Nietzsche's anti-Semitic sister, Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche. This version has been judged more than dubious,[1] and later editions are considered more subtle in their presentation of Nietzsche's intent. Walter Kaufmann's English edition is divided into four major parts: "European Nihilism", "Critique of the Highest Values Hitherto", "Principles of a New Evaluation", and "Discipline and Breeding". Mazzino Montinari and Giorgio Colli, who edited the complete edition of Nietzsche's posthumous fragments from the manuscripts themselves, have called The Will to Power a "historic forgery" artificially assembled by Nietzsche's sister and Peter Gast. Although Nietzsche had in 1886 announced (at the end of On the Genealogy of Morals) a new work with the title, The Will to Power: Essay of a Transvaluation of all Values, this project was finally abandoned and its draft materials used to compose The Twilight of the Idols and The Antichrist (both written in 1888).[2] The Will to Power, which Elisabeth Frster called Nietzsche's unedited magnum opus, was in fact abandoned as a book by Nietzsche himself. Nevertheless, the concept remains, and has, since the reading of Karl Lwith, been identified as a key component of Nietzsche's philosophy. So The Will to Power was not written by Nietzsche. But the concept of "will to power" is certainly in itself a major motif of Nietzsche's philosophy, so much so that Heidegger, under Lwith's influence, considered it to form, with the thought of the eternal recurrence, the basis of his thought.

Background
After returning from Paraguay, Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche founded the Nietzsche-Archiv in Naumburg in 1894 (after Nietzsche's mental breakdown), which she would later transfer to Weimar. The culmination of this organization was the publishing, in Leipzig between 1894 and 1926, of the Grooktavausgabe edition. It was first edited by C. G. Naumann, then by Krner. In these 20 volumes, Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche included part of Nietzsche's posthumous fragments, which she gathered together and entitled The Will To Power. With Peter Gast, she claimed that Nietzsche had died before completing his magnum opus, which he allegedly wanted to name "The Will to Power, in Attempt at a Revaluation of All Values". This compilation of Nietzsche's posthumous fragments, selected and ordered under his sister's authority, led to the book commonly known as The Will to Power. Until Colli & Montinari's edition, this would form the basis for all successive editions, including the 1922 Musarion edition, often commonly used even today.

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Colli and Montinari research

While researching materials for the Italian translation of Nietzsche's complete works in the 1960s, philologists Giorgio Colli and Mazzino Montinari decided to go to the Archives in Leipzig to work with the original documents. From their work emerged the first complete and chronological edition of Nietzsche's posthumous fragments, which Frster-Nietzsche had cut up, mixed and pasted together, according to her own antisemitic views (which were a source of contention between her and Nietzsche himself). The complete works comprise 5,000 pages, compared to the 3,500 pages of the Grooktavausgabe. In 1964, during the International Colloquium on Nietzsche in Paris, Colli and Montinari met Karl Lwith, who would put them in contact with Heinz Wenzel, editor for Walter de Gruyter's publishing house. Heinz Wenzel would buy the rights of the complete works of Colli and Montinari (33 volumes in German) after the French Gallimard edition and the Italian Adelphi editions. Before Colli and Montinari's philological work, the previous editions led readers to believe that Nietzsche had organized all his work toward a final structured opus called The Will to Power. In fact, if Nietzsche did consider producing such a book, he had abandoned such plans before his collapse. The title of The Will to Power, which appears for the first time at the end of the summer of 1885, was replaced by another plan at the end of August 1888. This new plan was titled "Attempt at a revaluation of all values" [Versuch einer Umwerthung aller Werthe][3] , and ordered the multiple fragments in a completely different way than the one chosen by Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche. In fact, according to Montinari, the earlier editions, which all depended on the Grooktavausgabe, are technically nonsense, as Nietzsche's fragments were cut up in various places and ordered according to his sister's will; and are a case of revisionism, as it was left to his sister to artificially combine Nietzsche's fragments into a unified opus magnum (which very concept is alien to Nietzsche's philosophy and style of writing), whose meaning was distorted according to Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche's anti-semitic and Germanist biases. Gilles Deleuze himself saluted Montinari's work declaring: "As long as it was not possible for the most serious researcher to accede to the whole of Nietzsche's manuscripts, we knew only in a loose way that the Will to Power did not exist as such (...) We wish only now that the new dawn brought on by this previously unpublished work will be the sign of a return to Nietzsche" [4] Not only did this critical philological work, a milestone in Nietzsche studies, prove case-by-case the distortions accomplished by Nietzsche's sister on his posthumous fragments, it also called into question the very conception of a Nietzschean magnum opus, given his style of writing and thinking. [5]

Versions
"Der Wille zur Macht" was first translated into English by Anthony M. Ludovici in 1910, and was published in Oscar Levy's edition of Nietzsche's papers. The introduction of the most recent edition by Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale offers both praise and criticism for Ludovici's edition, saying that, "Dr. Levy was probably quite right when in a prefatory note he called Ludovici 'the most gifted and conscientious of my collaborators,' but unfortunately this does not mean that Ludovici's translations are roughly reliable....Let us say that Ludovici was not a philosopher, and let it go at that." Friedrich Nietzsche (1910). "The will to power. An attempted transvaluation of all values. Books one and two" [6] . in Oscar Levy. The complete works of Friedrich Nietzsche. 14. Edinburgh and London: T.N. Foulis. (Revised third edition 1925, published by The Macmillan Company) Friedrich Nietzsche (1910). "The will to power. An attempted transvaluation of all values. Books three and four" [7] . in Oscar Levy. The complete works of Friedrich Nietzsche. 15. Edinburgh and London: T.N. Foulis. (First edition) Another translation was published by Kaufmann with Hollingdale in 1968: Friedrich Nietzsche (1968). The Will to Power: In Science, Nature, Society and Art. Random House. ISBN0394704371.

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References
[1] Martin Heidegger already criticized this unauthorized publishing in his 1930s courses on Nietzsche (see, for ex., beginning of Nietzsche II) (parts of which have been published under the name Nietzsche I (1936-1939), ed. B. Schillbach, 1996, XIV, 596p. and Nietzsche II (1939-1946), ed. B. Schillbach, 1997, VIII, 454p. note that these publications are not the exact transcription of the 1930s courses, but were done post-war) [2] See Mazzino Montinari, 1974. [3] This subtitle appeared on the title page of the first edition, called the Grooktav. It appeared in 1901 in volume XV of Nietzsche's Werke. A transcription is displayed in Walter Kaufmann's English translation of The Will to Power, Vintage, 1968, page xxvii. [4] Deleuze: "Tant qu'il ne fut pas possible aux chercheurs les plus srieux d'accder l'ensemble des manuscrits de Nietzsche, on savait seulement de faon vague que La Volont de puissance n'existait pas comme telle (...) Nous souhaitons que le jour nouveau, apport par les indits, soit celui du retour Nietzsche in Mazzino Montinari and Paolo D'Iorio, "'The Will to Power' does not exist" (http:/ / www. lyber-eclat. net/ lyber/ montinari/ ndt. html) [5] Mazzino Montinari and Paolo d'Iorio, "'The Will to Power' does not exist" (http:/ / www. lyber-eclat. net/ lyber/ montinari/ postface. html) Mazzino Montinari, La volont de puissance nexiste pas, texte tabli et postfac par Paolo DIorio, traduit de litalien par Patricia Farazzi et Michel Valensi, Paris, ditions de lclat, 1996, 192 p. [6] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ completeworksrie033168mbp [7] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ completeworksthe15nietuoft

Amor fati
Amor fati is a Latin phrase coined by Nietzsche loosely translating to "love of fate" or "love of one's fate". It is used to describe an attitude in which one sees everything that happens in one's life, including suffering and loss, as good. That is, one feels that everything that happens is destiny's way of reaching its ultimate purpose, and so should be considered good. Moreover, it is characterized by an acceptance of the events or situations that occur in one's life. The phrase is used repeatedly in Nietzsche's writings and is representative of the general outlook on life he articulates in section 276 of The Gay Science, which reads, I want to learn more and more to see as beautiful what is necessary in things; then I shall be one of those who make things beautiful. Amor fati: let that be my love henceforth! I do not want to wage war against what is ugly. I do not want to accuse; I do not even want to accuse those who accuse. Looking away shall be my only negation. And all in all and on the whole: some day I wish to be only a Yes-sayer. Quote from "Why I Am So Clever" in Ecce Homo, section 10[1] : My formula for greatness in a human being is amor fati: that one wants nothing to be different, not forward, not backward, not in all eternity. Not merely bear what is necessary, still less conceal itall idealism is mendaciousness in the face of what is necessarybut love it.

See also
Thus Spoke Zarathustra Destiny Eternal Return Stoicism Fatalism

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References
[1] Basic Writings of Nietzsche. trans. and ed. by Walter Kaufmann. 1967. p. 714.

Apollonian and Dionysian

The Apollonian and Dionysian is a philosophical and literary concept, or dichotomy, based on certain features of ancient Greek mythology. Several Western philosophical and literary figures have invoked this dichotomy in critical and creative works, including Plutarch, Friedrich Nietzsche, Carl Jung, Robert A. Heinlein, Ruth Benedict, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, singer Jim Morrison, the rock band Rush, literary critic G. Wilson Knight, Ayn Rand, Stephen King, Diane Wakoski, Umberto Eco and cultural critic Camille Paglia. In Greek mythology, Apollo and Dionysus are both sons of Zeus. Apollo is the god of the Sun, music, and poetry, while Dionysus is the god of wine, ecstasy, and intoxication. In the modern literary usage of the concept, the contrast between Apollo and Dionysus symbolizes principles of individualism versus collectivism, light versus darkness, or civilization versus primitivism. The ancient Greeks did not consider the two gods as opposites or rivals. However, Parnassus, the mythical home of poetry and all art, was strongly associated with each of the two gods in separate legends.

German philosophy
Although the use of the concepts of Apollonian and Dionysian is famously related to Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy, the terms were used before him in Prussia [1] . The poet Hlderlin used it, while Winckelmann talked of Bacchus, the god of wine.

Nietzsche's usage
Nietzsche's aesthetic usage of the concepts, which was later developed philosophically, was first developed in his book The Birth of Tragedy, which he published in 1872. His major premise here was that the fusion of Dionysian and Apollonian "Kunsttrieben" ("artistic impulses") forms dramatic arts, or tragedies. He goes on to argue that that has not been achieved since the ancient Greek tragedians. Nietzsche is adamant that the works of above all Aeschylus, and also Sophocles, represent the summit of artistic creation, the true realization of tragedy; it is with Euripides, he states, that tragedy begins its "Untergang" (literally "going under", meaning decline, deterioration, downfall, death, etc.). Nietzsche objects to Euripides' use of Socratic rationalism in his tragedies, claiming that the infusion of ethics and reason robs tragedy of its foundation, namely the fragile balance of the Dionysian and Apollonian.

Chart of Character Traits

Apollonian thinking self-controlled rational, logical ordered the dream state principle of individuation value for human order and culture Dionysian feeling passionate irrational, instinctual chaotic state of intoxication wholeness of existence celebration of nature

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celebration of appearance/illusion plastic & visual arts human being(s) as artists brute realism & absurdity music human being(s) as the work and glorification of art

The relationship between the Apollonian and Dionysian juxtapositions is apparent, Nietzsche claimed in The Birth of Tragedy, in the interplay of Greek Tragedy: the tragic hero of the drama, the main protagonist, struggles to make order (in the Apollonian sense) of his unjust and chaotic (Dionysian) Fate, though he dies unfulfilled in the end. For the audience of such a drama, Nietzsche claimed, this tragedy allows us to sense an underlying essence, what he called the "Primordial Unity", which revives our Dionysian nature - which is almost indescribably pleasurable. Though he later dropped this concept saying it was ...burdened with all the errors of youth (Attempt at Self Criticism, 2), the overarching theme was a sort of metaphysical solace or connection to the heart of creation, so to speak.

Paglia's Use
Camille Paglia writes about the Apollonian and Dionysian in her book Sexual Personae [2] . The two concepts split a set of dichotomies that create the basis of Paglia's theory. For her, the Dionysian is dark and chthonic while the Apollonian is light and structured. The Dionysian is associated with females, wild/chaotic nature, and unconstrained sex/procreation, while the Apollonian is associated with males, clarity, rationality/reason, and solidity, along with the goal of oriented progress. Paglia attributes all the progress of human civilization to males revolting against the Dionysian forces of females, and turning instead to the Apollonian trait of ordered creation. The Dionysian is a force of chaos and destruction which is the overpowering and alluring chaotic state of wild nature, and the turn away from it towards socially constructed Apollonian virtues accounts for the prevalence of asexuality and homosexuality in geniuses and in the most culturally prosperous places such as ancient Athens.

Apollonianism in linguistics
Similar to Nietzsche's usage, some linguists use Apollonianism to denote "the wish to describe and create order, especially with unfamiliar information or new experience. An updated, albeit frivolous, example of this general tendency is the story about the South Dakotan who went to Athens and was happily surprised to find out that the Greeks are fans of NASAs projects: wherever he went, he saw the name Apollo. As this anecdote shows, the Apollonian tendency would also seem to include a significant dimension of ethnocentricity."[3] "Specifically in linguistics, Apollonianism is manifested in justifications for the use of a word and in the craving for meaningfulness. Consider the perception of nave young Israeli readers of the name dktor sus (cf. Dr Seuss). Many Israelis are certain that he is Dr Horse since in Hebrew sus means horse - cf. the etymythology that this arises from the prevalence of animals in Dr Seusss stories. This misunderstanding might correspond to Einar Haugens general claim with regard to borrowing, that every speaker attempts to reproduce previously learned linguistic patterns in an effort to cope with new linguistic situations (1950: 212)."[4]

Post-modern reading
Nietzsche's idea has been interpreted as an expression of fragmented consciousness or existential instability by a variety of modern and post-modern writers, especially Martin Heidegger in Nietzsche and the Post-modernists.[5] . According to Peter Sloterdijk, the Dionysian and the Apollonian form a dialectic; they are contrasting, but Nietzsche does not mean one to be valued more than the other[6] . Truth being primordial pain, our existential being is determined by the Dionysian/Apollonian dialectic. Extending the use of the Apollonian and Dionysian onto an argument on interaction between the mind and physical environment, Abraham Akkerman has pointed to masculine and feminine features of city form.[7]

Apollonian and Dionysian The dichotomy is a major theme in Michael Pollan's book, "The Botany of Desire" in which he details man's attempt at controlling nature through large-scale production of food crops. He argues any attempt to bring control to a single variable in a natural system only results in more variables to which disorder and entropy will reign. Thus, all control is partial, temporary and largely illusory. Some farmers accept this and use strategies like crop rotation, variety and secondary crops which complement their main crops with beneficial insects and such. Other farmers try to sustain monocultures, which is the ultimate attempt at order among chaos, and must depend on chemicals or genetic tampering to defend encroaching disorder. Farmers who embrace the chaos are usually far more successful and less beholding to corporations, but can't match the production or homogeny necessary to supply restaurant chains.

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See also
Weimar Classicism Folk etymology Phono-semantic matching Caledonian Antisyzygy

References
[1] Adrian Del Caro, " Dionysian Classicism, or Nietzsche's Appropriation of an Aesthetic Norm (http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0022-5037(198910/ 12)50:4<589:DCONAO>2. 0. CO;2-T& size=LARGE)", in Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Oct. - Dec., 1989), pp. 589605 (English) [2] Paglia, Sexual Personae, 1990 [3] See pp. 244245 of Zuckermann, Ghilad (2006), "'Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237258. [4] See p. 245 of Zuckermann, Ghilad (2006), "Etymythological Othering' and the Power of 'Lexical Engineering' in Judaism, Islam and Christianity. A Socio-Philo(sopho)logical Perspective", Explorations in the Sociology of Language and Religion, edited by Tope Omoniyi and Joshua A. Fishman, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 237258. [5] Postmodernism and the re-reading of modernity By Francis Barker, Peter Hulme, Margaret Iversen, Manchester University Press,1992, ISBN 978-0719037450 p. 258 [6] Thinker on Stage: Nietzsche's Materialism, translation by Jamie Owen Daniel; foreword by Jochen Schulte-Sasse, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1989. ISBN 0816617651 [7] Akkerman, Abraham (2006). "Femininity and Masculinity in City-Form: Philosophical Urbanism as a History of Consciousness" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ 9337128m117q48k2/ ). Human Studies 29 (2): 229256. doi:10.1007/s10746-006-9019-4. .

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Eternal return
Eternal return (also known as "eternal recurrence") is a concept which posits that the universe has been recurring, and will continue to recur in a self-similar form an infinite number of times. The concept initially inherent in Indian philosophy was later found in ancient Egypt, and was subsequently taken up by the Pythagoreans and Stoics. With the decline of antiquity and the spread of Christianity, the concept fell into disuse, though Friedrich Nietzsche resurrected it. In addition, the philosophical concept of eternal recurrence was addressed by Arthur Schopenhauer. It is a purely physical concept, involving no supernatural reincarnation, but the return of beings in the same bodies. Time is viewed as being not linear but cyclical.

Premise
The basic premise is that the universe is limited in extent and contains a finite amount of matter, while time is viewed as being infinite. The universe has no starting or ending state, while the matter comprising it is constantly changing its state. The number of possible changes is finite, and so sooner or later the same state will recur. Physicists such as Stephen Hawking and J. Richard Gott have proposed models by which a/the universe could undergo time travel, provided the balance between mass and energy created the appropriate cosmological geometry. More philosophical concepts from physics, such as Hawking's "arrow of time", for example, discuss cosmology as proceeding up to a certain point, whereafter it undergoes a time reversal (which, as a consequence of T-symmetry, is thought to bring about a chaotic state due to entropy). The oscillatory universe model in physics could be provided as an example of how the universe cycles through the same events infinitely.

Indian religions
The concept of cyclical patterns is very prominent in Indian religions, predominantly in Jainism and inclusive of Hinduism and Buddhism among others. The Wheel of life represents an endless cycle of birth, life, and death from which one seeks liberation. In Tantric Buddhism, a wheel of time concept known as the Kalachakra expresses the idea of an endless cycle of existence and knowledge.[1] However it is to be noted that the cycle of life in Buddhism does not involve a soul passing from one body to another, but the karma of the deceased being carrying on to another being born. To get rid of this cycle the person should get rid of its karma through the attainment of enlightenment. (see: Rebirth (Buddhism)).

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Classical antiquity
In ancient Egypt, the scarab (or dung beetle) was viewed as a sign of eternal renewal and reemergence of life, a reminder of the life to come. (See also "Atum" and "Ma'at.") The ancient Mayans and Aztecs also took a cyclical view of time. In ancient Greece, the concept of eternal return was connected with Empedocles, Zeno of Citium, and Stoicism.

Scarab on a fresco.

Renaissance
The symbol of the Ouroboros, the snake or dragon devouring its own tail, is the alchemical symbol par excellence of eternal recurrence, possibly borrowed from the Norse concept of Jrmungandr or the Midgard Serpent. The alchemist-physicians of the Renaissance and Reformation were aware of the idea of eternal recurrence; an attempt to describe eternal recurrence was made by the physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne in his Religio Medici of 1643: And in this sense, I say, the world was before the Creation, and at an end before it had a beginning; and thus was I dead before I was alive, though my grave be England, my dying place was Paradise, and Eve miscarried of me before she conceived of Cain. (R.M.Part 1:57)
Ouroboros

Friedrich Nietzsche
The concept of "eternal recurrence" is central to the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche. As Heidegger points out in his lectures on Nietzsche, Nietzsche's first mention of eternal recurrence in aphorism 341 of The Gay Science (cited below), presents this concept as a hypothetical question, and not a fact. According to Heidegger, it is the burden imposed by the question of eternal recurrencewhether or not such a thing could possibly be truethat is so significant in modern thought: "The way Nietzsche here patterns the first communication of the thought of the "greatest burden" [of eternal recurrence] makes it clear that this "thought of thoughts" is at the same time "the most burdensome thought."[2] The thought of eternal recurrence appears in a few of his works, in particular 285 and 341 of The Gay Science and then in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. It is also noted in a posthumous fragment.[3] The origin of this thought is dated by Nietzsche himself, via posthumous fragments, to August 1881, at Sils-Maria. In Ecce Homo (1888), he wrote that he thought of the eternal return as the "fundamental conception" of Thus Spoke Zarathustra.[4] Several authors have pointed out other occurrences of this hypothesis in contemporary thought. Rudolf Steiner, who revised the first catalogue of Nietzsche's personal library in January 1896, pointed out that Nietzsche would have

Eternal return read something similar in Eugen Dhring's Courses on philosophy (1875), which Nietzsche readily criticized. Lou Andreas-Salom pointed out that Nietzsche referred to ancient cyclical conceptions of time, in particular by the Pythagoreans, in the Untimely Meditations. Henri Lichtenberger and Charles Andler have pinpointed three works contemporary to Nietzsche which carried on the same hypothesis: J.G. Vogt, Die Kraft. Eine real-monistische Weltanschauung (1878), Auguste Blanqui, L'ternit par les astres [5] (1872) and Gustave Le Bon, L'homme et les socits (1881). Walter Benjamin juxtaposes Blanqui and Nietzsche's discussion of eternal recurrence in his unfinished, monumental work The Arcades Project.[6] However, Gustave Le Bon is not quoted anywhere in Nietzsche's manuscripts; and Auguste Blanqui was named only in 1883. Vogt's work, on the other hand, was read by Nietzsche during this summer of 1881 in Sils-Maria.[7] Blanqui is mentioned by Albert Lange in his Geschichte des Materialismus (History of Materialism), a book closely read by Nietzsche.[8] The eternal recurrence is also mentioned in passing by the Devil in Part Four, Book XI, Chapter 9 of Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, which is another possible source that Nietzsche may have been drawing upon. Walter Kaufmann suggests that Nietzsche may have encountered this idea in the works of Heinrich Heine, who once wrote: [T]ime is infinite, but the things in time, the concrete bodies, are finite. They may indeed disperse into the smallest particles; but these particles, the atoms, have their determinate numbers, and the numbers of the configurations which, all of themselves, are formed out of them is also determinate. Now, however long a time may pass, according to the eternal laws governing the combinations of this eternal play of repetition, all configurations which have previously existed on this earth must yet meet, attract, repulse, kiss, and corrupt each other again...[9] Nietzsche calls the idea "horrifying and paralyzing", and says that its burden is the "heaviest weight" ("das schwerste Gewicht")[10] imaginable. The wish for the eternal return of all events would mark the ultimate affirmation of life: What, if some day or night a demon were to steal after you into your loneliest loneliness and say to you: 'This life as you now live it and have lived it, you will have to live once more and innumerable times more' ... Would you not throw yourself down and gnash your teeth and curse the demon who spoke thus? Or have you once experienced a tremendous moment when you would have answered him: 'You are a god and never have I heard anything more divine.' [The Gay Science, 341] To comprehend eternal recurrence in his thought, and to not merely come to peace with it but to embrace it, requires amor fati, "love of fate":[11] My formula for human greatness is amor fati: that one wants to have nothing different, not forward, not backward, not in all eternity. Not merely to bear the necessary, still less to conceal it--all idealism is mendaciousness before the necessary--but to love it.[11] In Carl Jung's seminar on Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Jung claims that the dwarf states the idea of the Eternal Return before Zarathustra finishes his argument of the Eternal Return when the dwarf says, "'Everything straight lies,' murmured the dwarf disdainfully. 'All truth is crooked, time itself is a circle.'" However, Zarathustra rebuffs the dwarf in the following paragraph, warning him against over-simplifications.

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Poincar recurrence theorem

Related to the concept of eternal return is the Poincar recurrence theorem in mathematics. It states that a system whose dynamics are volume-preserving and which is confined to a finite spatial volume will, after a sufficiently long time, return to an arbitrarily small neighborhood of its initial state. "A sufficiently long time" could be much longer than the predicted lifetime of the universe (see 1 E19 s and more).

Modern cosmology
Controversial theoretical physicist Peter Lynds suggested a model of eternal recurrence in a 2006 paper.[12] Lynds hypothesizes that if the universe undergoes a big crunch, the arrow of time may reverse. Others have approached the question of eternal recurrence from a physics perspective in different ways, including a hypothesis based on the Transactional interpretation of quantum mechanics.[13]

Arguments against eternal return

Nietzsche scholar Walter Kaufmann has described an argument originally put forward by Georg Simmel, which rebuts the claim that a finite number of states must repeat within an infinite amount of time: Even if there were exceedingly few things in a finite space in an infinite time, they would not have to repeat in the same configurations. Suppose there were three wheels of equal size, rotating on the same axis, one point marked on the circumference of each wheel, and these three points lined up in one straight line. If the second wheel rotated twice as fast as the first, and if the speed of the third wheel was 1/ of the speed of the first, the initial line-up would never recur.[14] However, Simmel's argument may not contradict eternal recurrence. There are an infinite number of states that each wheel can occupy, but they will return to a configuration arbitrarily close to the initial one an infinite number of times, as posited by Poincar.

References in other literature

In modern times eternal recurrence was a major theme in the teachings of the Russian mystic P. D. Ouspensky whose novel Strange Life of Ivan Osokin (first published St. Petersburg 1915) explores the idea that even given the free-will to alter events in one's life, the same events will occur regardless. The greater part of the 11th chapter of his "A New Model of the Universe" (1914) is devoted to the idea and he there identifies allusions to eternal recurrence in the writings of Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Robert Louis Stevenson, Dante Gabriel Rosetti and Charles Howard Hinton. James Joyce was influenced by Giambattista Vico (16681744), an Italian philosopher who proposed a theory of cyclical history in his major work, New Science. Joyce puns on his name many times in Finnegans Wake, including the "first" sentence: "by a commodius vicus of recirculation". Vico's theory involves the recurrence of three stages of history: the age of gods, the age of heroes, and the age of humans after which the cycle repeats itself. Finnegans Wake begins in mid-sentence, with the continuation of the book's unfinished final sentence, creating a circular reference whereby the novel has no true beginning or end.[15] See also Ages of Man and Greek mythology. The religious scholar Mircea Eliade has applied the term "eternal return" to what he sees as a universal religious belief in the ability to return to the mythical age through myth and ritual (see Eternal Return (Eliade)). Eliade's theory of "eternal return" describes a distinctly nonspontaneous process that depends on human behavior; thus, it should be distinguished from the philosophical theory of eternal return (the subject of this article), which describes a mathematically inevitable process. Milan Kundera's seminal work, The Unbearable Lightness of Being, is rooted in the concept of eternal return, with the narration explicitly referring to and building on Nietzsche's interpretation.

Eternal return Jorge Luis Borges, in his short story "The Doctrine of Cycles" explains and refutes the concept of the Eternal Return, citing it as being "...usually attributed to Nietzsche."

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References in popular culture

In the re-imagined Battlestar Galactica, the polytheistic religion of the humans of the Twelve Colonies is centered on the belief of eternal recurrence, and the religious elements of the show frequently incorporate this idea with the scriptural phrase "All of this has happened before, and it will happen again." The monotheistic Cylons also adhere to this doctrine and repeat the phrase as often as the humans.[16] [17] The first line of Disney's Peter Pan is "All of this has happened before, and it will all happen again." This line has been cited as the inspiration behind the same theme in Battlestar Galactica. Woody Allen, in Hannah and Her Sisters, considers the theory of eternal recurrence. "Great", says Woody, "that means I'll have to sit through the Ice Capades again." At the end of the 2001 film K-PAX, the extraterrestrial named "prot" explains eternal return by scientific laws in the universe. Implying the big crunch will restart the big bang and every person and life will be lived out in exactly the same way each time this occurs. The Information Society song, "Seek200", utilizes a sample of "all of this has happened..." from a Peter Pan record, repeatedly. This idea plays an integral part in the story of the Xenosaga RPG trilogy, primarily near the end of the third game, Xenosaga Episode III: Also sprach Zarathustra. The sci-fi television series, Lexx, makes frequent references to this concept, and it is a relatively important plot point throughout most of the early and mid-series, including the concept of "cycles of time", and the line, "Time begins and then time ends, and then time begins once again It is happening now, it has happened before, it will surely happen again..."[18] The ending of Stephen King's Dark Tower series suggests the concept of eternal return by having the final, ultimate truth embodied at the absolute center of existence (the final door at the apex of the tower) be a trip back through time to start seeking ultimate truth (The Tower) again. Michael Ende's 1979 novel, The Never Ending Story, muses on themes of eternal return, the Old Man of Wandering Mountain and Childlike Empress to opposing and unified figures caught in The Circle of Eternal Return. (p.195) The idea of eternal recurrence is continually mentioned in the 2007 American horror film Wind Chill. Jim Morrison, who was familiar with Nietzsche's works, spoke about the idea of eternal recurrence. "Well, were all in the cosmic movie, you know that! That means the day you die, you gotta watch your whole life recurring eternally forever, in CinemaScope, 3-D. So you better have some good incidents happenin in there... and a fitting climax" - The End of "Light my Fire" (18:52) on Disc 2 of The Doors: Live in Detroit. The 2007 Pulitzer Prize Winner for drama, Rabbit Hole, by David Lindsay-Abaire, touches on the concept of eternal recurrence. A short story written by one of the play's characters describes a child who jumps through black holes, or rabbit holes, to access these alternate realities where his dead father is still alive. Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young references the concept in the song "Deja Vu" with the lyrics: "If I had ever been here before on another time around the wheel I would probably know just how to deal" and "I feel Like I've been here before" and "We have all been here before" The plot premise of the Bill Murray movie Groundhog Day is essentially modeled on the idea of eternal return. Flann O'Brien's novel The Third Policeman embodies an instance of eternal recurrence, with the protagonist being entraped on a circular hell. The Rolling Stones' 1971 song, "Sway", references the eternal return by asking "did you ever wake up to find, a day that broke up your mind, destroyed your notion of circular time?" and then even alludes to Nietzsche's "demon." The American metal band Darkest Hour released the album The Eternal Return on June 23, 2009.

Eternal return The The Matrix (series) trilogy plays with the theme through the planned creation and destruction of Zion and the Matrix itself. The humans themselves are not actually replications of their previous selves, they are participating in a sequence of events that has happened on multiple previous occasions and is intended to repeat itself into the future. The anime Zegapain is set in a virtual reality which must reset all history and memories to the initial state of the simulated time frame every 150 days. In the anime The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya, 8 episodes of the second season play off this concept. The 2009 horror film Triangle effectively portrays the eternal recurrence in its Nietzschean incarnation. In the sixth part of the manga JoJo's Bizarre Adventure, this is crucial to Enrico Pucci's plans to purge humanity of horror and sorrow, by accelerating the next cycle of existence without human spirits actually dying, so they will have subconscious awareness about the totality of the future.

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See also
Cyclical pattern Endless knot Eternal Return (Eliade) Historic recurrence Infinite loop Mandala Mbius strip Ourobouros Poincar recurrence theorem Universal Function Eternalism (philosophy of time)

References
Hatab, Lawrence J. (2005). Nietzsche's Life Sentence: Coming to Terms with Eternal Recurrence. New York : Routledge, ISBN 0-415-96758-9. Lorenzen, Michael. (2006). The Ideal Academic Library as Envisioned through Nietzsche's Vision of the Eternal Return. MLA Forum 5, no. 1, online at http://www.mlaforum.org/volumeV/issue1/article3.html. Lukacher, Ned. (1998). Time-Fetishes: The Secret History of Eternal Recurrence. Durham, N.C. : Duke University Press, ISBN 0-8223-2253-6. Magnus, Bernd. (1978). Nietzsche's Existential Imperative. Bloomington : Indiana University Press, ISBN 0-253-34062-4. Jung, Carl. (1988). Nietzsche's Zarathustra: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1934 - 1939 (2 Volume Set). [19] Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691099538.

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References
[1] August Thalheimer: Introduction to Dialectical Materialism (http:/ / 72. 14. 207. 104/ search?q=cache:8TukAqIPIuQJ:www. marxists. org/ archive/ thalheimer/ works/ diamat/ 06. htm+ eternal+ recurrence& hl=en& start=5) from Google Cache [2] See Heidegger Nietzsche. Volume II: The Eternal Recurrence of the Same trans. David Farrell Krell. New York: Harper and Row, 1984. 25. [3] 1881, (11 [143]) [4] Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, "Why I Write Such Good Books", "Thus Spoke Zarathustra", 1 [5] http:/ / classiques. uqac. ca/ classiques/ blanqui_louis_auguste/ eternite_par_les_astres/ eternite_. html [6] Walter Benjamin. The Arcades Project. Trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin. Cambridge: Belknap-Harvard, 2002. See chapter D, "Boredom Eternal Return," pp. 101-119. [7] See Posthumous fragment, 11 [312] 1881; See also Mazzino Montinari, Friedrich Nietzsche, 1974 (German transl. De Gruyter, 1991, French translation PUF, 2001) and also Nietzsche's personal library (see also (http:/ / www. item. ens. fr/ nietzsche/ bn. html) and revision of previous catalogues (http:/ / www. item. ens. fr/ nietzsche/ bn/ catalogues. html) on the cole Normale Suprieure's website) [8] Alfred Fouille, "Note sur Nietzsche et Lange: le "retour ternel" (http:/ / fr. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Note_sur_Nietzsche_et_Lange_:__le_retour_ternel_), in Revue philosophique de la France et de l'tranger. An. 34. Paris 1909. T. 67, S. 519-525 (French) [9] Kaufmann, Walter. Nietzsche; Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. 1959, page 276. [10] Kundera, Milan. The Unbearable Lightness of Being. 1999, page 5. [11] Dudley, Will. Hegel, Nietzsche, and Philosophy: Thinking Freedom. 2002, page 201. [12] Lynds, "On a finite universe with no beginning or end" (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0612053) [13] "Circular causality: A physical hypothesis of eternal recurrence" (http:/ / sites. google. com/ site/ jdquirk/ articles/ circular-causality) [14] Kaufmann, Walter. Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. (Fourth Edition) Princeton University Press, 1974. p327 [15] erg.ucd.ie (http:/ / erg. ucd. ie/ arupa/ ouspensky. html) [16] Battlestar Galactica: Razor - The Hybrid's Prophesy (http:/ / puntabulous. com/ 2008/ 01/ 22/ battlestar-galactica-razor-the-hybrids-prophesy/ ) [17] scifi.com (http:/ / www. scifi. com/ sfw/ column/ sfw12188. html) [18] Transcript for Brigadoom, 2.18 @ Wake the Dead (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ Paris/ Jardin/ 6009/ trans218. html) [19] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0691099537

Nietzsche and free will

The 19th-century philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche is known as a critic of Judeo-Christian morality and religions in general. One of the arguments he raised against the truthfulness of these doctrines is that they base upon the concept of free will, which he considers false.

Schopenhauer
In The Gay Science, Nietzsche praises Arthur Schopenhauer's "immortal doctrines of (...) the a priori nature of the causal law (...) and the unfreedom of the will"[1] , which have not been understood enough. Following is the short description of his views.

The law of causality

Schopenhauer argued that the law of causality is the basis of all our intellectual capability. We call X a necessary condition for Y, if Y cannot happen without X. And all necessary conditions taken together make a sufficient basis (a cause): if there is no lacking condition for Y, Y must happen.[2] The law of causality, or ex nihilo nihil, states that everything has a cause, except for The Whole (the universe, the universe plus God, or whatever). This law (that everything has a basis from which it springs) cannot be negated, because the negation thereof would then be another law: "out of nothing something can arise" (e.g. as a rule of quantum chaos or whatever). So, in general, everything has a cause (except the whole, the general organization of the world because there is nothing beyond...), although this does not mean determinism, i.e. calculability of the world from our perspective. The problem of freedom and fate is not the same as the problem of determinism and indeterminism, although they

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Physical freedom
In his On the Freedom of Will, Schopenhauer calls the fact that we can do whatever we will a physical freedom, i.e. lack of obstacles, which does not mark moral freedom.[2] "Free" here means: one acting according only to one's will; if we try to use it to the will itself, we ask: "is will itself willed? do you want your will to become such-and-such?". This question appears in Nietzsche's Zarathustra, e.g. in the chapter "Backworldsmen".[3]

Chance vs necessity
In his On the Freedom of Will, Schopenhauer draws a distinction between necessity and chance.[2] He calls necessity an implication from a sufficient cause (i.e. something that is known already if we know that the sufficient cause is present). An event is called random (relatively to some sufficient basis) if it does not follow from this basis. As freedom means lack of necessity, it would mean a lack of any sufficient cause, i.e. absolute randomness (a chance). It is therefore the question of whether something depends on another thing (i.e. is in some way determined by it) or does not depend on anything (then we call it a chance). Or, in other words, whether something can be predicted, whether it is already known for sure (because of the sufficient cause), or not. Compare Luther's argument, where everything is a necessity because the Creator knows it already. And, on the other side, chance in all languages is defined "that what cannot be predicted"[4] .

Nietzsche's analysis
Power of will
In Beyond Good and Evil, 21[5] , Nietzsche criticizes the concept of free will both negatively and positively. He calls it a folly resulting from extravagant pride of man; and calls the idea a boorish simplicity. The latter probably relates to ordinary-man's visions like there is a God which (after the ellapse of eternal waiting) creates the world and then waits and observes (being, however, still "beyond time"): and then he is surprised and subdued by what I do (and well, I am too!). (This vision is brought up by Nietzsche in The Antichrist, sect. 48). Next, he shows that it represents an error of causa sui (X is a cause of X whereas "cause" should mean something beyond): The desire for "freedom of will" in the superlative, metaphysical sense, such as still holds sway, unfortunately, in the minds of the half-educated, the desire to bear the entire and ultimate responsibility for one's actions oneself, and to absolve God, the world, ancestors, chance, and society therefrom, involves nothing less than to be precisely this causa sui, and, with more than Munchausen daring, to pull oneself up into existence by the hair, out of the slough of nothingness. Finally, he suggests that the only real thing about will is whether it is strong (i.e. hard to break) or weak: The "non-free will" is mythology; in real life it is only a question of strong and weak will. Nothing is (nor can be) fully resistant to stimula, for that would mean it is unchangeable: whereas nothing in this world is or can be unchangeable[6] . He therefore continues Schopenhauer's question of "whether you will, what you wanted to will". Men generally agree that will is power. "Freedom" of will then in fact means: power of will (see argument from The Antichrist, 14). Will has power over actions, over many things; therefore, things are determined by will. But is this power unlimited? Does a will rule without being ruled itself? Does a Christian want to sin? Nietzsche disagrees. A godless man becomes pious as a "grace", he did not want it; and likewise a pious man becomes godless without any merit or guilt. Nietzsche suggests in many places that if a pious man becomes godless, it is because of the power of his values, of the will for truthfulness...

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"Me", will, and chance

Will is something that determines man's acts, thoughts etc. It is will what makes man reluctant to toss a coin for something (see The Antichrist, 44, about Christians: "in point of fact, they simply do what they cannot help doing"). The problem is, whether it is itself ruled? And here there are two terms which complicate the picture: the term "me" and "chance" (i.e. something independent from anything, uncontrollable). The term "me" (as in sayings "it's up to you", "it is you who wants things") is already recognized as empty in the preface of Beyond Good and Evil (or as connected with the superstition about the soul). Later, Nietzsche states more clearly that it is a tautology ("what will I do? what will my decision be?" "it's up to you" that actually means: your decision depends on your decision, something happens in your mind and not somewhere else...). See e.g. On the Genealogy of Morals[7] : For, in just the same way as people separate lightning from its flash and take the latter as an action, as the effect of a subject which is called lightning, so popular morality separates strength from the manifestations of strength, as if behind the strong person there were an indifferent substrate, which is free to express strength or not. But there is no such substrate; there is no "being" behind the doing, acting, becoming. "The doer" is merely made up and added into the action the act is everything. People basically duplicate the action: when they see a lightning flash, that is an action of an action: they set up the same event first as the cause and then yet again as its effect. (...) "We weak people are merely weak. It's good if we do nothing; we are not strong enough for that" but this bitter state, this shrewdness of the lowest ranks, which even insects possess (when in great danger they stand as if they were dead in order not to do "too much"), has, thanks to that counterfeiting and self-deception of powerlessness, dressed itself in the splendour of a self-denying, still, patient virtue, just as if the weakness of the weak man himself that means his essence, his actions, his entire single, inevitable, and irredeemable reality is a voluntary achievement, something willed, chosen, an act, something of merit. The same, however, can be applied to the moral weakness of a Christian (his lack of resistance), who would certainly prefer not to sin and would construct himself otherwise if he could. "And many a one can command himself, but still sorely lacketh self-obedience!"[8] Nietzsche criticizes the idea of "free choice", and even of "choice" (see the end of above quotation): man does not want to "choose", man wants to affirm himself ("will to power"). Next problem is the role of chance. Unless the change brought to us is big enough, a chance is generally responded by will, wherever there is will. He calls it "the redemption (of chance)". This topic is to be found as early as in Human, All Too Human[9] , and it returns in many places of Zarathustra. For example in part 3 it is discussed as follows: I am Zarathustra the godless! I cook every chance in my pot. And only when it hath been quite cooked do I welcome it as my food. And verily, many a chance came imperiously unto me: but still more imperiously did my Will speak unto it (...)[10] Earlier in this part: "The time is now past when accidents could befall me; and what could not fall to my lot which would not already be mine own!"[11] To cut it short, if it was always that "we choose a chance", then there would be determinism (for "we", "we ourselves" means: our will and its filtering and determining capabilities). And if it happens otherwise ("a chance chooses us"), then there is indeterminism. But the latter case means we have no will in a topic, i.e. it is at that time morally indifferent to us, adiaphora, not against anything (and therefore even more there is no guilt).

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What is unfree will?

If people talk about free will, then it is certainly some restricted reality (if "freedom" meant "everything", there would be no need for a separate word). What follows? That there must be events external to one's freedom: therefore, besides "free will" there should also consequently be "unfree will". Although Nietzsche considers both terms entirely fictional, he gives some clues about the psychological reality behind them: The states of power impute to a man a feeling that he is not the cause, that he is not responsible for them they come unwillingly: and thus we are not the doers unfree will (i.e. awareness of a change done to us, without former willing from our side) needs some foreign will.[12] In short, an unexpected change. Now, going back to the already-mentioned definition, chance means: that what cannot be predicted. If randomness affects man (unsubjugated, reaching even the surface of his consciousness), then it is "unfree will". Therefore, wherever we call something free, we feel something free, in short: wherever we feel our power, it is deterministic, it is a necessity. And indeed Nietzsche says it with the mouth of Zarathustra: Out into distant futures, which no dream hath yet seen, into warmer souths than ever sculptor conceived, where gods in their dancing are ashamed of all clothes: (...) Where all time seemed to me a blessed mockery of moments, where necessity was freedom itself, which played happily with the goad of freedom: [13] The same in Beyond Good and Evil: Artists have here perhaps a finer intuition; they who know only too well that precisely when they no longer do anything "arbitrarily," and everything of necessity, their feeling of freedom, of subtlety, of power, of creatively fixing, disposing, and shaping, reaches its climax in short, that necessity and "freedom of will" are then the same thing with them.[14]

The world is semi-deterministic

Yet in another part of Zarathustra Nietzsche claims that when we look long-term enough, and from the bird's-eye perspective of supreme powers big enough, a chance is unimportant, because it is ruled and step-by-step softened and arranged by natural laws and necessities, which constitute the order of the world and evolution: If ever a breath hath come to me of the creative breath, and of the heavenly necessity which compelleth even chances to dance star-dances: (...)[15] To Nietzsche everything in this world is an expression of will to power (see BGE, 36). To exist is to represent will to power, to cause influence (compare similar views of Protagoras' disciples in Plato's Teaitet). One can cause influence only on something that exists. Therefore (through induction), an act changes everything from that moment onwards. If one thing was otherwise, everything would have to be otherwise (and generally also backwards). Contrary to Chesterton's views, this general rule is not affected by chances: they of course change the world course too, but still: if one thing was set otherwise, everything would have to be otherwise.

Responsibility
Because causa sui is nonsense, even a chance has a cause (only the whole has no cause), and it is "divine dice" (or "Divine Plan"): If ever I have played dice with the gods at the divine table of the earth, so that the earth quaked and ruptured, and snorted forth fire-streams: For a divine table is the earth, and trembling with new active dictums and dice-casts of the gods: (...) [15] To Nietzsche, no-one is responsible neither for the necessities (laws and powers) he represents, nor for chances he encounters (which conquer him unwillingly and which, as things totally independent from anything, only the "supreme being" could change); after all, noone is absolutely and completely resistant, there can always happen

Nietzsche and free will something which changes you deeply enough. From Twilight of the Idols: What alone can our teaching be? That no one gives a man his qualities, neither God, nor society, nor his parents and ancestors, nor he himself (the latter absurd idea here put aside has been taught as "intelligible freedom" by Kant, perhaps also by Plato). No one is responsible for existing at all, for being formed so and so, for being placed under those circumstances and in this environment. His own destiny cannot be disentangled from the destiny of all else in past and future. He is not the result of a special purpose, a will, or an aim, the attempt is not here made to reach an "ideal of man," an "ideal of happiness," or an "ideal of morality;" it is absurd to try to shunt off man's nature towards some goal. We have invented the notion of a "goal:" in reality a goal is lacking . . . We are necessary, we are part of destiny, we belong to the whole, we exist in the whole,there is nothing which could judge, measure, compare, or condemn our being, for that would be to judge, measure, compare, and condemn the whole . . . But there is nothing outside the whole! This only is the grand emancipation: that no one be made responsible any longer, that the mode of being be not traced back to a causa prima, that the world be not regarded as a unity, either as sensorium or as "spirit;" it is only thereby that the innocence of becoming is again restored . . . The concept of "God" has hitherto been the greatest objection to existence . . . We deny God, we deny responsibility by denying God: it is only thereby that we save the world. [16]

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Nietzsche's conclusions
About man and freedom
In The Antichrist, 14, Nietzsche argues that man should be treated no otherwise than as a machine. And if we add some general chaos (randomness) to the image, that doesn't change anything. A chance involves no obligation (A 25, near the end). He points both to the weakness of man and of God. Man wants the good, "God" wants the good, and yet evil happens. So where is this "freedom" (i.e. power) of will? And where is this good God?

About good and evil

These two are mixed and interdependent. Good causes the evil, and evil causes the good. See e.g. the Aftersong in BGE, or "The Seven Seals", 4, from Zarathustra. The dichotomy between God and the devil is a "dualistic fiction"[17] .

About organized religion

Religion is about controlling people: one human-machine wants to achieve power over another. Even the term "freedom", very often used by the priests, in its positive sense actually means "power". Religion is by no means more "fulfilling the will of God" than anything else. As God is primary and almighty, his will is by definition always fulfilled (it is impossible that he wills something and it is not fulfilled). A priest, a prophet, a moralist only rules, and by no means does anything for men's "salvation". For what could he do? Knock at a chance? If Jesus came to rule, and at the same time were the "Son of God", it would be senseless, because God rules everything anyway. But he said: "I haven't come to be served". (This argument is raised in The Antichrist, where he portrays Christianity as the corruption of original doctrine taught by Jesus of equal rights for all to be children of God, the doctrine of no guilt, no gulf fixed between God and men).

Nietzsche and free will The whole "freedom" is invented by the priests in order to master the process that takes place in the machine called human brain nothing more. And in order to master it, they have first to denaturize it (A, 26).

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References
[1] The Gay Science, sect. 99, trans. W. Kaufmann. [2] See Schopenhauer's On the Freedom of Will, c. 4, where he quotes Thomas Hobbes. [3] Thus spake Zarathustra, "The backworldsmen", tr. T. Common. [4] Dictionary meanings of "chance" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ chance) [5] Beyond Good and Evil, sect. 21, tr. H. Zimmern [6] Twilight of the Idols, c. 3, sect. 2, tr. W. Kaufmann. [7] On the Genealogy of Morals, , tr. W. Kaufmann. [8] Thus spake Zarathustra, tr. T. Common, "Old and new tables", 4. [9] See Human, All Too Human, tr. R.J. Hollingdale, sect. 173, under the topic: Corriger la fortune (to correct a chance). [10] Thus spake Zarathustra, "The Bedwarfing Virtue", 3. [11] Thus spake Zarathustra, "The Wanderer". [12] The Will to Power, Book II ("Critique of highest values hitherto"), I. Critique of religion, 1. Genesis of religions, 135, where he shows the notion of "unfree will" as crucial to religious explanations (such as actions of gods or spirits). [13] Thus spake Zarathustra, "Old and new tables", 2. [14] Beyond Good and Evil, sect. 213. [15] Thus spake Zarathustra, "The Seven Seals", 3. [16] Twilight of the Idols (http:/ / books. google. pl/ books?id=WuTGU6Z674IC& printsec=frontcover) [17] The Antichrist, 17.

God is dead
"God is dead" (German: "Gott ist tot"; also known as the death of God) is a widely-quoted statement by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. It first appears in The Gay Science (Deutsch: Die frhliche Wissenschaft), section 108 (New Struggles), in section 125 (The Madman), and for a third time in section 343 (The Meaning of our Cheerfulness). It is also found in Nietzsche's classic work Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Deutsch: Also sprach Zarathustra), which is most responsible for popularizing the phrase. The idea is stated in "The Madman" as follows: God is dead. God remains dead. And we have killed him. How shall we comfort ourselves, the murderers of all murderers? What was holiest and mightiest of all that the world has yet owned has bled to death under our knives: who will wipe this blood off us? What water is there for us to clean ourselves? What festivals of atonement, what sacred games shall we have to invent? Is not the greatness of this deed too great for us? Must we ourselves not become gods simply to appear worthy of it? Nietzsche, The Gay Science, Section 125,tr. Walter Kaufmann

Explanation
"God is dead" never meant that Nietzsche believed in an actual God who first existed and then died in a literal sense. It may be more appropriate to consider the statement as Nietzsche's way of saying that the "God" of the times (religion and other such spirituality) is no longer a viable source of any received wisdom. Nietzsche recognizes the crisis which the death of God represents for existing moral considerations, because "When one gives up the Christian faith, one pulls the right to Christian morality out from under one's feet. This morality is by no means self-evident... By breaking one main concept out of Christianity, the faith in God, one breaks the whole: nothing necessary remains in one's hands."[1] This is why in "The Madman", a work which primarily addresses atheists, the problem is to retain any system of values in the absence of a divine order. The death of God is a way of saying that humans are no longer able to believe in any such cosmic order since they themselves no longer recognize it. The death of God will lead, Nietzsche says, not only to the rejection of a belief of

God is dead cosmic or physical order but also to a rejection of absolute values themselves to the rejection of belief in an objective and universal moral law, binding upon all individuals. In this manner, the loss of an absolute basis for morality leads to nihilism. This nihilism is what Nietzsche worked to find a solution for by re-evaluating the foundations of human values. This meant, to Nietzsche, looking for foundations that went deeper than Christian values. He would find a basis in the "will to power" that he described as "the essence of reality." Nietzsche believed that the majority of people did not recognize this death out of the deepest-seated fear or angst. Therefore, when the death did begin to become widely acknowledged, people would despair and nihilism would become rampant. This is partly why Nietzsche saw Christianity as nihilistic. He may have seen himself as a historical figure like Zarathustra, Socrates or Jesus, giving a new philosophical orientation to future generations to overcome the impending nihilism.

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Nietzsche and Heidegger

Martin Heidegger understood this part of Nietzsche's philosophy by looking at it as death of metaphysics. In his view, Nietzsche's words can only be understood as referring not to a particular theological or anthropological view but rather to the end of philosophy itself. Philosophy has, in Heidegger's words, reached its maximum potential as metaphysics and Nietzsche's words warn of its demise and that of any metaphysical world view. If metaphysics is dead, Heidegger warns, that is because from its inception that was its fate.[2]

New possibilities
Nietzsche believed there could be positive possibilities for humans without God. Relinquishing the belief in God opens the way for human creative abilities to fully develop. The Christian God, he wrote, would no longer stand in the way, so human beings might stop turning their eyes toward a supernatural realm and begin to acknowledge the value of this world. Nietzsche uses the metaphor of an open sea, which can be both exhilarating and terrifying. The people who eventually learn to create their lives anew will represent a new stage in human existence, the bermensch i.e. the personal archetype who, through the conquest of their own nihilism, themselves become a sort of mythical hero. The 'death of God' is the motivation for Nietzsche's last (uncompleted) philosophical project, the 'revaluation of all values'.

Nietzsche's voice
Although Nietzsche puts the statement "God is Dead" into the mouth of a "madman" in The Gay Science, he also uses the phrase in his own voice in sections 108 and 343 of the same book. In the madman's passage, the man is described as running through a marketplace shouting, "I seek God! I seek God!" He arouses some amusement; no one takes him seriously. Maybe he took an ocean voyage? Lost his way like a little child? Maybe he's afraid of us (non-believers) and is hiding?-- much laughter. Frustrated, the madman smashes his lantern on the ground, crying out that "God is dead, and we have killed him, you and I!" "But I have come too soon," he immediately realizes, as his detractors of a minute before stare in astonishment: people cannot yet see that they have killed God. He goes on to say: This prodigious event is still on its way, still wandering; it has not yet reached the ears of men. Lightning and thunder require time, the light of the stars requires time, deeds, though done, still require time to be seen and heard. This deed is still more distant from them than the most distant starsand yet they have done it themselves. trans. Walter Kaufmann,The Gay Science, sect. 125 Earlier in the book (section 108), Nietzsche wrote "God is Dead; but given the way of men, there may still be caves for thousands of years in which his shadow will be shown. And we we still have to vanquish his shadow, too."

God is dead The protagonist in Thus Spoke Zarathustra also speaks the words, commenting to himself after visiting a hermit who, every day, sings songs and lives to glorify his god: 'And what is the saint doing in the forest?' asked Zarathustra. The saint answered: 'I make songs and sing them; and when I make songs, I laugh, cry, and hum: thus do I praise God. With singing, crying, laughing, and humming do I praise the god who is my god. But what do you bring us as a gift?' When Zarathustra had heard these words he bade the saint farewell and said: 'What could I have to give you? But let me go quickly lest I take something from you!' And thus they separated, the old one and the man, laughing as two boys laugh. But when Zarathustra was alone he spoke thus to his heart: 'Could it be possible? This old saint in the forest has not yet heard anything of this, that God is dead!' trans. Walter Kaufmann,Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Prologue, sect. 2. What is more, Zarathustra later refers not only to the death of God, but states: 'Dead are all the Gods'. It is not just one morality that has died, but all of them, to be replaced by the life of the bermensch, the new man: 'DEAD ARE ALL THE GODS: NOW DO WE DESIRE THE OVERMAN TO LIVE.' trans. Thomas Common,Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Part I, Section XXII,3

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Death of God theological movement

The cover of the April 8, 1966 edition of Time and the accompanying article concerned a movement in American theology that arose in the 1960s known as the "death of God". The death of God movement is sometimes technically referred to as "theothanatology" (In Greek, Theos means God and Thanatos means death.) The main protagonists of this theology included the Christian theologians Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Van Buren, William Hamilton and Thomas J. J. Altizer, and the rabbi Richard L. Rubenstein. In 1961, Vahanian's book The Death of God was published. Vahanian argued that modern secular culture had lost all sense of the sacred, lacking any sacramental meaning, no transcendental purpose or sense of providence. He concluded that for the modern mind "God is dead". In Vahanian's vision a transformed post-Christian and post-modern culture was needed to create a renewed experience of deity. Both Van Buren and Hamilton agreed that the concept of transcendence had lost any meaningful place in modern thought. According to the norms of contemporary modern thought, God is dead. In responding to this collapse in transcendence Van Buren and Hamilton offered secular people the option of Jesus as the model human who acted in love. The encounter with the Christ of faith would be open in a church-community. Altizer offered a radical theology of the death of God that drew upon William Blake, Hegelian thought and Nietzschean ideas. He conceived of theology as a form of poetry in which the immanence (presence) of God could be encountered in faith communities. However, he no longer accepted the possibility of affirming belief in a transcendent God. Altizer concluded that God had incarnated in Christ and imparted his immanent spirit which remained in the world even though Jesus was dead. Unlike Nietzsche, Altizer believed that God truly died. He is considered to be the leading exponent of the Death of God movement. Rubenstein represented that radical edge of Jewish thought working through the impact of the Holocaust. In a technical sense he maintained, based on the Kabbalah, that God had "died" in creating the world. However, for modern Jewish culture he argued that the death of God occurred in Auschwitz. Although the literal death of God did not occur at this point, this was the moment in time in which humanity was awakened to the idea that a theistic God may not exist. In Rubenstein's work, it was no longer possible to believe in an orthodox/traditional theistic God of the Abrahamic covenant; rather, God is a historical process.[3]

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See also
Christian atheism Postmodern Christianity Deconstruction-and-religion Post-theism Post-monotheism

Further reading
Heidegger, Martin. Nietzsches Wort 'Gott ist tot (1943) translated as "The Word of Nietzsche: 'God Is Dead,'" in Holzwege, edited and translated by Julian Young and Kenneth Haynes. Cambridge University Press, 2002. Kaufmann, Walter. Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974. Roberts, Tyler T. Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998. J Vidovich-Munsie. God is Dying Blog - The evolution of religion through modern times. God is Dying Blog [4]

Death of God theology

Thomas J. J. Altizer, The Gospel of Christian Atheism (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966). Thomas J. J. Altizer and William Hamilton, Radical Theology and the Death of God (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966). Bernard Murchland, ed., The Meaning of the Death of God (New York: Random House, 1967). Gabriel Vahanian, The Death of God (New York: George Braziller, 1961). John D. Caputo, Gianni Vattimo, After the Death of God, edited by Jeffrey W. Robbins (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007). Hamilton, William, "A Quest for the Post-Historical Jesus," (London, New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 1994). ISBN 978-0826406415

External links
John M. Frame, "Death of God Theology" [5]

References
[1] trans. Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale; Twilight of the Idols, Expeditions of an Untimely Man, sect. 5 [2] Wolfgan Muller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche: Nietzsche-Interpretationen III, Walter de Gruyter 2000 [3] Richard L. Rubenstein. "God After the Death of God" in After Auschwitz: History, Theology, and Contemporary Judaism. 2nd. ed (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1992), 293-306 [4] http:/ / godisdying. wordpress. com/ [5] http:/ / www. frame-poythress. org/ frame_articles/ 1988Death. html

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Herd behavior
Herd behavior describes how individuals in a group can act together without planned direction. The term pertains to the behavior of animals in herds, flocks, and schools, and to human conduct during activities such as stock market bubbles and crashes, street demonstrations, sporting events, religious gatherings, episodes of mob violence and even everyday decision making, judgment and opinion forming. Recently an integrated approach to herding has been proposed, describing two key issues, the mechanisms of transmission of thoughts or behaviour between individuals and the patterns of connections between them. It has been suggested that bringing together diverse theoretical approaches of herding behaviour illuminates the applicability of the concept to many domains[1] , ranging from cognitive neuroscience [2] to economics.

Herd behavior in animals

A group of animals fleeing a predator shows the nature of herd behavior. In 1971, in the oft cited article "Geometry For The Selfish Herd," evolutionary biologist W. D. Hamilton asserted that each individual group member reduces the danger to itself by moving as close as possible to the center of the fleeing group. Thus the herd appears as a unit in moving together, but its function emerges from the uncoordinated behavior of self-serving individuals.[3]

Symmetry breaking in herding behavior

Asymmetric aggregation of animals under panic conditions has been observed in many species, including humans, mice, and ants. Theoretical models have demonstrated symmetry breaking similar to observations in scientific studies. For example when panicked individuals are confined to a room with two equal and equidistant exits, a majority will favor one exit while the minority will favor the other.

Possible mechanisms
Hamiltons Selfish Herd Theory Byproduct of communication skill of social animal or runaway positive feedback Neighbor copying

Escape Panic Characteristics

Individuals attempt to move faster than normal Interactions between individuals become physical Exits become arched and clogged Escape is slowed by fallen individuals serving as obstacles Individuals display a tendency towards mass or copied behavior Alternative or less used exits are overlooked[3]

Herd behavior in human societies

The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche was the first to critique what he referred to as "herd morality" and the "herd instinct" in human society. Modern psychological and economic research has identified herd behavior in humans to explain the phenomena of large numbers of people acting in the same way at the same time. The British surgeon Wilfred Trotter popularized the "herd behavior" phrase in his book, Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War (1914). In The Theory of the Leisure Class, Thorstein Veblen explained economic behavior in terms of social influences such as "emulation," where some members of a group mimic other members of higher status. In "The Metropolis and Mental Life" (1903), early sociologist George Simmel referred to the "impulse to sociability in man",

Herd behavior and sought to describe "the forms of association by which a mere sum of separate individuals are made into a 'society'". Other social scientists explored behaviors related to herding, such as Freud (crowd psychology), Carl Jung (collective unconscious), and Gustave Le Bon (the popular mind). Swarm theory observed in non-human societies is a related concept and is being explored as it occurs in human society.

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Stock market bubbles

Large stock market trends often begin and end with periods of frenzied buying (bubbles) or selling (crashes). Many observers cite these episodes as clear examples of herding behavior that is irrational and driven by emotiongreed in the bubbles, fear in the crashes. Individual investors join the crowd of others in a rush to get in or out of the market.[4] Some followers of the technical analysis school of investing see the herding behavior of investors as an example of extreme market sentiment.[5] The academic study of behavioral finance has identified herding in the collective irrationality of investors, particularly the work of Robert Shiller,[6] and Nobel laureates Vernon Smith, Amos Tversky, and Daniel Kahneman. Hey and Morone (2004) analysed a model of herd behavior in a market context. Their work is related to at least two important strands of literature. The first of these strands is that on herd behavior in a non-market context. The seminal references are Banerjee (1992) and Bikhchandani, Hirshleifer and Welch (1992), both of which showed that herd behavior may result from private information not publicly shared. More specifically, both of these papers showed that individuals, acting sequentially on the basis of private information and public knowledge about the behavior of others, may end up choosing the socially undesirable option. The second of the strands of literature motivating this paper is that of information aggregation in market contexts. A very early reference is the classic paper by Grossman and Stiglitz (1976) that showed that uninformed traders in a market context can become informed through the price in such a way that private information is aggregated correctly and efficiently. A summary of the progress of this strand of literature can be found in the paper by Plott (2000). Hey and Morone (2004) showed that it is possible to observe herd-type behavior in a market context. Their result is even more interesting since it refers to a market with a well-defined fundamental value. Even if herd behavior might only be observed rarely, this has important consequences for a whole range of real markets most particularly foreign exchange markets. One such hurdish incident was the price volatilaty that surrounded the 2007 Uranium bubble, which started with flooding of the Cigar Lake Mine in Saskatchewan, during the year 2006[7] [8] [9] .

Behavior in crowds
Crowds that gather on behalf of a grievance can involve herding behavior that turns violent, particularly when confronted by an opposing ethnic or racial group. The Los Angeles riots of 1992, New York Draft Riots and Tulsa Race Riot are notorious in U.S. history, but those episodes are dwarfed by the scale of violence and death during the Partition of India. Population exchanges between India and Pakistan brought millions of migrating Hindus and Muslims into proximity; the ensuing violence produced an estimated death toll of between 200,000 and one million. The idea of a "group mind" or "mob behavior" was put forward by the French social psychologists Gabriel Tarde and Gustave Le Bon. Sporting events can also produce violent episodes of herd behavior. The most violent single riot in history may be the sixth-century Nika riots in Constantinople, precipitated by partisan factions attending the chariot races. The football hooliganism of the 1980s was a well-publicized, latter-day example of sports violence.

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Everyday decision-making
Benign herding behaviors may be frequent in everyday decisions based on learning from the information of others, as when a person on the street decides which of two restaurants to dine in. Suppose that both look appealing, but both are empty because it is early evening; so at random, this person chooses restaurant A. Soon a couple walks down the same street in search of a place to eat. They see that restaurant A has customers while B is empty, and choose A on the assumption that having customers makes it the better choice. And so on with other passersby into the evening, with restaurant A doing more business that night than B. This phenomenon is also referred as an information cascade.[10] [11]

See also
Anxiety Bandwagon effect Collective behavior Collective consciousness Collective effervescence Collective intelligence Crowd psychology Conformism Fear Flocking (behavior) Group behavior Groupthink Herd mentality Hive mind Informational cascade Mass hysteria Mean world syndrome Meme Mob Mentality Mob rule Moral panic Propaganda Self-organization Sheeple Socionomics Spontaneous order Swarm intelligence Symmetry Breaking in Herding Behavior Team player The 2009 Birmingham, Millennium Point stampede The Hillsborough disaster riot stampede

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Further reading
Bikhchandani, Sushil, Hirshleifer, David, and Welch, Ivo. "A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades." Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 100, No.5, pp.9921026, 1992. Wilfred Trotter, The Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War, 1914. Brunnermeier, Markus Konrad. Asset Pricing under Asymmetric Information : Bubbles, Crashes, Technical Analysis, and Herding. Oxford, UK ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Rook, Laurens. "An Economic Psychological Approach to Herd Behavior." Journal of Economic Issues 40.1 (2006): 75-95. Hamilton, W D. Geometry for the Selfish Herd. Diss. Imperial College, 1970. Rook, Laurens. "An Economic Psychological Approach to Herd Behaviour." Journal of Economic Issues XL (2006): 75-95. Ebsco. Fall. Keyword: herd Behavior. Stanford, Craig B. "Avoiding Predators: Expectations and Evidence in Primate Antipredator Behaviour." International Journal of Primatology 23 (2001): 741-757. Ebsco. Fall. Keyword: Herd Behaviour. Ottaviani, Marco, and Peter Sorenson. "Herd Behavior and Investment: Comment." American Economic Review, Vol. 90, No. 3, 695-704. Jun., 2000. E. Altshuler., et al. Symmetry Breaking in Escaping Ants. The American Naturalist. 166:6. 2005. Hey, John D., and Andrea Morone, (2004), "Do Markets Drive out Lemmings - or vice versa?", Economica, Vol. 71, No. 284, pp.637659, November 2004.

References
[1] Raafat RM, Chater N, Frith C., in humans (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B6VH9-4X6PPCY-1& _user=10& _coverDate=10/ 31/ 2009& _rdoc=1& _fmt=high& _orig=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _searchStrId=1345409312& _rerunOrigin=google& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10& md5=831b2c0d964de08777a5c58e6bb97199''Herding), Trends in Cognitive Sciences (2009). [2] Burke CJ, Tobler PN, Schultz W, Baddeley, M., BOLD response reflects the impact of herd information on financial decisions (http:/ / frontiersin. org/ neuroscience/ humanneuroscience/ paper/ 10. 3389/ fnhum. 2010. 00048/ ''Striatal), Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (2010). [3] W. D. Hamilton (1971), "Geometry for the Selfish Herd," Journal of Theoretical Biology, Volume 31, Issue 2, pp. 295-311. [4] Markus K. Brunnermeier, Asset Pricing under Asymmetric Information: Bubbles, Crashes, Technical Analysis, and Herding (http:/ / www. oup. com/ us/ catalog/ general/ subject/ Economics/ Business/ ?view=usa& ci=9780198296980), Oxford University Press (2001). [5] Robert Prechter, The Wave Principle of Human Social Behavior, New Classics Library (1999), pp. 152-153. [6] Robert J. Shiller, Irrational Exuberance, Princeton University Press (2000), pp. 149-153. [7] [ (http:/ / www. uranium. info/ prices/ monthly. html)] [8] [ (http:/ / www. uraniumseek. com/ news/ UraniumSeek/ 1219431716. php)] [9] [ (http:/ / news. goldseek. com/ TonyLocantro/ 1121781600. php)] [10] Abhijit V. Banerjee, "A Simple Model of Herd Behavior," The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 107, No. 3, pp. 797-817. [11] Sushil Bikhchandani, David Hirshleifer, Ivo Welch. October 1992. "A Theory of Fads, Fashion, Custom, and Cultural Change as Informational Cascades." Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 100, No.5, pp. 992-1026.

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Last man
The last man (German: der letzte Mensch) is a term used by the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in Thus Spoke Zarathustra to describe the antithesis of the imagined superior being, the "bermensch", whose imminent appearance is heralded by Zarathustra. This 'Over Man' may be contrasted to a weak-willed individual, one who is tired of life, takes no risks, seeks only comfort and security: the last man. Nietzsche saw that nothing great is possible for the Last Man, and it is Nietzsche's contention that Western civilization (Europe) is moving in the direction of the last man, an apathetic creature, who has no great passion or commitment, who is unable to dream, who merely earns his living and keeps warm. One of Nietzsche's greatest fears was the creeping mediocrity brought about by democratic sensibility and universal equality. If the "bermensch" represented his ideal the ideal of a being strong enough to create a new master morality, strong enough to live without the consolation of an egalitarian ethics, and strong enough to recognize and embrace the "eternal return" as the ultimate reality then Nietzsches so called "last man" is the exact opposite. The last man, Nietzsche predicted, would be one response to nihilism. But the full implications of the death of God had yet to unfold. As he said, "the event itself is far too great, too distant, too remote from the multitude's capacity for comprehension even for the tidings of it to be thought of having arrived as yet."[1]

See also
Oblomov Superfluous man The End of History and the Last Man

References
[1] Gay Science, 343

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Master-slave morality
Master-slave morality is a central theme of Friedrich Nietzsche's works, in particular the first essay of On the Genealogy of Morality. Nietzsche argued that there were two fundamental types of morality: 'Master morality' and 'slave morality'. Master morality weighs actions on a scale of good or bad consequences unlike slave morality which weighs actions on a scale of good or evil intentions. What Nietzsche meant by 'morality' deviates from common understanding of this term. For Nietzsche, a particular morality is inseparable from the formation of a particular culture. This means that its language, codes and practices, narratives, and institutions are informed by the struggle between these two types of moral valuation. For Nietzsche, master-slave morality provides the basis of all exegesis of Western thought. In the Death of God, morality is seen as something that was created by humankind, not by a transcendent deity.

Master morality
Nietzsche defined master morality as the morality of the strong-willed. Nietzsche criticizes the view, which he identifies with contemporary British ideology, that good is everything that is helpful; what is bad is what is harmful. He argues that this view has forgotten the origins of the values, and thus it calls what is useful good on the grounds of habitualness - what is useful has always been defined as good, therefore usefulness is goodness as a value. He continues explaining, that in the prehistoric state, "the value or non-value of an action was derived from its consequences"[1] but ultimately, "There are no moral phenomena at all, only moral interpretations of phenomena."[2] For these strong-willed men, the 'good' is the noble, strong and powerful, while the 'bad' is the weak, cowardly, timid and petty. The essence of master morality is nobility. Morality is designed to protect that which the strong-willed man values, and for slave and master, "Fear is the mother of morality."[3] Other qualities that are often valued in master moralities are open-mindedness, courage, truthfulness, trust and an accurate sense of self-worth. Master morality begins in the 'noble man' with a spontaneous idea of the good, then the idea of bad develops as what is not good. "The noble type of man experiences itself as determining values; it does not need approval; it judges, 'what is harmful to me is harmful in itself'; it knows itself to be that which first accords honour to things; it is value-creating."[4] In this sense, the master morality is the full recognition that oneself is the measure of all things. Insomuch as something is helpful to the strong-willed man it is like what he values in himself; therefore, the strong-willed man values such things as 'good'. Masters are creators of morality; slaves respond to master-morality with their slave-morality.

Slave morality
Unlike master morality which is sentiment, slave morality is literally re-sentiment--revaluing that which the master values. This strays from the valuation of actions based on consequences to the valuation of actions based on "intention".[5] As master morality originates in the strong, slave morality originates in the weak. Because slave morality is a reaction to oppression, it villainizes its oppressors. Slave morality is the inverse of master morality. As such, it is characterized by pessimism and skepticism. Slave morality is created in opposition to what master morality values as 'good'. Slave morality does not aim at exerting one's will by strength but by careful subversion. It does not seek to transcend the masters, but to make them slaves as well. The essence of slave morality is utility[6] : the good is what is most useful for the whole community, not the strong. Nietzsche saw this as a contradiction, "And how could there exist a 'common good'! The expression is a self-contradiction: what can be common has ever been but little value. In the end it must be as it has always been: great things are for the great, abysses for the profound, shudders and delicacies, for the refined, and, in sum, all rare things for the rare."[7] Since the powerful are few in number compared to the masses of the weak, the weak gain power by corrupting the strong into believing that the causes of slavery (viz., the will to power) are 'evil', as are the qualities they originally could not choose because of their weakness. By saying humility is voluntary, slave morality avoids admitting that their humility was in the

Master-slave morality beginning forced upon them by a master. Biblical principles of turning the other cheek, humility, charity, and pity are the result of universalizing the plight of the slave onto all humankind, and thus enslaving the masters as well. "The democratic movement is the heir to Christianity."[8] --the political manifestation of slave morality because of its obsession with freedom and equality. "...the Jews achieved that miracle of inversion of values thanks to which life on earth has for a couple millennia acquired a new and dangerous fascination--their prophets fused 'rich', 'godless', 'evil', 'violent', 'sensual' into one and were the first to coin the word 'world' as a term of infamy. It is this inversion of values (with which is involved the employment of the word for 'poor' as a synonym for 'holy' and 'friend') that the significance of the Jewish people resides: with them there begins the slave revolt in morals."[9]

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Society
This struggle between master and slave moralities recurs historically. According to Nietzsche, ancient Greek and Roman societies were grounded in master morality. The Homeric hero is the strong-willed man, and the classical roots of the Iliad and Odyssey exemplified Nietzsche's master morality. He calls the heroes "men of a noble culture"[10] , giving a substantive example of master morality. Historically, master morality was defeated as the slave morality of Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire. According to Nietzsche, the essential struggle between cultures has always been between the Roman (master, strong) and the Judean (slave, weak). He condemns the triumph of slave morality in the West, saying that the democratic movement is the "collective degeneration of man"[11] . Nietzsche claimed that the nascent democratic movement of his time was essentially slavish and weak. Weakness conquered strength, slave conquered master, re-sentiment conquered sentiment. This resentment Nietzsche calls "priestly vindictiveness", which is the jealousy of the weak seeking to enslave the strong with itself. Such movements were, to Nietzsche, inspired by "the most intelligent revenge" of the weak. Nietzsche saw democracy and Christianity as the same emasculating impulse which sought to make all equalto make all slaves. Nietzsche, however, did not believe that humans should adopt master morality as the be-all-end-all code of behavior - he believed that the revaluation of morals would correct the inconsistencies in both master and slave morality - but simply that master morality was preferable to slave morality, although this is debatable. Walter Kaufmann disagrees that Nietzsche actually preferred master morality to slave morality. He certainly gives slave morality a much harder time, but this is partly because he believes that slave morality is modern society's more imminent danger. The Antichrist had been meant as the first book in a four-book series, "Toward a Re-Evaluation of All Morals", which might have made his views more explicit, but Nietzsche was afflicted by mental collapse that rendered him unable to write the latter three books.

References
[1] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.62. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [2] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.96. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [3] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.123. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [4] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1967). On The Genealogy of Morals. New York: Vintage Books. p.39. ISBN0-679-72462-1. [5] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.63. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [6] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.122. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [7] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.71. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [8] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.125. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [9] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.118. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [10] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.153. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5. [11] Nietzsche, Friedrich (1973). Beyond Good and Evil. London: Penguin Books. p.127. ISBN978-0-140-44923-5.

Solomon, Robert C. and Clancy Martin. 2005. Since Socrates: A Concise Sourcebook of Classic Readings. London: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-6332805.

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See also
The Marriage of Heaven and Hell Orthodoxy Master-slave dialectic

Nietzschean affirmation
Nietzschean affirmation is a concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. An exemplary formulation of this kind of affirmation can be sought in Nietzsche's Nachlass: If we affirm one moment, we thus affirm not only ourselves but all existence. For nothing is self-sufficient, neither in us ourselves nor in things; and if our soul has trembled with happiness and sounded like a harp string just once, all eternity was needed to produce this one event - and in this single moment of affirmation all eternity was called good, redeemed, justified, and affirmed. Nietzsche, Friedrich, The Will to Power. (Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale translators) New York: Random House, 1967. (pages 532-533)

Derridean interpretation
Jacques Derrida allocates this concept and applies it specifically to language, its structure and play. This application acknowledges that there is, in fact, no center or origin within language and its many parts, no firm ground from which to base any Truth or truths. This shock allows for two reactions in Derridas philosophy: the more negative, melancholic response, which he designates as Rousseauistic, or the more positive Nietzschean affirmation. Rousseau's perspective focuses on deciphering the truth and origin of language and its many signs, an often exhaustive occupation. Derrida's response to Nietzsche, however, offers an active participation with these signs and arrives at, in Derridean philosophy, a more resolute response to language. In Structure, Sign, and Play, Derrida articulates Nietzsches perspective as the joyous affirmation of the play of the world and of the innocence of becoming, the affirmation of a world of signs without fault, without truth, and without origin which is offered to an active interpretation.[1] Essentially, Derrida not only fosters Nietzsches work but evolves it within the sphere of language; in doing so, Derrida acquires and employs Nietzsches optimism in his concept of play: "the substitution of given and existing, present, pieces" (292).[1] Much of this spirit resides in the abandonment of any sort of new humanism. This acceptance of the inevitable allows for considerable relief evident in the designation of the loss of center as a noncenter as well as the opportunity to affirm and cultivate play, which enables humanity and the humanities to pass beyond man and humanism (292).[1]

References
[1] Derrida, Jacques. Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Humanities. Writing and Difference. Trans. Alan Bass. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1978. 278-293.

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Perspectivism
Perspectivism is the philosophical view developed by Immanuel Kant that all ideations take place from particular perspectives. This means that there are many possible conceptual schemes, or perspectives in which judgment of truth or value can be made. This implies that no way of seeing the world can be taken as definitively "true", but does not necessarily entail that all perspectives are equally valid.

View
Perspectivism, which takes root in Hume's Empiricism and Kant's Idealism and was further developed by Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, rejects objective metaphysics as impossible, and claims that there are no objective evaluations which transcend cultural formations or subjective designations. This means that there are no objective facts, and that there can be no knowledge of a thing in itself. This separates truth from a particular (or single) vantage point, and means that there are no ethical or epistemological absolutes.[1] This leads to constant reassessment of rules (i.e., those of philosophy, the scientific method, etc.) according to the circumstances of individual perspectives.[2] Truth is thus formalized as a whole that is created by integrating different vantage points together. We always adopt perspectives by default, whether we are aware of it or not, and the individual concepts of existence are defined by the circumstances surrounding that individual. Truth is made by and for individuals and peoples.[3] This view differs from many types of relativism which consider the truth of a particular proposition as something that altogether cannot be evaluated with respect to an "absolute truth", without taking into consideration culture and context. This view is outlined in an aphorism from Nietzsche's posthumously-assembled collection Will to Power. In so far as the word knowledge has any meaning, the world is knowable; but it is interpretable otherwise, it has no meaning behind it, but countless meanings.Perspectivism. It is our needs that interpret the world; our drives and their For and Against.[emphasis added] Every drive is a kind of lust to rule; each one has its perspective that it would like to compel all the other drives to accept as a norm. Friedrich Nietzsche; trans. Walter Kaufmann , The Will to Power, 481 (1883-1888)

Interpretation
Richard Schacht, in his interpretation of Nietzsche's thought, argues that this can be expanded into a revised form of objectivity in relation to subjectivity as an aggregate of singular viewpoints that illuminate, for example, a particular idea in seemingly self-contradictory ways but upon closer inspection would reveal a difference of contextuality and of rule by which such an idea (e.g., that is fundamentally perspectival) can be validated. Therefore, it can be said each perspective is subsumed into and, taking account of its individuated context, adds to the overall objective measure of a proposition under examination. Nevertheless, perspectivism does not implicate any method of inquiry nor a structural theory of knowledge in general.[4]

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See also
Conceptual framework Contextualism Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche Fallibilism Anekantavada Immanuel Kant George Berkeley Rhizome (philosophy) Exclusive disjunction Degrees of truth False dilemma Fuzzy logic Logical equality Logical value Metaphilosophy Multi-valued logic Multiperspectivalism Phenomenology Psychologism Propositional logic Relativism Principle of Bivalence Michel Foucault Consilience

External links
La Voluntad de ilusin en Nietzsche; bases del perspectivismo| in Konvergencias [5]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Mautner, Thomas, The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy, page 418 Schacht, Richard, Nietzsche, p 61. Scott-Kakures, Dion, History of Philosophy, page 346 Schacht, Richard, Nietzsche. http:/ / www. konvergencias. net/ vasquezrocca129. htm

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Ressentiment
In philosophy and psychology, ressentiment (pronounced /rstim/) is a particular form of resentment or hostility. Ressentiment is the French word for "resentment" (fr. Latin intensive prefix 're', and 'sentire' "to feel"). Ressentiment is a sense of hostility directed at that which one identifies as the cause of one's frustration, that is, an assignment of blame for one's frustration. The sense of weakness or inferiority and perhaps jealousy in the face of the "cause" generates a rejecting/justifying value system, or morality, which attacks or denies the perceived source of one's frustration. The ego creates an enemy in order to insulate itself from culpability. A term imported by many languages for its philosophical and psychological connotations, ressentiment is not to be considered interchangeable with the normal English word "resentment", or even the French "ressentiment". While the normal words both speak to a feeling of frustration directed at a perceived source, neither speaks to the special relationship between a sense of inferiority and the creation of morality. Thus, the term 'Ressentiment' as used here always maintains a distinction.

History
Ressentiment was first introduced as a philosophical/psychological term by the 19th century philosopher Sren Kierkegaard[1] [2] [3] . Friedrich Nietzsche later independently expanded the concept; Walter Kaufmann ascribes Nietzsche's use of the term in part to the absence of a proper equivalent term in the German language, contending that said absence alone "would be sufficient excuse for Nietzsche," if not for a translator.[4] The term came to form a key part of his ideas concerning the psychology of the 'master-slave' question (articulated in Beyond Good and Evil), and the resultant birth of morality. Nietzsche's first use and chief development of Ressentiment came in his book On The Genealogy of Morals; see esp 1011).[5] [6]. The term was also put to good use by Max Scheler in his book Ressentiment, published in 1912, and later suppressed by the Nazis. Currently of great import as a term widely used in Psychology and Existentialism, Ressentiment is viewed as an effective force for the creation of identities, moral frameworks and value systems.

Perspectives
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche
The ressentiment which is establishing itself is the process of levelling, and while a passionate age storms ahead setting up new things and tearing down old, razing and demolishing as it goes, a reflective and passionless age does exactly the contrary: it hinders and stifles all action; it levels. Levelling is a silent, mathematical, and abstract occupation which shuns upheavals. ... If the jewel which every one desired to possess lay far out on a frozen lake where the ice was very thin, watched over by the danger of death, while, closer in, the ice was perfectly safe, then in a passionate age the crowds would applaud the courage of the man who ventured out, they would tremble for him and with him in the danger of his decisive action, they would grieve over him if he were drowned, they would make a god of him if he secured the prize. But in an age without passion, in a reflective age, it would be otherwise. People would think each other clever in agreeing that it was unreasonable and not even worth while to venture so far out. And in this way they would transform daring and enthusiasm into a feat of skill, so as 'to do something, for something must be done.'
Sren Kierkegaard, Two Ages: A Literary Review

(T)he problem with the other origin of the good, of the good man, as the person of ressentiment has thought it out for himself, demands some conclusion. It is not surprising that the lambs should bear a

Ressentiment grudge against the great birds of prey, but that is no reason for blaming the great birds of prey for taking the little lambs. And when the lambs say among themselves, "These birds of prey are evil, and he who least resembles a bird of prey, who is rather its opposite, a lamb,should he not be good?" then there is nothing to carp with in this ideal's establishment, though the birds of prey may regard it a little mockingly, and maybe say to themselves, "We bear no grudge against them, these good lambs, we even love them: nothing is tastier than a tender lamb."
Friedrich Nietzsche, On the Genealogy of Morality

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Ressentiment is a reassignment of the pain that accompanies a sense of one's own inferiority/failure onto an external scapegoat. The ego creates the illusion of an enemy, a cause that can be "blamed" for one's own inferiority/failure. Thus, one was thwarted not by a failure in oneself, but rather by an external "evil." According to Kierkegaard, ressentiment occurs in a "reflective, passionless age", in which the populace stifles creativity and passion in passionate individuals. Kierkegaard argues that individuals who do not conform to the masses are made scapegoats and objects of ridicule by the masses, in order to maintain status quo and to instill into the masses their own sense of superiority. Ressentiment comes from reactiveness: the weaker a man is, the less his capability for adiaphoria, i.e. to suppress reaction. According to Nietzsche, the more a man is active, strong-willed, and dynamic, the less place and time is left for contemplating all that is done to him, and his reactions (like imagining he is actually better) become less compulsive. The reaction of a strong-willed man (a "wild beast"), when it happens, is ideally a short action: it is not a prolonged filling of his intellect.

Scheler
Max Scheler attempted to reconcile Nietzsche's ideas of master-slave morality and ressentiment with the Christian ideals of love and humility. Nietzsche saw Christian morality as a kind of slave morality, while Greek and Roman culture was characterized as a master morality. Scheler disagrees. He begins with a comparison of Greek love and Christian love. Greek love is described as a movement from lower value to higher value. The weaker love the stronger, the less perfect love the more perfect. The perfect do not love the imperfect because that would diminish their value or corrupt their existence. Greek love is rooted in need and want. This is clearly indicated by the Aristotelian concept of God as the "Unmoved Mover". The unmoved mover is self-sufficient being completely immersed in its own existence. The highest object of contemplation, and who moves others through the force of attraction because efficient causality would degrade its nature. In Christian love, there is a reversal in the movement of love. The strong bend to the weak, the healthy help the sick, the noble help the vulgar. This movement is a consequence of the Christian understanding of the nature of God as fullness of being. God's love is an expression of His superabundance. The motive for love is not charity nor the neediness of the lover, but it is rooted in a deeply felt confidence that through loving I become more personalized and most real to myself. The motive for the world is not need or lack ( la Schopenhauer), but a creative urge to express the infinite fullness of being. Poverty and sickness are not values to be celebrated in order to spite those who are rich and healthy, but they simply provide the opportunity for a person to express their love. Rich people are harder to love because they are less in need of your generosity. Fear of death is a sign of a declining, sick, and broken life (Ressent 60). St. Francis' love and care for the lepers would have mortified the Greek mind, but for St. Francis, the threats to well-being are inconsequential because at the core of his being there is the awareness that his existence is firmly rooted in and sustained by the ground of ultimate being. In genuine, Christian love, the lower values that are relative to life are renounced not because they are bad, but simply because they are obstacles to those absolute values which allow a person to enter into a relationship with God. It is through loving like God that we are deified. This is why Scheler sees the Christian saint as a manifestation of strength and nobility and not manifesting ressentiment.

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Weber
Max Weber in The Sociology of Religion relates Ressentiment to Judaism, an ethical salvation religion of a "pariah people." Weber defines Ressentiment as "a concomitant of that particular religious ethic of the disprivileged which, in the sense expounded by Nietzsche and in direct inversion of the ancient belief, teaches that the unequal distribution of mundane goods is caused by the sinfulness and the illegality of the privileged, and that sooner or later God's wrath will overtake them." (Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993), 110.

Sartre
Jean-Paul Sartre used the term bad faith to describe a highly similar phenomenon of blaming one's own failure on external factors and therefore denying responsibility for oneself. The major difference between the two is that Sartre presupposed the existence of free will, whereas Nietzsche denied it - where Sartre's "bad faith" was the denial of one's full capabilities, Nietzsche's "ressentiment" was an incapacity to acknowledge one's inferiority.

See also
Sren Kierkegaard Friedrich Nietzsche Max Scheler Existentialism Psychology Bad faith (existentialism) Master-slave morality

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Poole, Roger. Kierkegaard, University of Virginia Press, 1993, p. 226-228. Stivers, Richard. Shades of loneliness, Rowman & Littlefield, 2004, p.14-16. Davenport, John, et al. Kierkegaard after MacIntyre, Open Court , 2001, p. 165. Kaufmann, Walter. "Editor's Introduction, Section 3" On the Genealogy of Morals in Nietzsche: Basic Writings; Walter Kaufmann, tr. New York: The Modern Library, 1967. [5] http:/ / www. bu. edu/ wcp/ Papers/ Anth/ AnthMore. htm [6] http:/ / www. nietzschecircle. com/ essayArchive1. html

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Transvaluation of values
The revaluation of all values or the transvaluation of all values (German: Umwertung aller Werte) is a concept from the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. Elaborating the concept in The Antichrist, Nietzsche asserts that Christianity, not merely as a religion but also as the predominant moral system of the Western world, in fact inverts nature, and is "hostile to life". As "the religion of pity", Christianity elevates the weak over the strong, exalting that which is "ill-constituted and weak" at the expense of that which is full of life and vitality. Christianity is contrasted unfavorably, for example, with Buddhism. Nietzsche posits that while Christianity is "the struggle against sin", Buddhism is "the struggle against suffering"; to Nietzsche, Christianity limits and lowers humankind by assailing its natural and inevitable instincts as depraved ("sin"), whereas Buddhism advises one merely to eschew suffering. While Christianity is full of "revengefulness" and "antipathy" (e.g., the Last Judgment), Buddhism promotes "benevolence, being kind, as health-promoting." Buddhism is also suggested to be the "honest" of the two religions, for its being strictly "phenomenalistic", and because "Christianity makes a thousand promises but keeps none." Martyrdom, rather than being a moral high ground or position of strength, is indicative of an "obtuseness to the question of truth." Similarly, Nietzsche contrasts 19th century European morality to that of pre-Christian Greek civilization. Because sex is, in Nietzsche's thought, a very fundamental affirmation of life, for its being the very process by which human life is created, Christianity's elevation of chastity (including, for example, the story of Mary's virginal pregnancy) is counter to the natural instincts of humanity, and therefore a contradiction of "natural values". Nietzsche's enthusiasm for what he called "the transvaluation of all values" stemmed from a contempt for Christianity and the entirety of the moral system that flowed from it: indeed, "contempt of man", as Nietzsche states near the end of The Antichrist. Nietzsche perceived the moral framework of Christian civilization to be oppressive: reproduction derided as sinful, and life as a mere investment toward the hollow promise of an illustrious afterlife: death prevailing over life. The transvaluation of all values would mean the exaltation of life rather than the exaltation of suffering, and an acceptance of every instinct or lust as organic and therefore valid, therefore beyond the scope of moral condemnation. What one desires would merely be what one desires, rather than either sinful or pious. What one desires would be the product of stimuli rather than the product of "will". I call Christianity the one great curse, the one great intrinsic depravity, the one great instinct for revenge for which no expedient is sufficiently poisonous, secret, subterranean, petty -- I call it the one immortal blemish of mankind And one calculates time from the dies nefastus on which this fatality arose -- from the first day of Christianity! Why not rather from its last? From today? Revaluation of all values! Nietzsche, Conclusion, The Antichrist. The Revaluation of All Values was also the working title of a series of four books Nietzsche was planning to write, only the first of which The Antichrist he completed. However, one of his schemes for The Will to Power used "The Revaluation of All Values" as a subtitle, and it was this scheme that his sister Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche used to assemble his notes into the final book with that title.

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Further reading
Kaufmann, Walter (1974). "Chapter 3". Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN0691019835.

Tschandala
Tschandala (old German transcription of chandala) is a term Friedrich Nietzsche borrowed from the Indian caste system, where a Tschandala is a member of the lowest social class. Nietzsche's interpretation and use of the term relied on a flawed source but was used by certain interpreters to connect him to Nazi ideology.

Nietzsche's use of the term

Nietzsche uses the term "Tschandala" in the Gtzen-Dmmerung (Twilight of the Idols)[1] and Der Antichrist (The Antichrist)[2] . Here he uses the "law of Manu with its caste system as an example of one kind of morality, of "breeding", as opposed to the Christian version of morality which attempts to "tame" man. At first, Nietzsche describes methods of Christian attempts to "improve" humanity. As a metaphor, he uses a trained beast in a menagerie which is said to be "improved", but which in reality has lost vitality and is only weakened. In just such a way, Nietzsche says, has Christianity "tamed" the Teutonic races. The law of Manu, on the other hand, tries to "improve" humanity by creating 4 castes of people, while ostracizing and making life miserable for the Tschandala, the untouchables. Nietzsche deplores this type of morality, that of the "breeder," just as he does the (Christian) "animal tamer", as he is opposed to all 'morality'. However, he much prefers it to the Christian "slave-morality." In his view, the humiliating and oppressive edicts against the Tschandala are a defensive means of keeping the castes pure: "Yet this organization too found it necessary to be terriblethis time not in the struggle with beasts, but with their counter-concept, the unbred man, the mishmash man, the chandala. And again it had no other means for keeping him from being dangerous, for making him weak, than to make him sickit was the fight with the "great number."[3] According to Nietzsche, Christianity is a product of Judaism, the "Tschandala-religion". By this he means that Judaism and Christianity after it are the morality born of the hatred of the oppressed (like the Tschandala) to their oppressors: "Christianity, sprung from Jewish roots and comprehensible only as a growth on this soil, represents the counter-movement to any morality of breeding, of race, privilege:it is the anti-Aryan religion par excellence. Christianity, the revaluation of all Aryan values, the victory of chandala values, the gospel preached to the poor and base, the general revolt of all the downtrodden, the wretched, the failures, the less favored, against "race": the undying chandala hatred as the religion of love"[3] In The Antichrist, Nietzsche again cites the law of Manu, and favors it in a relative sense to the morality of Judeo-Christianity. Nietzsche describes the "most spiritual" and "strongest" men who can say "yes" to everything, even the existence of the Tschandalas; and opposed to this is the envious and revengeful spirit of the Tschandalas themselves (cf. master morality vs. slave morality). Nietzsche also uses the term Tschandala for some of his opponents, e.g. socialism.

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Nietzsche's flawed source

Nietzsche's source for the law of Manu was the book Les lgislateurs religieux. Manou, Mose, Mahomet (1876) by French writer Louis Jacolliot. According to Annemarie Etter, this translation of the Manusmriti is not reliable and differs widely from other sources.[4] For example, the high respect it gives to women, which Nietzsche quotes in opposition to "Christian misogyny", is in fact not contained in any of the usual texts. In his description and interpretation of the "Tschandala", Nietzsche may have followed a long footnote by Jacolliot, which gives an "unbelievable, abstruse and scientifically completely untenable" (Etter) theory. According to Jacolliot, all Semitic peoples, especially the Hebrews, are descendants of emigrated Tschandalas. Although Nietzsche never directly says this, it seems plausible that he believed in Jacolliot's theory at least to some extent, even though, as Etter points out, Nietzsche would have easily been able to falsify several of Jacolliot's pseudo-scientific claims. In so doing, he may have increased the impact of Jacolliot's "effusive admiration for ancient Eastern wisdom and civilization with a more or less open and pronounced antisemitism and antichristianism" (Etter).

Descendant uses
Nazi appropriation
Terms like "race", "breeding", "Aryan" and others Nietzsche used in his later works were very useful for Nazi ideologues who tried to take him in for their political program. The pitiless humiliation and, eventually, destruction of the weak was favoured by national socialism. Also, Nietzsche's comparison between the Tschandalas and Judaism (see below) fitted in with antisemitism. Though Nietzsche did use the term bermensch, nowhere in his works he used the contrary Untermensch that in the 20th Century became a notorious concept in the racist Nazi ideology, that was used for races and individuals that it perceived "inferior", like Jews, gypsies and homosexuals. Nietzsche was not a nationalist, explicitly despised the German culture and also called himself an "anti-antisemite". [5]

Literary influence
Inspired by Nietzsche, August Strindberg wrote a novel called "Tschandala" in 1889.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] "Die Verbesserer der Menschheit" (KSA 6, p. 98102) chapter 56 and 57 (KSA 6, p. 239244) Gtzen-Dmmerung (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 7203), Die "Verbesserer" der Menschheit Annemarie Etter: Nietzsche und das Gesetzbuch des Manu in: Nietzsche-Studien 16 (1987), p. 340352 Rdiger Safranski Nietzsche - Biographie seines Denkens (2000) Mnchen : Hanser; Eng.Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography, translated by Shelley Frisch. New York: W.W. Norton, 2002, ISBN 0-393-05008-4

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bermensch
The bermensch (German; English: Overman, Superman) is a concept in the Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. Nietzsche posited the bermensch as a goal for humanity to set for itself in his 1883 book Thus Spoke Zarathustra (German: Also Sprach Zarathustra). The book's protagonist, Zarathustra, contends that "man is something which ought to be overcome:" All beings so far have created something beyond themselves; and do you want to be the ebb of this great flood and even go back to the beasts rather than overcome man? What is the ape to man? A laughingstock or a painful embarrassment. And man shall be just that for the overman: a laughingstock or a painful embarrassment There is no overall consensus regarding the precise meaning of the bermensch, nor one of the importance of the concept in Nietzsche's thought.
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

bermensch in English
The first translation of Thus Spoke Zarathustra into English was by Alexander Tille published in 1896. Tille translated bermensch as Beyond-Man. In his translation published in 1909, Thomas Common rendered bermensch as "Superman"; Common was anticipated in this by George Bernard Shaw, who did the same in his 1903 stage play Man and Superman. Walter Kaufmann lambasted this translation in the 1950s for failing to capture the nuance of the German ber and for promoting an eventual puerile identification with the comic-book character Superman. His preference was to translate bermensch as "overman." Scholars continue to employ both terms, some simply opting to reproduce the German word. The German prefix ber can have connotations of superiority, transcendence, excessiveness, or intensity, depending on the words to which it is prepended.[1] Mensch refers to a member of the human species, rather than to a man specifically. The adjective bermenschlich[2] means superhuman, in the sense of beyond human strength or out of proportion to humanity.

This-worldliness
Nietzsche introduces the concept of the bermensch in contrast to the other-worldliness of Christianity: Zarathustra proclaims the bermensch to be the meaning of the earth and admonishes his audience to ignore those who promise other-worldly hopes in order to draw them away from the earth.[3] [4] The turn away from the earth is prompted, he says, by a dissatisfaction with life, a dissatisfaction that causes one to create another world in which those who made one unhappy in this life are tormented. The bermensch is not driven into other worlds away from this one. The Christian escape from this world also required the invention of an eternal soul which would be separate from the body and survive the body's death. Part of other-worldliness, then, was the abnegation and mortification of the body, or asceticism. Zarathustra further links the bermensch to the body and to interpreting the soul as simply an aspect of the body. As the drama of Thus Spoke Zarathustra progresses, the turn to metaphysics in philosophy and Platonism in general come to light as manifestations of other-worldliness, as well. Truth and nature are inventions by means of which men escape from this world. The bermensch is also free from these failings.

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The death of God and the creation of new values

Zarathustra ties the bermensch to the death of God. While this God was the ultimate expression of other-worldly values and the instincts that gave birth to those values, belief in that God nevertheless did give life meaning for a time. God is dead means that the idea of God can no longer provide values. With the sole source of values no longer capable of providing those values, there is a real chance of nihilism. Zarathustra presents the bermensch as the creator of new values. In this way, it appears as a solution to the problem of the death of God and nihilism. Because the bermensch acts to create new values within the moral vacuum of nihilism, there is nothing that this creative act would not justify. Alternatively, in the absence of this creation, there are no grounds upon which to criticize or justify any action, including the particular values created and the means by which they are promulgated. In order to avoid a relapse into Platonic Idealism or asceticism, the creation of these new values cannot be motivated by the same instincts that gave birth to those tables of values. Instead, they must be motivated by a love of this world and of life. Whereas Nietzsche diagnosed the Christian value system as a reaction against life and hence destructive in a sense, the new values which the bermensch will be responsible for will be life-affirming and creative.

bermensch as a goal
Zarathustra first announces the bermensch as a goal humanity can set for itself. All human life would be given meaning by how it advanced a new generation of human beings. The aspiration of a woman would be to give birth to an bermensch, for example; her relationships with men would be judged by this standard.[5] Zarathustra contrasts the bermensch with the last man of egalitarian modernity, an alternative goal which humanity might set for itself. The last man appears only in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, and is presented as a condition that would render the creation of the bermensch impossible. Some commentators associate the bermensch with a program of eugenics.[6] This is most pronounced when considered in the aspect of a goal that humanity sets for itself. The reduction of all psychology to physiology implies, to some, that human beings can be bred for cultural traits. This interpretation of Nietzsche's doctrine focuses more on the future of humanity than on a single cataclysmic individual. There is no consensus regarding how this aspect of the bermensch relates to the creation of new values, and many would deny vehemently that Nietzsche would countenance a eugenics program at all.

Re-embodiment of amoral aristocratic values

For Rdiger Safranski, the bermensch represents a higher biological type reached through artificial selection and at the same time is also an ideal for anyone who is creative and strong enough to master the whole spectrum of human potential, good and "evil", to become an "artist-tyrant". In Ecce Homo, Nietzsche vehemently denied any idealistic, democratic or humanitarian interpretation of the bermensch: "The word bermensch [designates] a type of supreme achievement, as opposed to 'modern' men, 'good' men, Christians, and other nihilists ... When I whispered into the ears of some people that they were better off looking for a Cesare Borgia than a Parsifal, they did not believe their ears."[7] Safranski argues that the combination of ruthless warrior pride and artistic brilliance that defined the Italian Renaissance embodied the sense of the bermensch for Nietzsche. According to Safranski, Nietzsche intended the ultra-aristocratic figure of the bermensch to serve as a Machiavellian bogeyman of the modern Western middle class and its pseudo-Christian egalitarian value system.[8]

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Relation to the eternal recurrence

The bermensch shares a place of prominence in Thus Spoke Zarathustra with another of Nietzsche's key concepts: the eternal recurrence of the same. Over the course of the drama, the latter waxes as the former wanes. Several interpretations for this fact have been offered. Laurence Lampert suggests that the eternal recurrence replaces the bermensch as the object of serious aspiration.[9] This is in part due to the fact that even the bermensch can appear like an other-worldly hope. The bermensch lies in the future no historical figures have ever been bermenschen and so still represents a sort of eschatological redemption in some future time. Stanley Rosen, on the other hand, suggests that the doctrine of eternal return is an esoteric ruse meant to save the concept of the bermensch from the charge of Idealism.[10] Rather than positing an as-yet unexperienced perfection, Nietzsche would be the prophet of something that has occurred an infinite number of times in the past. Others maintain that willing the eternal recurrence of the same is a necessary step if the bermensch is to create new values, untainted by the spirit of gravity or asceticism. Values involve a rank-ordering of things, and so are inseparable from approval and disapproval; yet it was dissatisfaction that prompted men to seek refuge in other-worldliness and embrace other-worldly values. Therefore, it could seem that the bermensch, in being devoted to any values at all, would necessarily fail to create values that did not share some bit of asceticism. Willing the eternal recurrence is presented as accepting the existence of the low while still recognizing it as the low, and thus as overcoming the spirit of gravity or asceticism. Still others suggest that one must have the strength of the bermensch in order to will the eternal recurrence of the same; that is, only the bermensch will have the strength to fully accept all of his past life, including his failures and misdeeds, and to truly will their eternal return. This action nearly kills Zarathustra, for example, and most human beings cannot avoid other-worldliness because they really are sick, not because of any choice they made.

The bermensch and the Nazis

The term bermensch was a favourite of the Nazi regime, which borrowed selectively (and superficially) from Nietzsche's work and sought to adopt him as a philosophical mascot. Their conception of the bermensch, however, was racial in nature, whereas Nietzsche himself was vehemently critical of both antisemitism and German nationalism.[11] [12] The Nazi notion of the master race also spawned the idea of 'inferior races' (Untermenschen) which could be dominated and enslaved; this term does not originate with Nietzsche.

In popular culture
Jack London dedicated his novels The Sea-Wolf and Martin Eden to criticizing Nietzsche's concept of the bermensch and his radical individualism, which London considered to be selfish and egoistic. George Bernard Shaw's 1903 play Man and Superman is a reference to the archetype; its main character considers himself an untameable revolutionary, above the normal concerns of humanity. In real life, Leopold and Loeb committed an act of murder in 1924 partly out of a superficially bermensch-like conception of themselves.[13] Their story has been dramatized many times, including in the Alfred Hitchcock movie Rope and the 2002 movie Murder by Numbers. The comic-book hero Superman, when Jerry Siegel first created him, was originally a villain modeled on Nietzsche's idea (see "The Reign of the Super-Man"). He was re-invented as a hero by Joe Shuster, after which he bore little resemblance to the previous character, though he still had dubious morals. Only as the series progressed did Superman become the wholesome, morally upright figure of modern times. However, Superman does find an adversary in the mold of the Nietzschean bermensch in the recurring archvillain Lex Luthor. A direct reference to the term occurs in the episode "Double Trouble" of the TV series Adventures of Superman, in which a

bermensch German-speaking character refers to the title character as "bermensch". The television series Andromeda has characters called Nietzscheans who have applied selective breeding, genetic engineering, and nano-technology to transform themselves into a race of bermenschen. Those who distrust them refer to them derogatively as "Ubers". Jack Vance utilises the term in his Demon Princes series, and especially in The Book of Dreams, to refer to an amoral subset of humanity, to whom the rest are lower beings to be used in the furtherance of their aims. Alan Moore makes a reference to the bermensch in his comic-book series Miracleman, which also delves into the discussion of what traits a hypothetical superman would have. Another of Moore's graphic novels, Watchmen contains a character named Dr. Manhattan, who, through a scientific error, becomes a physical "overman" who transcends his fellow man.

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See also
Knight of faith Great man theory New Soviet man Notes From the Underground

Strange Life of Ivan Osokin

References
Nietzsche, F. (1885) Also Sprach Zarathustra Hollingdale, R. J., Rieu, E.V, (1961). Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Nietzsche, F.) Penguin Classics: Penguin Publishing (Originally published 1885) Lampert, Laurence. Nietzsche's Teaching: An Interpretation of Thus Spoke Zarathustra. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. Safranski, Rudiger. Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography. Translated by Shelley Frisch. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2002. Rosen, Stanley. The Mask of Enlightenment: Nietzsche's Zarathustra. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Wilson, Colin. The Outsider. Los Angeles: J.P. Tarcher, 1981.

External links
Martin Heidegger and Nietzsches Overman: Aphorisms on the Attack [14] Human Superhuman [15] Yahoo! Group dedicated to Nietzsche's Overman.

References
[1] Duden Deutsches Universal Wrterbuch AZ, s.v. ber-. [2] bermenschlich (http:/ / en. pons. eu/ german-english/ bermenschlich) PONS.eu Online Dictionary [3] Hollingdale, R. J. (1961), page 44 - English translation of Zarathustra's prologue; "I love those who do not first seek beyond the stars for reasons to go down and to be sacrifices: but who sacrifice themselves to the earth, that the earth may one day belong to the Superman" [4] Nietsche, F. (1885) - p4, Original publication in German - "Ich liebe die, welche nicht erst hinter den Sternen einen Grund suchen, unterzugehen und Opfer zu sein: sondern die sich der Erde opfern, dass die Erde einst des bermenschen werde." [5] Thus Spoke Zarathustra, I.18; Lampert, Nietzsche's Teaching, 67; Rosen, Mask of Enlightenment, 118. [6] Safranski, Nietzsche, 262-64, 266-68. [7] Nietzsche, Ecce Homo, Why I Write Such Good Books, 1) [8] Safranski, Nietzsche, 365 [9] Lampert, Nietzsche's Teaching. [10] Rosen, The Mask of Enlightenment.

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[11] "Nietzsche inspired Hitler and other killers - Page 7" (http:/ / www. trutv. com/ library/ crime/ notorious_murders/ famous/ nietzsche_crimes/ 7. html), Court TV Crime Library [12] http:/ / econ161. berkeley. edu/ tceh/ Nietzsche. html [13] "Nietzsche inspired Hitler and other killers" (http:/ / www. crimelibrary. com/ notorious_murders/ famous/ nietzsche_crimes/ index. html), Court TV Crime Library [14] http:/ / www. freewebs. com/ m3smg2/ HeideggerOverman. htm [15] http:/ / groups. yahoo. com/ group/ human_superhuman/

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World riddle
For the musical term, see: World Riddle theme. The term "world riddle" or "world-riddle" has been associated, for over 100 years, with Friedrich Nietzsche (who mentioned "World Riddle" in his 1885 book Also sprach Zarathustra: Thus Spoke Zarathustra) and with the biologist-philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who as a professor of zoology at the University of Jena,[1] wrote the book Die Weltrthsel in 18951899, in modern spelling Die Weltrtsel, (German "The World-riddles"), with the English version published under the title The Riddle of the Universe, 1901.[1] The term "world riddle" concerns the nature of the universe and the meaning of life. The question and answer of the World Riddle has also been examined as an inspiration or allegorical meaning within some musical compositions, such as the unresolved harmonic progression at the end of "Also sprach Zarathustra" (1896) by composer Richard Strauss, made famous in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey. [2] [3]

Ernst Haeckel wrote about the World Riddle in 1895

View of Nietzsche
Friedrich Nietzsche referred to the "World Riddle" in his Also sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spoke Zarathustra) written during 18831885; however, his direct influence was limited to a few years, by his failing health. Although Nietzsche had become a professor at age twenty-five, he left due to illness at age thirty-four with a pension in 1879, became an independent philosopher for ten years, and then spent his final eleven years bedridden in the care of first his mother (until her death) and then his sister.

View of Haeckel

Friedrich Nietzsche.

Ernst Haeckel viewed the World Riddle as a dual-question of the form, "What is the nature of the physical universe and what is the nature of human thinking?" which he explained would have a single answer since humans and the universe were contained within one system, a mono-system, as Haeckel wrote in 1895:
[4] [5]

[From Monism as Connecting Religion and Science by Ernst Haeckel (translated):] "The following lecture on Monism is an informal address delivered extemporaneously on October 9, 1892, at Altenburg, on the seventy-fifth anniversary of the "Naturforschende Gesellschaft des

World riddle Osterlandes." ... The "exacting" Berlin physiologist shut this knowledge out from his mind, and, with a short-sightedness almost inconceivable, placed this special neurological question alongside of the one great "world-riddle," the fundamental question of substance, the general question of the connection between matter and energy. As I long ago pointed out, these two great questions are not two separate "world-riddles." The neurological problem of consciousness is only a special case of the all-comprehending cosmological problem, the question of substance. "If we understood the nature of matter and energy, we should also understand how the substance underlying them can under certain conditions feel, desire, and think." Consciousness, like feeling and willing, among the higher animals is a mechanical work of the ganglion-cells, and as such must be carried back to chemical and physical events in the plasma of these. -Ernst Haeckel, 1895 [5] Haeckel had written that human behavior and feeling could be explained, within the laws of the physical universe, as "mechanical work of the ganglion-cells" as stated.

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View of William James

The philosopher William James in his book Pragmatism (1907) wrote about the world-riddle, as follows: [From Pragmatism (Lecture VII) by William James:] "All the great single-word answers to the world's riddle, such as God, the One, Reason, Law, Spirit, Matter, Nature, Polarity, the Dialectic Process, the Idea, the Self, the Oversoul, draw the admiration that men have lavished on them from this oracular role. By amateurs in philosophy and professionals alike, the universe is represented as a queer sort of petrified sphinx whose appeal to man consists in a monotonous challenge to his divining powers. THE Truth: what a perfect idol of the rationalistic mind!" --William James, Pragmatism, 1907.[6] William James has questioned the attitude of thinking that a single answer applies to everything or everyone. In the passage, the capitalized "THE" signifies the viewpoint meaning "the one and only" absolute truth.

See also
Epistemology - study of the nature of knowledge. Existentialism - philosophy of life.

References
Ernst Haeckel, The Riddle of the Universe (Die Weltrthsel or Die Weltraetsel, 18951899), Publisher: Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1992, reprint edition, paperback, 405 pages, illustrated, ISBN 0-87975-746-9. Ernst Haeckel, Monism as Connecting Religion and Science ("translated from German by J. Gilchrist, M.A., B.Sc., PH.D."), Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, Gutenberg.org webpage: GutenbergOrg-7mono10 [7] (for free download).

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References
[1] "Biography of Ernst Heinrich Haeckel, 18341919" (article), Missouri Association for Creation, Inc., based on 1911 Britannica, webpage: Gennet-Haeckel (http:/ / www. gennet. org/ facts/ haeckel. html): life, career & beliefs. [2] "Colorado Symphony Orchestra - Richard Strauss (18641949): Also Sprach Zarathustra" (program notes), Charley Samson, Colorado Symphony Orchestra, 2004, webpage: CSO-AlsoSprach (http:/ / www. coloradosymphony. org/ default. asp). [3] "Classic Records Catalog / LSC-1806: Liner Notes" (description), Chicago Symphony Orchestra, R. D. Darrell, Radio Corporation of America (RCA), 1960, webpage: CSO-AlsoSprach (http:/ / www. coloradosymphony. org/ default. asp). [4] "KELVIN SMITH LIBRARY" (about Haeckel book on Monism), Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, 2004, webpage: CaseEdu-HaeMon00 (http:/ / library. case. edu/ ksl/ ecoll/ books/ haemon00/ haemon00. html): notes Monism book as dated 1895. [5] "7mono10 txt" (description of Ernst Haeckel's book Monism as Connecting Religion and Science), Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, Gutenberg.org webpage: GutenbergOrg-7mono10 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ etext05/ 7mono10. txt): book "translated from German by J. Gilchrist, M.A., B.Sc., PH.D."]. [6] "The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pragmatism, by William James" (text), Project Gutenberg, 2002, Gutenberg.org webpage: Gutenberg-Pragmatism (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ etext04/ prgmt10. txt). [7] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ dirs/ etext05/ 7mono10. txt

Will to power
The will to power (German: "der Wille zur Macht") is a prominent concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. The will to power describes what Nietzsche believed to be the main driving force in man; achievement, ambition, the striving to reach the highest possible position in life, these are all manifestations of the will to power. Alfred Adler incorporated the will to power into his individual psychology. This can be contrasted to the other Viennese schools of psychotherapy: Sigmund Freud's pleasure principle (will to pleasure) and Victor Frankl's logotherapy (will to meaning). Each of these schools advocate and teach a very different main driving force in "man". The relevance of gender and cultural differences in the application of these theories to universal humanity and non-human life is a source for serious concern among many scholars. The "will to power" has been "identified" in nature in the dominance hierarchies studied in many living species.

Background
Friedrich Nietzsche found early influence from Schopenhauer, whom he first discovered in 1865. Schopenhauer puts a central emphasis on will and in particular has a concept of the "will to live". Writing a generation before Nietzsche, Schopenhauer explained that the universe and everything in it is driven by a primordial will to live, which results in all living creatures' desire to avoid death and procreate. For Schopenhauer, this will is the most fundamental aspect of realitymore fundamental even than being. Another important influence is Roger Joseph Boscovich, whom Nietzsche discovered and learned about through his reading of Friedrich Albert Lange's 1865 Geschichte des Materialismus (History of Materialism), which Nietzsche read in 1866. As early as 1872, Nietzsche went on to study Boscovichs book Theoria Philosophia Naturalis for himself.[1] Nietzsche makes his only reference in his published works to Boscovich in Beyond Good and Evil where he declares war on "soul-atomism"[2] Boscovich had rejected the idea of "materialistic atomism" which Nietzsche calls "one of the best refuted theories there are."[3] The idea of centers of force would become central to Nietzsche's later theories of will to power. Nietzsche began to speak of the "Desire for Power" (Machtgelst), which appeared in The Wanderer and his Shadow (1880) and Daybreak (1881). Machtgelst, in these works, is the pleasure of the feeling of power and the hunger to overpower. Wilhelm Roux published his The Struggle of Parts in the Organism (Der Kampf der Theile im Organismus) in 1881, which Nietzsche first read the same year.[4] The book was a response to Darwinian theory, proposing an alternative mode of evolution. Roux was a disciple of and influenced by Ernst Haeckel[5] who believed the struggle for

Will to power existence occurred at the cellular level. The various cells and tissue struggle for finite resources, so that only the strongest survive. Through this mechanism, the body grows stronger and better adapted. Lacking modern genetic theory and assuming a lamarckian or pangenetic model of inheritance, the theory had plausibility at the time. Nietzsche began to expand on the concept of Machtgelst in The Gay Science (1882), where in a section titled On the doctrine of the feeling of power,[6] he connects the desire for cruelty with the pleasure in the feeling of power. Elsewhere in The Gay Science,[7] he notes that it is only in intellectual beings that pleasure, displeasure, and will are to be found,[8] excluding the vast majority of organisms from the desire for power. Lon Dumont (1837-77), whose 1875 book Thorie Scientifique de La Sensibilit, le Plaisir et la Peine Nietzsche read in 1883,[9] seems to have exerted some influence on this concept. Dumont believed that pleasure is related to increases in force.[10] In Wanderer and Daybreak, Nietzsche earlier had speculated that pleasures such as cruelty, are pleasurable because of exercise of power. But Dumont, in 1883, provided a physiological basis for Nietzsches speculation. Dumonts theory also would have seemed to confirm Nietzsches theory that pleasure and pain are reserved for intellectual beings, since, according to Dumont, pain and pleasure require a coming to consciousness and not just a sensing. In 1883 Nietzsche coined the phrase Wille zur Macht in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. The concept, at this point, is no longer limited to only those intellectual beings that can actually experience the feeling of power; it applies to all life. The phrase Wille zur Macht first appears in part 1, "1001 Goals" (1883), then in part 2, in two sections, Self-Overcoming and Redemption (later in 1883). Self-Overcoming describes it in most detail, saying it is an unexhausted procreative will of life.[11] There is will to power where there is life and even the strongest living things will risk their lives for more power. This suggests that the will to power is stronger than the will to survive. Schopenhauer's "Will to life" thus became a subsidiary to the will to power, which is the stronger will. Nietzsche thinks his notion of the will to power is far more useful than Schopenhauer's will to live for explaining various events, especially human behaviorfor example, Nietzsche uses the will to power to explain both ascetic, life-denying impulses and strong, life-affirming impulses in the European tradition, as well as both master and slave morality. He also finds the will to power to offer much richer explanations than utilitarianism's notion that all people really want to be happy, or the Platonist's notion that people want to be unified with the Good. Nietzsche read William Rolphs Biologische Probleme probably in mid 1884 and it clearly interested Nietzsche;[12] his copy is heavily annotated[13] and he made many notes concerning Rolph. Rolph was another evolutionary anti-Darwinist like Roux, who wished to argue for evolution by different mechanism than the struggle for existence. Rolph argued that all life seeks primarily to expand itself. Organisms fulfill this need through assimilation, trying to make as much of what is found around them into part of themselves, for example by seeking to increase intake and nutriment. Life forms are naturally insatiable in this way. Nietzsche's next published work is Beyond Good and Evil (1886), where the influence of Rolph seems apparent. Nietzsche writes, "Even the body within which individuals treat each other as equals ... will have to be an incarnate will to power, it will strive to grow, spread, seize, become predominantnot from any morality or immorality but because it is living and because life simply is will to power."[14] The influence of Rolph and its connection to will to power, also continues in book 5 of Gay Science (1887) where Nietzsche describes will to power as the instinct for expansion of power, fundamental to all life.[15] Beyond Good and Evil has the most references to will to power in his published works, appearing in eleven aphorisms[16] and this was the time of greatest development of the idea. Karl Wilhelm von Ngeli's 1884 book Mechanisch-physiologische Theorie der Abstammungslehre, which Nietzsche acquired probably in 1886 and subsequently read closely,[17] had considerable influence on his theory of will to power. Nietzsche wrote a letter to Franz Overbeck about it, noting that it has been sheepishly put aside by Darwinists.[18] Ngeli believed in a perfection principle, which led to greater complexity. He called the seat of heritability the idioplasma, and argued, with a military metaphor, that a more complex, complicatedly ordered idioplasma would usually defeat a simpler rival.[19] In other words, he is also arguing for internal evolution, similar

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Will to power to Roux, except emphasizing complexity as the main factor instead of strength. Thus, Dumonts pleasure in the expansion of power, Rouxs internal struggle, Ngelis drive towards complexity, and Rolphs principle of insatiability and assimilation are fused together into the biological side of Nietzsches theory of will to power, which is developed in a number of places in his published writings.[20] Having derived the will to power from three anti-Darwin evolutionists, as well as Dumont, it seems appropriate that he should use his will to power as an anti-Darwinian explanation of evolution. He expresses a number of times[21] the idea that adaptation and the struggle to survive is a secondary drive in the evolution of animals, behind the desire to expand ones powerthe will to power. Nonetheless, in his notebooks he continues to expand the theory of the will to power.[22] Influenced by his earlier readings of Boscovich, he began to develop a physics of the Will to Power. The idea of matter as centers of force is translated into matter as centers of will to power. Nietzsche wanted to slough off the theory of matter, which he viewed as a relic of the metaphysics of substance.[23] These ideas of an all inclusive physics or metaphysics built upon the will to power does not appear to arise anywhere in his published works or in any of the final books published posthumously, except in the above mentioned aphorism from Beyond Good & Evil, where he references Boscovich (section 12). It does recur in his notebooks, but not all scholars want to consider these ideas as part of his thought.[24] Throughout the 1880s, in his notebooks, Nietzsche also developed an equally elusive theory of the eternal recurrence of the same and much speculation on the physical possibility of this idea and the mechanics of its actualization recur in his later notebooks, which becomes tied with his theory of will to power as a potential physics integrated with the eternal recurrence of the same. Nietzsche appeared to imagine a physical universe of perpetual struggle and force, which successively completes its cycle and returns to the beginning again and again.[25]

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Interpretations
In contemporary Nietzschean scholarship, some interpreters have emphasized the will to power as a psychological principle, because Nietzsche applies it most frequently to human behavior. However, Nietzsche sometimes seems to view the will to power as a more general force, underlying all reality not just human behaviorthus making it more directly analogous to Schopenhauer's will to live. For example, Nietzsche claims the "world is the will to powerand nothing besides!".[26] Nevertheless, in relation to the entire body of Nietzsche's works, many scholars have insisted that Nietzsche's principle of the will to power is less metaphysical and more pragmatic than Schopenhauer's will to live: while Schopenhauer thought the will to live was what was most real in the universe, Nietzsche can be understood as claiming only that the will to power is a particularly useful principle for his purposes. Some interpreters also upheld a biological interpretation of the Wille zur Macht, making it equivalent with some kind of social Darwinism. For example the concept was appropriated by some Nazis such as Alfred Bumler, who may have drawn influence from it or used it to justify their expansive quest for power and world domination. This reading was criticized by Martin Heidegger in his 1930s courses on Nietzschesuggesting that raw physical or political power was not what Nietzsche had in mind. This is reflected in the following passage from Nietzsche's notebooks: I have found strength where one does not look for it: in simple, mild, and pleasant people, without the least desire to ruleand, conversely, the desire to rule has often appeared to me a sign of inward weakness: they fear their own slave soul and shroud it in a royal cloak (in the end, they still become the slaves of their followers, their fame, etc.) The powerful natures dominate, it is a necessity, they need not lift one finger. Even if, during their lifetime, they bury themselves in a garden house![27] Opposed to a biological and voluntary conception of the Wille zur Macht, Heidegger also argued that the will to power must be considered in relation to the bermensch and the thought of eternal recurrencealthough this

Will to power reading itself has been criticized by Mazzino Montinari as a "macroscopic Nietzsche".[28] Gilles Deleuze also emphasized the connection between the will to power and eternal return. Opposed to this interpretation, the "Will To Power" can be understood (or misunderstood) to mean a struggle against one's surroundings that culminates in personal growth, self-overcoming, and self-perfection, and assert that the power held over others as a result of this is coincidental. Thus Nietzsche wrote: My idea is that every specific body strives to become master over all space and to extend its force (its will to power) and to thrust back all that resists its extension. But it continually encounters similar efforts on the part of other bodies and ends by coming to an arrangement ("union") with those of them that are sufficiently related to it: thus they then conspire together for power. And the process goes on.[29] It would be possible to claim that rather than an attempt to 'dominate over others', the "will to power" is better understood as the tenuous equilibrium in a system of forces' relations to each other. While a rock, for instance, does not have a conscious (or unconscious) "will", it nevertheless acts as a site of resistance within the "will to power" dynamic. Moreover, rather than 'dominating over others' (a misinterpretation by Deleuze et al.), "will to power" is more accurately positioned in relation to the subject (a mere synecdoche, both fictitious and necessary, for there is "no doer behind the deed," (see On the Genealogy of Morals) and is an idea behind the statement that words are "seductions" within the process of self-mastery and self-overcoming. The "will to power" is thus a "cosmic" inner force acting in and through both animate and inanimate objects. Not just instincts but also higher level behaviors (even in humans) were to be reduced to the will to power. In fact, Nietzsche considered consciousness itself to be a form of instinct. This includes both such apparently harmful acts as physical violence, lying, and domination, on one hand, and such apparently non-harmful acts as gift-giving, love, and praise on the otherthough its manifestations can be altered significantly, such as through art and aesthetic experience. In Beyond Good and Evil, he claims that philosophers' "will to truth" (i.e., their apparent desire to dispassionately seek objective, absolute truth) is actually nothing more than a manifestation of their will to power; this will can be life-affirming or a manifestation of nihilism, but it is the will to power all the same. Other Nietzschean interpreters (e.g. Abir Taha) dispute the suggestion that Nietzsche's concept of the will to power is merely and only a matter of narrow, harmless, humanistic self-perfection. They suggest that, for Nietzsche, power means self-perfection as well as outward, political, elitist, aristocratic domination. Nietzsche, in fact, explicitly and specifically defined the egalitarian state-idea as the embodiment of the will to power in decline: To speak of just or unjust in itself is quite senseless; in itself, of course, no injury, assault, exploitation, destruction can be 'unjust,' since life operates essentially, that is in its basic functions, through injury, assault, exploitation, destruction and simply cannot be thought of at all without this character. One must indeed grant something even more unpalatable: that, from the highest biological standpoint, legal conditions can never be other than exceptional conditions, since they constitute a partial restriction of the will of life, which is bent upon power, and are subordinate to its total goal as a single means: namely, as a means of creating greater units of power. A legal order thought of as sovereign and universal, not as a means in the struggle between power complexes but as a means of preventing all struggle in general perhaps after the communistic clich of Dhring, that every will must consider every other will its equalwould be a principle hostile to life, an agent of the dissolution and destruction of man, an attempt to assassinate the future of man, a sign of weariness, a secret path to nothingness.[30]

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Individual psychology
Alfred Adler borrowed heavily from Nietzsche's work to develop his second Viennese school of psychotherapy called individual psychology. Adler (1912) wrote in his important book ber den nervsen Charakter (The Neurotic Constitution): Nietzsche's "Will to power" and "Will to seem" embrace many of our views, which again resemble in some respects the views of Fr and the older writers, according to whom the sensation of pleasure originates in a feeling of power, that of pain in a feeling of feebleness (Ohnmacht).[31] Adler's adaptation of the will to power was and still is in contrast to Sigmund Freud's pleasure principle or the "will to pleasure", and to Viktor Frankl's logotherapy or the "will to meaning".[32] Adler's intent was to build a movement that would rival, even supplant, others in psychology by arguing for the holistic integrity of psychological well-being with that of social equality. His interpretation of Nietzsche's will to power was concerned with the individual patient's overcoming of the superiority-inferiority dynamic.[33] In Man's Search for Meaning, Frankl compared his third Viennese school of psychotherapy with Adler's psychoanalytic interpretation of the will to power: ... the striving to find a meaning in one's life is the primary motivational force in man. That is why I speak of a will to meaning in contrast to the pleasure principle (or, as we could also term it, the will to pleasure) on which Freudian psychoanalysis is centered, as well as in contrast to the will to power stressed by Adlerian psychology.[34] Viktor E. Frankl, M.D., Ph.D.

See also
Schopenhauer's concept of will to live The philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche Each of the following Viennese schools of psychotherapy advocate a very different main driving force in man: Sigmund Freud's will to pleasure pleasure principle Alfred Adler's will to power individual psychology Victor Frankl's will to meaning logotherapy Heinz Ansbacher

External links
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Henry_Rolph

References
[1] Whitlock, Greg. "Roger Boscovich, Benedict de Spinoza and Friedrich Nietzsche: The Untold Story." Nietzsche Studien, 25 (1996) pp 200-220 [2] section 12, trans Kaufmann [3] Anderson, R. Lanier (1994). "Nietzsches Will to Power as a Doctrine of the Unity of Science". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 25 (5): 738. "Boscovich's theory of centers of force was prominent in Germany at the time. Boscovichs theory 'is echoed in Immanuel Kants Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science, which reduces matter to force altogether. Kants view, in turn, became very influential in German physics through the work of Hermann von Helmholtz and his followers. By the time Nietzsche wrote, treating matter in terms of fields of force was the dominant understanding of the fundamental notions of physics.'". [4] Moore, Gregory. Nietzsche, Biology, Metaphor (New York: Cambridge UP, 2002) [5] Mller-Lauter, Wolfgang. The Organism as Inner Struggle: Wilhelm Rouxs Influence on Nietzsche. Nietzsche: His Philosophy of Contradictions and the Contradictions of His Philosophy. Trans. David J. Parent. Chicago: U Illinois P, 1999. pp 161-182 [6] Section 13 [7] Section 110 [8] Walter Kaufmann trans.

Will to power
[9] Robin Small, Nietzsche in Context (Burlington: Ashgate, 2001) p 166. [10] ibid, p 167 [11] Kaufmann tran [12] Moore, Nietzsche, Biology, Metaphor, p 47 [13] Brobjer, Thomas H. Nietzsches Reading and Private Library, 1885-1889. Journal of the History of Ideas, 58:4 (Oct 1997), pp 663-693 [14] section 259, Kaufmann trans [15] section 349, Kaufmann trans [16] Wille zur Macht appears in Beyond Good and Evil sections 22, 23 36, 44 (Macht-Willen, translated "power-will") 51, 186, 198, 211, 227, 257 (Willenskrfte und Macht-Begierden translated strength of will and lust for power) & 259. As mentioned, the phrase appears in Zarathustra thrice and it appears in Genealogy of Morality five times: II:12, II:18, III:14, III:18 and III:27 (this last reference is not to the concept but to the book Will to Power). Will to Power appears in his completed but posthumously published books: Twilight of the Idols Skirmishes 11, 20, 38, & Ancients 3; Antichrist sections 2, 6, 9 (the quote in 9 is the will to the end, the nihilistic will, wants power.), 16, 17, 24 (whether 24 is about will to power is debatable) & Ecce Homo, Birth of Tragedy 4. [17] Brobjer says it is the most heavily annotated book of his 1886 reading, (Nietzsches Reading and Private Library, p 679 [18] quoted in Horn, Anette. Nietzsches interpretation of his sources on Darwinism: Idioplasma, Micells and military troops. South African Journal of Philosophy, 24:4 (2005), pp 260-272 [19] Horn, p 265-266 [20] The will to power is essentially ... an amalgam of a number of competing non-Darwinian theories, namely, Ngeli, Roux & Rolph (Moore, Nietzsche, Biology, Metaphor p 55). [21] Beyond Good & Evil 13, Gay Science 349 & Genealogy of Morality II:12 [22] The phrase will to power appears in 147 entries of the Colli and Montinari edition of the Nachlass. ... one-fifth of the occurrences of Wille zur Macht have to do with outlines of various lengths of the projected but ultimately abandoned book(Williams, Linda L. Will to Power in Nietzsche's Published Works and the Nachlass. Journal of the History of Ideas, 57:3 (1996), p 450). [23] Nietzsche comments in many notes about matter being a hypothesis drawn from the metaphysics of substance (Whitlock, Boscovich, Spinoza and Nietzsche, 207) [24] cf. Williams, Linda L. Will to Power in Nietzsche's Published Works and the Nachlass. Journal of the History of Ideas, 57:3 (1996). pp 447-463. [25] For discussion, see Whitlock, Roger Boscovich, Benedict de Spinoza and Friedrich Nietzsche; Moles, Nietzsches Eternal Recurrence as Riemannian Cosmology; Christa Davis Acampora, Between Mechanism and Teleology: Will to Power and Nietzsches Gay Science Nietzsche & Science, pp 171-188; Stack, Nietzsche and Boscovichs Natural Philosophy; and Small The Physics of Eternal Recurrence Nietzsche in Context pp. 135-152. [26] The Will To Power, Kaufmann-Hollingdale trans., 1067 [27] Friedrich Nietzsche. Nachlass, Fall 1880 6 [206] [28] Mazzino Montinari, Friedrich Nietzsche (1974; transl. in German in 1991, Friedrich Nietzsche. Eine Einfhrung., Berlin-New York, De Gruyter; and in French, Friedrich Nietzsche, PUF, 2001, p.121 chapter "Nietzsche and the consequences" [29] trans. Walter Kaufmann. The Will to Power, 636 [30] Nietzsche, "On the Genealogy of Morality", Second Essay, 11 [31] Adler, Alfred (1912/1917). The Neurotic Constitution (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ neuroticconstitu00adle). New York: Moffat, Yard and Company. pp. ix. . [32] Seidner, Stanley S. (June 10, 2009) "A Trojan Horse: Logotherapeutic Transcendence and its Secular Implications for Theology" (http:/ / docs. google. com/ gview?a=v& q=cache:FrKYAo88ckkJ:www. materdei. ie/ media/ conferences/ a-secular-age-parallel-sessions-timetable. pdf+ "Stan+ Seidner"& hl=en& gl=us). Mater Dei Institute [33] Ansbacher, Heinz; Ansbacher, Rowena R. (1956). The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler. Harper Perennial (1964). pp.132133. ISBN0061311545. [34] Frankl, Viktor (1959). Man's Search for Meaning. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press. p.154. ISBN0671023373.

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Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche

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Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Nietzsche's influence and reception varied widely and may be roughly divided into various chronological periods. Reactions were anything but uniform, and proponents of various ideologies attempted to appropriate his work quite early. By 1937, this led Georges Bataille to argue against any 'instrumentalization' of Nietzsche's thought; Bataille felt that any simple-minded interpretation or unified ideological characterization of Nietzsche's work granting predominance to any particular aspect failed to do justice to the body of his work as a whole.[1] Beginning while Nietzsche was still alive, though incapacitated by mental illness, many Germans discovered his appeals for greater individualism and personality development in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, but responded to those appeals in diverging ways. He had some following among left-wing Germans in the 1890s; in 189495, German conservatives wanted to ban his work as subversive. During the late 19th century Nietzsche's ideas were commonly associated with anarchist movements and appear to have had influence within them, particularly in France and the United States.[2] Nietzsche even had a distinct appeal for many Zionist thinkers at the turn of the century. It has been argued the his work influenced Theodore Herzl,[3] and Martin Buber went so far as to extol Nietzsche as a "creator" and "emissary of life".[4] By World War I, however, he had acquired a reputation as an inspiration for right-wing German militarism. German soldiers even received copies of Thus Spoke Zarathustra as gifts during World War I.[5] [6] The Dreyfus Affair provides another example of his reception: the French anti-semitic Right labelled the Jewish and Leftist intellectuals who defended Alfred Dreyfus as "Nietzscheans"[7] . Such seemingly paradoxical acceptance by diametrically opposed camps is typical of the history of the reception of Nietzsche's thought. In the context of the rise of French fascism one researcher notes, "Although, as much recent work has stressed, Nietzsche had an important impact on "leftist" French ideology and theory, this should not obscure the fact that his work was also crucial to the right and to the neither right nor left fusions of developing French fascism.[8] Many political leaders of the twentieth century were at least superficially familiar with Nietzsche's ideas. However, it is not always possible to determine whether or not they actually read his work. Hitler, for example, probably never read Nietzsche, and if he did, his reading was not extensive.[9] However, the Nazis made very selective use of Nietzsche's philosophy; this association with National Socialism caused Nietzsche's reputation to suffer following World War II. Mussolini certainly read Nietzsche,[10] as did Charles de Gaulle.[11] It has been suggested that Theodore Roosevelt read Nietzsche and was profoundly influenced by him,[12] and in more recent years, Richard Nixon read Nietzsche with "curious interest".[13] Perhaps Nietzsche's greatest political legacy lies in his 20th century interpreters, among them Martin Heidegger, Pierre Klossowski, Georges Bataille, Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze (and Flix Guattari), and Jacques Derrida. Foucault's later writings, for example, adopt Nietzsche's genealogical method to develop anti-foundationalist theories of power that divide and fragment rather than unite polities (as evinced in the liberal tradition of political theory). Deleuze, arguably the foremost of Nietzsche's interpreters, used the much-maligned 'will to power' thesis in tandem with Marxian notions of commodity surplus and Freudian ideas of desire to articulate concepts such the rhizome and other 'outsides' to state power as traditionally conceived.

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Nietzsche and anarchism

During the 19th century, Nietzsche was frequently associated with anarchist movements, in spite of the fact that in his writings he seems to hold a negative view of anarchists.[14] This may be the result of a popular association during this period between his ideas and those of Max Stirner[15] . Spencer Sunshine writes "There were many things that drew anarchists to Nietzsche: his hatred of the state; his disgust for the mindless social behavior of "herds"; his anti-Christianity; his distrust of the effect of both the market and the State on cultural production; his desire for an "overman" that is, for a new human who was to be neither master nor slave; his praise of the ecstatic and creative self, with the artist as his prototype, who could say, "Yes" to the self-creation of a new world on the basis of nothing; and his forwarding of the "transvaluation of values" as source of change, as opposed to a Marxist conception of class struggle and the dialectic of a linear history."[16] For Sunshine "The list is not limited to culturally-oriented anarchists such as Emma Goldman, who gave dozens of lectures about Nietzsche and baptized him as an honorary anarchist. Pro-Nietzschean anarchists also include prominent Spanish CNTFAI members in the 1930s such as Salvador Segu and anarcha-feminist Federica Montseny; anarcho-syndicalist militants like Rudolf Rocker; and even the younger Murray Bookchin, who cited Nietzsche's conception of the "transvaluation of values" in support of the Spanish anarchist project." Also in european individualist anarchist circles his influence is clear in thinker/activists such as Emile Armand[17] and Renzo Novatore[18] among others. Also more recently in post-left anarchy Nietzsche is present in the thought of Albert Camus, Hakim Bey and Wolfi Landstreicher.

Nietzsche and Zionism

Jacob Golomb observed, "Nietzsche's ideas were widely disseminated among and appropriated by the first Hebrew Zionist writers and leaders."[19] According to Steven Aschheim, "Classical Zionism, that essentially secular and modernizing movement, was acutely aware of the crisis of Jewish tradition and its supporting institutions. Nietzsche was enlisted as an authority for articulating the movement's ruptured relationship with the past and a force in its drive to normalization and its activist ideal of self-creating Hebraic New Man."[20] Francis R. Nicosia notes, "At the height of his fame between 1895 and 1902, some of Nietzsche's ideas seemed to have a particular resonance for some Zionists, including Theodore Herzl."[21] Among many other facts that show Herzl had a serious interest in Nietzsche, at least for a time (including that fact that under his editorship the Neue Freie Presse dedicated seven consecutive issues to Nietzsche obituaries) Golomb points out that Herzl's cousin Raoul Auernheimer claimed, in a memorial tribute, that Herzl was familiar with Nietzsche and had "absorbed his style".[22] On the other hand, Gabriel Sheffer suggests that Herzl was too bourgeois and too eager to be accepted into mainstream society to be much of a revolutionary, and hence could not have been strongly influenced by Nietzsche, but remarks, "Some East European Jewish intellectuals, such as the writers Yosef Hayyim Brenner and Micah Yosef Berdichevski, followed after Herzl because they thought that Zionism offered the chance for a Nietzschean 'transvaluation of values' within Jewry".[23] Martin Buber was fascinated by Nietzsche, whom he praised as a heroic figure, and he strove to introduce "a Nietzschean perspective into Zionist affairs." In 1901 Buber, who had just been appointed the editor of Die Welt, the primary publication of the World Zionist Organization, published a poem in Zarathustrastil ( a style reminiscent of Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra) calling for the return of Jewish literature, art and scholarship.[24] However, praise for Nietzsche was not by any means universal among Zionists. Max Nordau, an early Zionist orator, insisted that Nietzsche had been insane since birth, and advocated "branding his disciples [...] as hysterical and imbecile."[25]

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Nietzsche and fascism

See also Nietzsche's criticisms of anti-Semitism and nationalism. It has been observed that In 1932, Elisabeth Forster-Nietzsche received a rose bouquet from Hitler during a German premier of Mussolini's 100 Days; in 1934 Hitler and Alfred Rosenberg visited her again, presenting her with a wreath for Nietzsche's grave with the words "To A Great Fighter"; in the same year the Fhrer posed for a photo gazing into the eyes of a white marble bust of Nietzsche, and was presented by Elisabeth with Nietzsche's favorite walking stick.[26] There can be no doubt that Italian and German fascist regimes were eager to lay claim to Nietzsche's ideas, and to position themselves as inspired by them. In Heinrich Hoffmann's best-selling Hitler as Nobody Knows Him (which sold nearly a half-million copies by 1938) the caption of the photo of Hitler with the bust of Nietzsche read, "The Fhrer before the bust of the German philosopher whose ideas have fertilized two great popular movements: the National Socialist of Germany and the Fascist of Italy."[27] Nietzsche was no less popular among French fascists. As Robert S. Wistrich has pointed out The "fascist" Nietzsche was above all considered to be a heroic irrationalist and vitalist who had glorified war and violence, inspiring the anti-Marxist revolutions of the interwar period. According to the French fascist Pierre Drieu la Rochelle, it was the Nietzschean emphasis on the Will that inspired the voluntarism and political activism of his comrades. Such one-dimensional readings were vehemently rejected by another French writer, the anarchist Georges Bataille, who in the 1930s sought to establish the "radical incompatibility" between Nietzsche (as a thinker who abhorred mass politics) and "the Fascist reactionaries." He argued that nothing was more alien to Nietzsche than the pan-Germanism, racism, militarism and anti-Semitism of the Nazis, into whose service the German philosopher had been pressed.[28] The German philosopher Heidegger, who was (with great harm to his subsequent reputation) an active member of the Nazi Party, himself noted that everyone in his day was either 'for' or 'against' Nietzsche while claiming that this thinker heard a "command to reflect on the essence of a planetary domination." Alan D. Schrift cites this passage and writes, "That Heidegger sees Nietzsche heeding a command to reflect and prepare for earthly domination is of less interest to me than his noting that everyone thinks in terms of a position for or against Nietzsche. In particular, the gesture of setting up "Nietzsche" as a battlefield on which to take one's stand against or to enter into competition with the ideas of one's intellectual predecessors or rivals has happened quite frequently in the twentieth century."[29] Despite the protests of Bataille and others[30] , the Nazi movement found much affinity with Nietzsche's ideas, including: his attacks against democracy, Christianity, and parliamentary governments; his preaching in The Will to Power wherein he proclaimed the coming of a ruling race that would become the "lords of the earth"; and his (sometimes highly ambiguous) praise of war and warriors. The Nazis also linked what they felt to be Nietzsche's clearly expressed views on women (e.g. "Man shall be trained for war and woman for the procreation of the warrior, any thing else is folly.") to their own social program for women, "They belong in the kitchen and their chief role in life is to beget children for German warriors."[31] During the interbellum years, certain Nazis had employed a highly selective reading of Nietzsche's work to advance their ideology, notably Alfred Baeumler in his reading of The Will to Power. The era of Nazi rule (19331945) saw Nietzsche's writings widely studied in German (and, after 1938, Austrian) schools and universities. Despite the fact that Nietzsche expressed his disgust with anti-Semitism and German nationalism in the most forthright terms possible (e.g. he resolved "to have nothing to do with anyone involved in the perfidious race-fraud"), phrases like "the will to power" became common in Nazi circles. The wide popularity of Nietzsche among Nazis stemmed in part from the endeavors of his sister, Elisabeth Frster-Nietzsche, the editor of Nietzsche's work after his 1889 breakdown, and an eventual Nazi sympathizer. Mazzino Montinari, while editing Nietzsche's posthumous works in the 1960s, found that Frster-Nietzsche, while editing the posthumous fragments making up The Will to Power, had cut extracts, changed their order, added titles of her own invention, included passages of others authors copied by Nietzsche as if they had been written by Nietzsche himself, etc.[32]

Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche But Nietzsche's reception among fascists was not universally warm. One "rabidly Nazi writer, Curt von Westernhagen, who announced in his book Nietzsche, Juden, Antijuden (1936) that the time had come to expose the 'defective personality of Nietzsche whose inordinate tributes for, and espousal of, Jews had caused him to depart from the Germanic principles enunciated by Meister Richard Wagner'" is a representative example.[33] The real problem with the labelling of Nietzsche as a Fascist, or worse, a Nazi, is that it ignores the fact that Nietzsche's aristocratism seeks to revive an older conception of politics, one which he locates in Greek agon which [...] has striking affinities with the philosophy of action expounded in our own time by Hannah Arendt. Once an affinity like this is appreciated, the absurdity of describing Nietzsche's political thought as 'Fascist', or Nazi, becomes readily apparent.[34]

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Nietzsche and psychoanalysis

The psychologist Carl Jung recognized Nietzsche's importance early on: he held a seminar on Nietzsche's Zarathustra in 1934.[35] According to Ernest Jones, biographer and personal acquaintance of Sigmund Freud, Freud frequently referred to Nietzsche as having "more penetrating knowledge of himself than any man who ever lived or was likely to live".[36] Yet Jones also reports that Freud emphatically denied that Nietzsche's writings influenced his own psychological discoveries. Moreover, Freud took no interest in philosophy while a medical student, forming his opinion about Nietzsche later in life.

Early 20th-century thinkers

Early twentieth-century thinkers influenced by Nietzsche include: philosophers Martin Heidegger, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Ernst Jnger, Theodor Adorno, Georg Brandes, Henri Bergson, Martin Buber, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, Leo Strauss, Michel Foucault, Julius Evola, Emil Cioran, Miguel de Unamuno, Lev Shestov, Jos Ortega y Gasset and Muhammad Iqbal; sociologists Ferdinand Tnnies and Max Weber; composers Richard Strauss, Gustav Mahler, and Fredrick Delius; historians Oswald Spengler, Fernand Braudel [37] and Paul Veyne, theologians Paul Tillich and Thomas J.J. Altizer; occultist Aleister Crowley; novelists Marcel Proust, Franz Kafka, Joseph Conrad, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Andr Malraux, Nikos Kazantzakis, Andr Gide, Knut Hamsun, James Joyce, D. H. Lawrence and Vladimir Bartol; psychologists Sigmund Freud, C. G. Jung, Alfred Adler, Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May; poets John Davidson, Rainer Maria Rilke, Friedrich Georg Jnger, and William Butler Yeats; painters Salvador Dal and Pablo Picasso; playwrights George Bernard Shaw, Antonin Artaud, August Strindberg, and Eugene O'Neill; and authors H. P. Lovecraft, Menno ter Braak, Richard Wright, Robert E. Howard, and Jack London. American writer H.L. Mencken avidly read and translated Nietzsche's works and has gained the sobriquet "the American Nietzsche". Nietzsche was declared an anarchist by Emma Goldman, and he influenced other anarchists such as Guy Aldred, Rudolf Rocker, Max Cafard and John Moore. The popular writer, philosopher, poet, journalist and Christian apologist G. K. Chesterton expressed contempt for Nietzsche's ideas: I do not even think that a cosmopolitan contempt for patriotism is merely a matter of opinion, any more than I think that a Nietzscheite contempt for compassion is merely a matter of opinion. I think they are both heresies so horrible that their treatment must not be so much mental as moral, when it is not simply medical. Men are not always dead of a disease and men are not always damned by a delusion; but so far as they are touched by it they are destroyed by it. May 31, 1919, Illustrated London News Thomas Mann's essays mention Nietzsche with respect and even adoration, although one of his final essays, "Nietzsche's Philosophy in the Light of Recent History", looks at his favorite philosopher through the lens of Nazism and World War II and ends up placing Nietzsche at a more critical distance. Many of Nietzsche's ideas, particularly on artists and aesthetics, are incorporated and explored throughout Mann's works. One of the characters in Mann's

Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche 1947 novel Doktor Faustus represents Nietzsche fictionally. In 1938 the German existentialist Karl Jaspers wrote the following about the influence of Nietzsche and Sren Kierkegaard: The contemporary philosophical situation is determined by the fact that two philosophers, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, who did not count in their times and, for a long time, remained without influence in the history of philosophy, have continually grown in significance. Philosophers after Hegel have increasingly returned to face them, and they stand today unquestioned as the authentically great thinkers of their age. [...] The effect of both is immeasurably great, even greater in general thinking than in technical philosophy Jaspers, Reason and Existenz Bertrand Russell in his epic History of Western Philosophy was scathing in his chapter on Nietzsche, calling his work the "mere power-phantasies of an invalid" and referring to Nietzsche as a "megalomaniac". In one particularly harsh section, Russell says: It is obvious that in his day-dreams he is a warrior, not a professor; all of the men he admires were military. His opinion of women, like every man's, is an objectification of his own emotion towards them, which is obviously one of fear. "Forget not thy whip"-- but nine women out of ten would get the whip away from him, and he knew it, so he kept away from women, and soothed his wounded vanity with unkind remarks. [...] [H]e is so full of fear and hatred that spontaneous love of mankind seems to him impossible. He has never conceived of the man who, with all the fearlessness and stubborn pride of the superman, nevertheless does not inflict pain because he has no wish to do so. Does any one suppose that Lincoln acted as he did from fear of hell? Yet to Nietzsche, Lincoln is abject, Napoleon magnificent. [...] I dislike Nietzsche because he likes the contemplation of pain, because he erects conceit into duty, because the men whom he most admires are conquerors, whose glory is cleverness in causing men to die. But I think the ultimate argument against his philosophy, as against any unpleasant but internally self-conscious ethic, lies not in an appeal to facts, but in an appeal to the emotions. Nietzsche despises universal love; I feel it the motive power to all that I desire as regards the world. His followers have had their innings, but we may hope that it is coming rapidly to an end. Russell, History of Western Philosophy

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Nietzsche after World War II

The appropriation of Nietzsche's work by the Nazis, combined with the rise of analytic philosophy, ensured that British and American academic philosophers would almost completely ignore him until at least 1950. Even George Santayana, an American philosopher whose life and work betray some similarity to Nietzsche's, dismissed Nietzsche in his 1916 Egotism in German Philosophy as a "prophet of Romanticism". Analytic philosophers, if they mentioned Nietzsche at all, characterized him as a literary figure rather than as a philosopher. Nietzsche's present stature in the English-speaking world owes much to the exegetical writings and improved Nietzsche translations by the German-American philosopher Walter Kaufmann and the British scholar R.J. Hollingdale. Nietzsche's influence on continental philosophy increased dramatically after the Second World War, especially among the French intellectual Left and post-structuralists. Jacques Derrida, Jean-Luc Nancy, and Michel Foucault all owe a heavy debt to Nietzsche. Gilles Deleuze and Pierre Klossowski wrote monographs drawing new attention to Nietzsche's work, and a 1972 conference at Crisy-la-Salle ranks as the most important event in France for a generation's reception of Nietzsche. In Germany interest in Nietzsche was revived from the 1980s onwards, particularly by the German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk, who has devoted several essays to Nietzsche. In recent years, Nietzsche has also influenced members of the analytical philosophy tradition, such as Bernard Williams in his last finished book, Truth And Truthfulness: An Essay In Genealogy (2002). Certain recent Nietzschean exegetes have emphasized the more untimely and politically controversial aspects of Nietzsche's philosophy. Works such as Bruce Detwiler's Nietzsche and the Politics of Aristocratic Radicalism (University of Chicago Press, 1990), Fredrick Appel's Nietzsche Contra Democracy (Cornell University Press,

Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche 1998), and Domenico Losurdo's Nietzsche, il ribelle aristocratico (Turin: Bollati Boringhieri, 2002) challenge the prevalent liberal interpretive consensus on Nietzsche and assert that Nietzsche's elitism was not merely an aesthetic pose but an ideological attack on the widely held belief in equal rights of the modern West, locating Nietzsche in the conservative-revolutionary tradition.

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Further reading
John Moore with Spencer Sunshine, ed (Paperback). I Am Not A Man, I Am Dynamite!: Friedrich Nietzsche and the Anarchist Tradition [38]. Autonomedia. pp.160. ISBNISBN 1-57027-121-6. Retrieved 2007-05-08.

References
[1] Georges Bataille (Trans. Bruce Boone), On Nietzsche, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004 [2] O. Ewald, "German Philosophy in 1907", in The Philosophical Review, Vol. 17, No. 4, Jul., 1908, pp. 400-426; T. A. Riley, "Anti-Statism in German Literature, as Exemplified by the Work of John Henry Mackay", in PMLA, Vol. 62, No. 3, Sep., 1947, pp. 828-843; C. E. Forth, "Nietzsche, Decadence, and Regeneration in France, 1891-95", in Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 54, No. 1, Jan., 1993, pp. 97-117 [3] Francis R. Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p36; Jacob Golomb, Nietzsche and Zion, Cornell University Press, 2004, pp 25-27; against the view of particular influence on Herzl, see: Gabriel Sheffer, U.S.-Israeli Relations at the Crossroads, Routledge, 1997, p170 [4] Jacob Golomb (Ed.), Nietzsche and Jewish Culture, Routledge, 1997, pp 234-235 [5] Steven E. Aschheim notes that "[a]bout 150,000 copies of a specially durable wartime Zarathustra were distributed to the troops" in The Nietzsche Legacy in Germany, 1890-1990, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1992, p135 [6] Kaufmann, p.8 [7] Schrift, A.D. (1995). Nietzsche's French Legacy: A Genealogy of Poststructuralism. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-91147-8. [8] Mary Ann Frese Witt, The Search for Modern Tragedy, Cornell University Press, 2001, p137 [9] Weaver Santaniello, Nietzsche, God, and the Jews, SUNY Press, 1994, p41: "Hitler probably never read a word of Nietzsche"; Berel Lang, Post-Holocaust: Interpretation, Misinterpretation, and the Claims of History, Indiana University Press, 2005, p162: "Arguably, Hitler himself never read a word of Nietzsche; certainly, if he did read him, it was not extensively"; Jacob Golomb, Nietzsche and Jewish Culture, Routledge, 1997, p9: "To be sure, it is almost certain that Hitler either never read Nietzsche directly or read very little."; Andrew C. Janos, East Central Europe in the Modern World, Stanford University Press, 2002, p184: "By all indications, Hitler never read Nietzsche. Neither Mein Kampf nor Hitler's Table Talk (Tischgesprache) mentions his name. Nietzschean ideas reached him through the filter of Alfred Rosenberg's Myth of the Twentieth Century, and, more simply, through what was coffeehouse Quatsch in Vienna and Munich. This at least is the impression he gives in his published conversations with Dietrich Eckart." [10] Simonetta Falasca-Zamponi, Fascist Spectacle: The Aesthetics of Power in Mussolini's Italy, University of California Press, 2000, p44: "In 1908 he presented his conception of the superman's role in modern society in a writing on Nietzsche entitled, "The Philosophy of Force."; Philip Morgan, Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945, Routledge, 2003, p21: "We know that Mussolini had read Nietzsche" [11] J. L. Gaddis, P. H. Gordon, E. R. May, J. Rosenberg, Cold War Statesmen Confront the Bomb, Oxford University Press, 1999, p217: "The son of a history teacher, de Gaulle read voraciously as a boy and young man Jacques Bainville, Henri Bergson, Friederich [sic] Nietzsche, Maurice Barres and was steeped in conservative French historical and philosophical traditions." [12] H. L. Mencken (Ed.), The Selected Writings of Friedrich Nietzsche, Wilder Publications, 2008, p153 (referring to Roosevelt's published speech The Strenuous Life): "It is inconceivable that Mr. Roosevelt should have formulated his present confession of faith independently of Nietzsche".; Georges Sorel (trans. J. Stanley), Essays in Socialism and Philosophy, Transaction Publishers, 1987, p214 "J. Bourdeau has pointed out the strange similarity which exists between the ideas of Andrew Carnegie and Roosevelt, and those of Nietzsche: Carnegie deploring the wasting of money on the support of incompetents, Roosevelt appealing to Americans to become conquerors, a race of predators." [13] Monica Crowley, Nixon in Winter, I.B.Tauris, 1998, p351: "He read with curious interest the writings of Friedrich Nietzsche [...] Nixon asked to borrow my copy of Beyond Good and Evil, a title that inspired the title of his final book, Beyond Peace." [14] In Beyond Good and Evil (6.2:126) he refers to "anarchist dogs" [15] "Nietzsche's possible reading, knowledge, and plagiarism of Max Stirner's The Ego and Its Own (1845) has been a contentious question and frequently discussed for more than a century now." Thomas H. Brobjer, "Philologica: A Possible Solution to the Stirner-Nietzsche Question", in The Journal of Nietzsche Studies - Issue 25, Spring 2003, pp. 109-114 [16] Spencer Sunshine, "Nietzsche and the Anarchists" (http:/ / radicalarchives. org/ 2010/ 05/ 18/ nietzsche-and-the-anarchists/ ) [17] The Anarchism of mile Armand by Emile Armand (http:/ / theanarchistlibrary. org/ HTML/ Emile_Armand__The_Anarchism_of_Emile_Armand. html) [18] Toward the Creative Nothing by [[Renzo Novatore (http:/ / theanarchistlibrary. org/ HTML/ Renzo_Novatore__Toward_the_Creative_Nothing. html)]] [19] Jacob Golomb, Nietzsche and Zion, Cornell University Press, 2004, p1

Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche

[20] Steven E. Aschheim, The Nietzsche legacy in Germany, 1890-1990, University of California Press, 1994, p102 [21] Francis R. Nicosia, Zionism and Anti-Semitism in Nazi Germany, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p36 [22] Jacob Golomb, Nietzsche and Zion, Cornell University Press, 2004, pp 25-27 [23] Gabriel Sheffer, U.S.-Israeli Relations at the Crossroads, Routledge, 1997, p170 [24] Jacob Golomb (Ed.), Nietzsche and Jewish Culture, Routledge, 1997, pp 235-236 [25] Robert S. Wistrich, Laboratory for World Destruction: Germans and Jews in Central Europe, University of Nebraska Press, 2007, p158 [26] John Rodden, Repainting the Little Red Schoolhouse: A History of Eastern German Education, 1945-1995, Oxford University Press, 2002, p289 [27] Hans D. Sluga, Heidegger's Crisis: Philosophy and Politics in Nazi Germany, Harvard University Press, 1993, p179 [28] Jacob Golomb, Robert S. Wistrich, Nietzsche, Godfather of Fascism?: On The Uses and Abuses of a Philosophy, Princeton University Press, 2002, p162 [29] Alan D. Schrift (Ed.), Why Nietzsche still?, University of California Press, 2000, pp 184-185 [30] these included Thomas Mann and Albert Camus [31] William Lawrence Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, Simon and Schuster, 1960, pp 99-101. [32] Mazzino Montinari, "La Volont de puissance" n'existe pas, Editions de l'Eclat, 1996 [33] Jacob Golomb, Robert S. Wistrich, Nietzsche, Godfather of Fascism?: On The Uses and Abuses of a Philosophy, Princeton University Press, 2002, p149 [34] Keith Ansell-Pearson, An Introduction to Nietzsche as Political Thinker: The Perfect Nihilist, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp 33-34 [35] Jung Timeline (http:/ / jung. freudfile. org/ timeline. html) [36] Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud [37] See Fernand Braudel's preface to The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, where he says he had been largely influenced by the Second Untimely Meditation [38] http:/ / www. autonomedia. org/ nietzsche

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Friedrich Nietzsche Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=372282668 Contributors: "alyosha", -Ril-, 100110100, 134.173.22.xxx, 195.186.189.xxx, 1mrc, 204.137.64.xxx, 213.3.188.xxx, 213.3.191.xxx, 217.227.139.xxx, 24.251.118.xxx, 24ip, 2D Backfire Master, 4twenty42o, ;asipomnqwne, A.G. 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On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340224277 Contributors: Bigtimepeace, Charles Matthews, Davemckay, Ful.cleane, IZAK, Instinct, Lapaz, Lestrade, Mierk, Mtevfrog, OscarTheCat3, Pegship, Phthoggos, Skomorokh, Staffelde, Twas Now, Unimaxium, Woohookitty, 10 anonymous edits Untimely Meditations (Nietzsche) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363819609 Contributors: Abiyoyo, Alcmaeonid, Cantanchorus, Chef aka Pangloss, Davemckay, Filippof, Gene Nygaard, Justin E Richards, OscarTheCat3, PJinBoston, PlanBMatt, Rainer Lewalter, Skomorokh, Smerus, 12 anonymous edits Hymnus an das Leben Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=339822078 Contributors: Andymarczak, Chef aka Pangloss, Colonies Chris, DavidRF, Dual Freq, Filippof, Goethean, Good Olfactory, Igni, Jugander, Mtevfrog, Rigadoun, SingCal, SkeletorUK, Skomorokh Human, All Too Human Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363819790 Contributors: Abiyoyo, Alcmaeonid, Aquesenb, Callmarcus, Capt Jack Doicy, Chef aka Pangloss, ChrisG, Commentarian, DG, Davemckay, Dduff442, Ehmhel, Eidos123, Fastfission, Gaius Cornelius, Goethean, Hallmark, IZAK, Jahsonic, Jorunn, Kazza31, Lapaz, LazyLaidBackEditor, Lola Voss, Mtevfrog, NapoliRoma, Pegship, Phthoggos, RJHall, TOO, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tothebarricades.tk, Wareh, Wikiklrsc, 26 anonymous edits The Dawn (book) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363819733 Contributors: Abiyoyo, Alcmaeonid, GrahamHardy, Ketamino, Mission Fleg, Omnipaedista, Rory77, Shadowlapis, 2 anonymous edits The Gay Science Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363819761 Contributors: Abiyoyo, Aggelophoros, Alcmaeonid, Animum, Antientropic, AubreyEllenShomo, Bookandcoffee, Brian0918, Caton, Centrx, Chef aka Pangloss, Conscious, Crainquebille, Cryptic, Cultural Freedom, DanielCD, Deltabeignet, EEMIV, Ericoides, Euthydemos, Frank Shearar, Frymaster, Gene Nygaard, Glyphonhart, 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=371699877 Contributors: Abiyoyo, Alcmaeonid, AlphaEta, Crainquebille, DBaba, Duncharris, Fixer1234, Gwern, Ignatzmice, Ishmais, Jossi, KYPark, Leonig Mig, Lestrade, Lightmouse, Lola Voss, NeveudeRameau, Okamikoori, Paxse, RJC, Radimast, Rjwilmsi, Sebastian789, Selfless Hedonist, Skomorokh, Snake666, Tomomomomo, Tomsega, Uberzensch, 43 anonymous edits The Case of Wagner Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=367925179 Contributors: Alcmaeonid, Caton, Crainquebille, Defixio, Ericoides, Filippof, IZAK, Lapaz, Mtevfrog, Pegship, Phthoggos, Quine, Smerus, 12 anonymous edits Twilight of the Idols Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=361617687 Contributors: 5theye, Abatishchev, Alcmaeonid, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, DBaba, Esperant, Gimmetrow, Isaac siemens, J Milburn, Jason Quinn, Jasperdoomen, Jj137, Lambiam, Lola Voss, LordFoppington, Neelix, NeveudeRameau, Skomorokh, Zombify, 11 anonymous edits The Antichrist (book) Source: 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CWii, Ceoil, Chef aka Pangloss, Chick Bowen, Cultural Freedom, Edgar181, Elg fr, Goethean, Hurricane111, IZAK, Igiffin, Igni, Ironie, Is is Is, Johnhamer1974, Jugander, Kevinalewis, Kissekatt, Lapaz, Liamthevegan, Liface, Lockesdonkey, MosheA, Mtevfrog, MyNameIsNotBob, NeveudeRameau, Obradovic Goran, Phthoggos, Quadell, Reinyday, Rodrigo Cornejo, Ruzulo, Sam Francis, Skomorokh, Suaven, Tsiaojian lee, 28 anonymous edits Nietzsche contra Wagner Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=368579255 Contributors: Alcmaeonid, Anthony Krupp, Bordello, Colinclarksmith, Druworos, Filippof, Goethean, Good Olfactory, Hedwig Storch, IZAK, Koavf, Mtevfrog, NeveudeRameau, Non-vandal, Phthoggos, Skomorokh, Smerus, 6 anonymous edits The Will to Power (manuscript) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363819602 Contributors: 1000Faces, Abiyoyo, Aey, Alcmaeonid, Cethegus, Charles Matthews, Chef aka Pangloss, Cyberchimp, D.H, DBaba, DCB4W, Dave souza, DuO, Enigmaman, Esperant, Fratley, 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=371144098 Contributors: Anshelm, Barticus88, Belizefan, Bespantheos, Cultural Freedom, Dougweller, Drahkarr, Elimisteve, Fryd1e, Goethean, GrampaScience, GregorB, JHunterJ, Johnwalton, Karmak, Kathartic, Kyoko, Lapaz, Larklight, LoveMonkey, Madhava 1947, Pearle, Physicistjedi, RJC, Satanael, Skomorokh, Thaurisil, 38 anonymous edits Master-slave morality Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363314548 Contributors: A p3rson, Alan Dee, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Anshelm, Artiste-extraordinaire, BYF, Benja, Bill Sayre, Bleusoul, Carlon, Ebyabe, Ediderot, Estudiarme, Garrythefish, Goethean, Grenavitar, Iamthedeus, Igni, JForget, John Vandenberg, Kailjanii, Kintetsubuffalo, Kwsn, Leuqarte, Madhava 1947, Manda.L.Isch, Non-vandal, Nyctalopia, Pearle, Peter G Werner, Petrejo, Phocks, RepublicanJacobite, Sampi, Savidan, Siris972, Skomorokh, Squiddy, That Guy, From That Show!, Tide rolls, Ursaminor42, Vicenarian, Zazaban, 121 anonymous edits Nietzschean affirmation Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=325743679 Contributors: Argumzio, Darklilac, Misarxist, Quuxplusone, Skomorokh, Xkansas, 1 anonymous edits Perspectivism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=371764151 Contributors: Alansohn, Alcmaeonid, Alex.g, Aquatiki, Argumzio, BD2412, Barticus88, Batula, Bluemoose, CXJ13275, Closedmouth, Delphis, Dstlascaux, Eaefremov, Fabricationary, Fixer1234, Frap, Gaius Cornelius, Goethean, Grantsky, Gregbard, Hubacelgrand, Igni, Kbh3rd, LeeG, Letranova, Loremaster, M Alan Kazlev, Mentifisto, Mschel, NickPenguin, OlEnglish, Poccil, Quuxplusone, Revelations 117, SimonP, Skomorokh, Squiddy, Teveten, TubularWorld, UnidealisticIrrealist, Wandering Courier, Wassermann, 33 anonymous edits Ressentiment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363628176 Contributors: Andycjp, Barbara Shack, Bigturtle, Blackthornbrethil, DBaba, Dhartung, Dkrogers, Doczilla, Drewalanwalker, Earendilmm, Ewlyahoocom, Filippof, Goethean, GregorB, Gurch, Gyrofrog, Ihcoyc, Ingolfson, InnocuousPseudonym, Iota, Jujutacular, Kwamikagami, Lockesdonkey, Mattisse, Mendicant Scholar, Michael Hardy, Plechazunga, Poor Yorick, RainbowCrane, Robert Daoust, Robert Skyhawk, SSBDelphiki, Savidan, Sriramwins, Tingo25, Tmonzenet, Tonyfaull, VolatileChemical, 49 anonymous edits Transvaluation of values Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=343500185 Contributors: Alcmaeonid, Awakened crowe, DBaba, Matthew Fennell, RJC, Rjwilmsi, Sketch051, Skomorokh, Tonyfaull, 7 anonymous edits Tschandala Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=365055298 Contributors: Alcmaeonid, Chef aka Pangloss, Dbachmann, Gegik, Goethean, Graf Bobby, JanDeFietser, Kyoko, Lapaz, Negationsrat, R.J. Croton, Skomorokh, Ted Weinbaum, TheGrza, Tschandala, 8 anonymous edits bermensch Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=372168382 Contributors: AFreeSpiritToo, AajT, Aashay147, Adam Conover, Adam keller, Agathoclea, Akkolon, Alai, Alarichus, Alfakim, Altenmann, Amalas, AndonicO, Andries, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous from the 21st century, Banno, Barbara Shack, Belizefan, Bfschuman, Bill Sayre, Boogeeman, Boomshadow, Bpolhemus, Brooktroutman, Bulbaboy, CPMcE, Calair, Carnamagos, CarolGray, Catgut, Cielmort, Common Man, Cultural Freedom, DBaba, Dalek Cab, Damian Yerrick, DanielCD, Darwinek, Dave T Hobbit, Dbachmann, Denaar, DevOhm, Digitaldivinci, Disavian, Djinn112, Djmutex, Donama, Drahkarr, Egil, El C, ElationAviation, Emiao, Everyking, Exhilarator, FayssalF, Fierstein, Furby100, Furrykef, GTubio, Gaignun Kukai, GeorgeLouis, Goethean, Gogorin14, Good Intentions, Hairy Dude, Harvester, Hathaldir, Helix84, HiDrNick, Hibernian, Hq3473, ILike2BeAnonymous, IZAK, Igni, Invertzoo, J Di, J. 'mach' wust, JCraw, JPMH, Javierito92, Jeffq, Jkaplan, Jmabel, Johan Magnus, Jrsantana, Judge373, Justinbader, Kailjanii, Karmak, Karmos, Kelisi, Ketsuekigata, Kintetsubuffalo, KnightRider, Knucmo2, Korny O'Near, Koveras, KrcKrcKvrc, Kryston, Kukini, Kyriosity, Lacatosias, Lapaz, Leaderofthepeople, Leandrod, LeaveSleaves, LegendFSL, Leibniz, Lewiscode, Liimes, Lkak126, Lockesdonkey, Lordyama, Loremaster, Lucidish, Lyellin, MJDTed, Madcow248, Madhava 1947, Marcika, Marcusscotus1, Martijn Hoekstra, Mboverload, Merope, Mimihitam, Minhtung91, MishaPan, MisterMu, Moonraker12, Mulad, Mundilfari, Ned Scott, Niedson, Nightcrawler1089, Nikodemos, Noclevername, Non-vandal, NormanEinstein, Nosaj27, Nydas, Obliviox09, Olaf Simons, Ominae, Orphan Wiki, Ouroborosdross, Patrick, Pfistermeister, Pierre kynast, Piewalker, Plumbago, Porges, R.J. Croton, R9tgokunks, RJC, Radon210, Raven in Orbit, Rdsmith4, RepublicanJacobite, Revth, Rickmer, Ricky81682, Rjwilmsi, Rokus10, Rokus2000, Ropers, Rorrenigol, RoyBoy, Sam Korn, Sam Spade, Samchia2008, Sap123, Sauwelios, Scaife, Scarian, Sethmahoney, ShaunMacPherson, Shawnc, Sheert, Skomorokh, Smiloid, Smokizzy, Smyth, Sneebq, Snowded, Sobolewski, Sonjaaa, SpaceFrog, SpencerWilson, Spencerk, Squiddy, Stalmannen, Suriel1981, Symmetric Chaos, Taranet, Tarquin, The Anome, The.Filsouf, TheRaven7, Theorize, Timtrent, Timwi, Tom harrison, Twang, UserVOBO, Vanished User 03, VeryVerily, VikRandell, Violncello, Vokation, Wadayow, Wafulz, Waggers, Waltersobchak, Wandering Courier, Wasted Sapience, Wayland, Wereon, Wilfredo Martinez, WillOakland, Yoghurt, Yorkshirian, Z10x, Zambini845, Zazaban, Zylinder, 461 anonymous edits World riddle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=333752946 Contributors: Anarchia, Andycjp, Chowbok, Dekimasu, Gregbard, LFaraone, Leondumontfollower, Mtmelendez, Oatmeal batman, Paul Barlow, Skomorokh, Viande hache, Wikid77, Yossarian, 6 anonymous edits Will to power Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=369245023 Contributors: AsianAstronaut, Benja, Chacufc, D.H, Didactohedron, Epbr123, Ericorbit, FlaviaC, Garrisonroo, Gyro Copter, J04n, Lapaz, Leondumontfollower, Mimihitam, Minhtung91, Nectarflowed, Paine Ellsworth, Pmj, RJC, Recognizance, RepublicanJacobite, Rjwilmsi, Skomorokh, Smyth, Trevor MacInnis, Velho, YUL89YYZ, Yorkshirian, Zazaban, 40 anonymous edits Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=363337639 Contributors: AustralianMelodrama, CABlankenship, Chef aka Pangloss, Colonies Chris, DBaba, Eduen, EyeSerene, Filippof, Gates91, Goethean, Gregbard, Hardyplants, Hmains, Justjennifer, Lapaz, LightSpectra, MelmothX, Mephistophelian, Pharos, PhilipDSullivan, Picatrix, PigFlu Oink, Rjwilmsi, Rodrigo Cornejo, SSJKamui, Samael775, Skomorokh, SwedishMagician, Transform.everything, UserVOBO, Viator slovenicus, Wandering Courier, Woohookitty, 77 anonymous edits

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File:Portrait of Friedrich Nietzsche.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Portrait_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas Gun Image:Friedrich Nietzsche Signature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Friedrich_Nietzsche_Signature.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Friedrich Nietzsche Image:Nietzsche1861.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nietzsche1861.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anton, Aurevilly, Schaengel89 Image:1864c.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1864c.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Caton, Chef Image:Rohde Gersdorff Nietzsche.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rohde_Gersdorff_Nietzsche.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Friedrich Henning, photographer at Naumburg Image:Nietzsche187a.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nietzsche187a.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: F. Hartmann Image:Nietzsche paul-ree lou-von-salome188.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nietzsche_paul-ree_lou-von-salome188.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anton, Aurevilly, Common Good, Daniel 1992, Infrogmation, Nouly, Schaengel89, 5 anonymous edits Image:Nietzsche Olde 02.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nietzsche_Olde_02.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Chef Image:Eh-dm-27.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eh-dm-27.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Chef, Flominator, Maksim Image:Nietzsche1882.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nietzsche1882.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Gustav-Adolf Schultze Image:Nietzsche Archives in Weimar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nietzsche_Archives_in_Weimar.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:BetacommandBot, User:DWRZ, User:Shakko, User:XcepticZP Image:The Birth of Tragedy.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Birth_of_Tragedy.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Skomorokh Image:HL74.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HL74.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Chef Image:HL_Fr_30-2-.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HL_Fr_30-2-.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Chef Image:Morgenrthe.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Morgenrthe.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Caton, Infrogmation File:FW82.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FW82.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chef Image:Also sprach Zarathustra.GIF Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Also_sprach_Zarathustra.GIF License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Glyphonhart at en.wikipedia File:Beyond Good And Evil first edition.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beyond_Good_And_Evil_first_edition.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: C. G. Naumann, publisher Image:Genealogie der Moral cover.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Genealogie_der_Moral_cover.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: C. G. Naumann, publisher File:The Anti-christ.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Anti-christ.jpg License: unknown Contributors: CaNNoNFoDDa, Skier Dude, Skomorokh Image:Ecce Homo 1908.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ecce_Homo_1908.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chick Bowen Image:Nietzsche contra Wagner.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nietzsche_contra_Wagner.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Skomorokh Image:Egypt.KV6.04.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Egypt.KV6.04.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Aoineko, Gospodar svemira, Hajor, JMCC1, Juiced lemon, Marcus Cyron, Mmcannis, Neithsabes Image:Ouroboros.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ouroboros.png License: unknown Contributors: User:Ihcoyc Image:Ernst Haeckel 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ernst_Haeckel_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ArtMechanic, Umherirrender Image:FWNietzscheSiebe.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FWNietzscheSiebe.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Nagelfar at en.wikipedia

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