AP World History Societal Comparison Chart

Xinhui Liao

Economic Characteristics
China There was a division in China between the upper class, who possessed large areas of land, as well as wealth, and the middle and lower class. The masses consisted of peasants who farmed the land, and produced only what was needed for themselves, if not only slightly more. The land owning class, however, made up only about 2% of the population, while the peasants worked both under these lords and owned their own land. In the rice-growing regions of China, property was owned and regulated by either the village or the extended family, and the Chinese peasants in these regions often relied on cooperation between individuals as a result. Agriculture improved with the invention of implements such as the ox-drawn plow, and collars that allowed draft animals to pull plows and wagons. Water powered mills were also invented during the Han dynasty, which allowed for gains in manufacturing. Trade occurred internally within the state, usually involving luxury items that were produced for the upper class, such as jewelry, silk, furniture, and leather. There was also trade that occurred between the regions of China that produced rice, and the regions that produced wheat, and the circulation of copper coins encouraged trade as well, with some merchants engaging in commercial trade with India. However, despite the significance of trade within China, Chinese society was never centered around trade, as the Confucian ideas of political service and education overshadowed that of business. Little trade occurred with other civilizations during the beginnings of the Chinese civilization. Mountains and deserts to the west of China formed natural barriers that made access difficult. However, later through the Silk Roads, a network of trade routes through the mountains and plateaus of central Asia, some contact with the western world occurred. The government had an active role in the economy. It regulated iron and salt production, as well as standardized weights, measurements, and currency.

India The Indian subcontinent, while not as isolated as China, was separated from the rest of Asia to the north by the Himalayan Mountains, though passes through the mountains allowed access to the Middle East. The two main agricultural regions of India were along the Indus and Ganges Rivers, where the first civilizations emerged, though a herding economy also emerged within the mountainous areas to the north.

Farming in India is heavily dependent on the monsoon rains which arrive in the summer. However, monsoons vary yearly, at times coming later, or bringing insufficient or too much rain, bringing drought, famine, or floods. As a result farmers had to adapt to the varying monsoon rains, harvesting two crops in years with abundant yields in preparation for possible starvation the next year. Economic life was mainly dictated by the caste system, as it described the occupations that one was allowed to hold within their caste. India reached a height in technological advancement, excelling in steel production and with a mastery of iron making. India also had an advanced textile industry, producing cotton cloth, calico, and cashmere. Guilds consisting of artisans and who sold their goods from personal shops carried out much of the manufacturing. In comparison to China, merchants were relatively high on the caste system, and placed a great emphasis on trade. Merchants traveled both overland and by sea routs to the Middle East, east Asia, and southeast Asia. The Tamils of southern India traded silks, dyes, gold and ivory and brought pottery, wine, metals, slaves, and gold from the Middle East and Rome.

Mediterranean A large percentage of the Greek and Roman population were farmers. However, in Greece, farming was complicated by the soil conditions, as much of the land was unfitted for growing grain, the primary staple crop. Crops such as grapes and olives were suited for the soil, but required farmers to sell their crop in order to buy food they needed. In addition, grape and olive crops didn t produce fruit for several years after planting, leaving farmers in debt. Large landowners, as a result, were given an advantage, as they had the capital necessary for planting olive trees and grape vines. Greek city states and Rome participated in commercial agriculture. Colonies were developed in the Middle East and Sicily for access to grain, and in turn they traded olive oil, wine, and silver, as well as manufactured products. Other kinds of trade were also central to the economy, luxury products enhanced the lifestyle of the upper class, and there was a demand for goods from areas such as India and China, like spices and artistic products. In Greek society, the status of the merchant class was somewhat ambiguous, though they enjoyed relative high status in Rome, being the second highest social class beneath the landowning patricians. Merchants had higher status in the Mediterranean than in China, though less in comparison to India. Slaves were frequently used in Greco-Roman society, as both laborers and household servants. Estate owners in the Roman empire used slaves as an agricultural labor force, as well as household tutors, or for working in the mines.

Political Characteristics
China

China stressed a strong, centralized government in keeping unity within the state. The Qin dynasty, especially placed an emphasis on central authority. The Qin emperor Shi HuangDi developed a single law code and a uniform system of taxation, looking upon local rulers with suspicion. Governors were also appointed to different areas of the state in order to carry out legal and military duties in his name. The governors also placed other officials in charge of smaller regions, creating a model of centralized government that would shape those of other societies. Ministers were appointed by the emperor to deal with matters of finance, justice, and military operations, further improving upon the effectiveness and efficiency of central government. The Han dynasty also attacked local landlords, and also created a skilled bureaucracy in order to manage the affairs of the state. The Han dynasty was the first to employ civil service tests in order to ensure that those working in government offices were capable of effectively carrying out their duties. A school was established in order to train men with talent and ability for these examinations, though most bureaucrats came from the upper classes, as they were able to afford an education, though theoretically the system was inclusive to members of any social class. This system established a value on scholars, which became a vital part of China s political tradition. The government was active in sponsoring research and record keeping, played an active role in the economy, and sponsored public works such as the construction of irrigation systems and canals. The Chinese justice system employed a strict law code involving torture and execution, which enforced obedience and virtue within the state.

India Unity within the Indian subcontinent itself was difficult to achieve, with no single official language, and loose government structures. India s most prominent political feature was regionalism, with local rulers maintaining regional control as long as they acknowledged the dominance of the ruler. The early Mauryan rulers depended on their armies, while the Gupta rulers claimed that they were appointed by the gods to consolidate support. While the Guptas did develop a taxation system, they did not create a bureaucracy, allowing for local governments instead. Uniform law codes were developed during the Gupta dynasty, and government sponsored public works did take place, such as in the building of public roads. Government also had an involvement in cultural life, influencing art and literature. Little attention was paid to politics in comparison to China and the Mediterranean civilizations, and priests were often seen as sources of authority.

Mediterranean

Politics played a major role in Mediterranean civilization, up through the early Roman empire. The respected life led by an upper class Athenian or Roman citizen would involve participation in politics and discussions regarding state affairs. Citizens of city-states felt an obligation towards the government of their state, accounting for the stress placed on the importance of politics. Democracy, deriving from the Greek word meaning the people, was a form of government that made an appearance. It was most evident in the Greek city-state of Athens, which participated in a direct democracy. Here, state decisions were carried through by general assemblies that met every ten days, in which every citizen could participate. Executive officers served only brief terms, were chosen by lot, and were subject to review by the assembly. The principle was that every citizen could serve as an executive official, though only a minority was active citizens and women could not participate in politics. Other Greek city states were governed by an aristocracy, in which the wealthy led the state. Many leaders, even in Athens, were aristocrats, and many Greeks believed that political virtue was found within the upper class. In the Roman republic, citizens could gather in assemblies, which served for the purpose of electing officials, some of which represent the interests of the common people. The Senate was the presiding legislative body, with its members holding a large percentage of the executive offices, and composed almost entirely of aristocrats. Primary executive power was shared between two consuls, though a dictator could be chosen by the Senate in times of crisis. The Roman Republic introduced the Twelve Tables of Law around 450 BCE, a unified law code that served to limit the power of the upper class, as well as to stress that they weren t exempt from certain legal principles.

Cultural Characteristics

China Cultural values in China emphasized loyalty to the state, and a harmonious existence on earth, with little thought paid to a defined deity. Chinese culture differed from that of the other classical civilizations in its secularism. A code of politeness was encouraged following the use of chopsticks, which began during the reign of the Zhou dynasty, followed by the introduction of tea, leading into elaborate rituals later on. Confucian thought was a major part of Chinese culture. He spent his life teaching, and sharing his ideas for political virtue and a solid government. Confucius believed that this began with a veneration for traditional values and virtuous conduct. This included respect for superiors, from which derived his five basic human relationships, and placed emphasis on a proper social hierarchy. However, he also believed that leaders should be modest, and that leaders should be men possessing ability and wisdom. Loyalty to one s community was stressed, and education and intellectual thinking were strongly encouraged.

The social hierarchy consisted of the emperor at the top of the social pyramid, followed by the government officials and wealthy landowners. Below them were the middle class, consisting of merchants and artisans, and finally the peasants. While slaves were used, they weren t central to overall production, and although peasants were at the bottom of the social pyramid, the importance of their role was acknowledged. Chinese society was patriarchal, with men holding important jobs and government offices. Confucian thinkers stated that women should be subordinate to men, but that men should nevertheless treat women decently. In addition, women played an important role in farming communities, where they worked in the fields alongside their husbands, and contributed to the overall crop yield. Women also held power within their household when presiding over the children, who were taught to revere and obey their parents without question.

India Indian society was greatly influenced by the caste system. Each caste had separate rules for the member of the caste, including the assignment of jobs. At the top were the warrior and governing class, the Kshatriyas, and the priests, or Brahmins, followed by Vaisyas, the traders and farmers, and the Sudras, or laborers. At the bottom of the social pyramid were the Untouchables, who were confined to a few jobs, and were excluded from normal society. One s caste was hereditary, and generally people stayed in the caste they were born in for their entire lives, as mobility between castes was essentially impossible. However, through the accumulation of wealth and through success in one s job, an individual is capable of moving higher up within their own caste. Hinduism was the main religion of the Indian civilization. It has no known founder, no single holy figure, and developed over many centuries, beginning with the Aryan religion. The nature of Hinduism is fluid and adaptable, and changes with the needs of a group. The belief of Hinduism incorporates a holy essence known as the brahma, which formed a part of everything in this world, and in which every living creature participates. The essence of brahma forms a triad with the gods Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer. Hindus believe that a proper life is one that is devoted to seeking a holy union with this soul, a journey that may take more than one lifetime. As a result, Hinduism includes the principle of reincarnation, that the soul is born again after the body dies, though where the soul goes depends on the life that has just been led. After many lives, a union with the soul of brahma is finally reached, and is freed from worldly suffering. Buddhism was another religion that arose in India. It was founded by an Indian prince, Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as the Buddha, or Enlightened One. Buddhism incorporates several ideas from Hinduism, such as the concept of reincarnation, but rejects others, like the caste system. Buddhism teaches that the ultimate goal is to reach a realm where suffering no longer exists, to achieve true enlightenment, or nirvana. Buddhism stressed selfcontrol, and leading a holy life without excess. Like China and the Mediterranean, Indian society was patriarchal, with the husband and father having authority in a household. Like in the other civilizations, though, women did make

economic contributions, as is characteristic of agricultural civilizations. More limits were imposed on women than on men. Marriages were arranged, daughters, especially, were entered into contracts at early ages in order to ensure economic ties. Women did have status as wives and mothers in Indian society and this was acknowledged in Indian culture, and the emotions and beauty of women were also celebrated in literature. Indian art was lively and colorful, and showed an appreciation of nature. Representations of humans were more stylized as opposed to realistic. The Indians also produced discoveries in mathematics, such as the Arabic numbering system, and calculations of the value of Pi, as well as scientific discoveries, including research into inoculation, and knowledge of the importance of sterilizing wounds.

Mediterranean The Greeks and Romans practiced a polytheistic religion involving humanoid gods and goddess which regulated aspects of human life as well as forces of nature. The Greek and Roman gods were featured in stories and literary works, often illustrating the flawed nature of humans. The religion lacked spiritual involvement, however, and common workers and peasants found it difficult to hold on to in times of distress. While mythology provided explanation for how the world came to be, they left little room for inquiry, and did not provide a basis for thinking. As a result, a separate model of ethical conduct was sought and created by philosophers, such as Aristotle and Cicero. Greco-Roman civilization was well known for its artistic and literary achievements. Inspired by the official religion, temples, statues, and literary works were constructed and written in honor of the gods. In addition, artists also sought to portray realistically the human form, and the gods and goddesses represented characters for poets to question and describe human nature. The famous epics of Homer, the Iliad and Odyssey, as well as Vergil s Aeneid were written during this time period. The Greeks were also known for their dramas, which played a frontline role in the culture. The Romans made remarkable feats in engineering. They created an extensive road system that linked the state, as well as a system of aqueducts to carry water. The Romans were also known for their use of the arch in order to support structures of immense weight. Like the Chinese and Indian civilizations, Greco-Roman civilization was patriarchal. Men held jobs and government offices, and had access to an education, while women had no rights in political participation. The husband and father was the clear ruler of the household, though upper class women had significant power in managing the household, as well as taking care of the children. Social inequalities presented themselves in the ratio of the patricians to the plebeians. Patricians made up only about 2% of the Roman population, with yet controlled much of the wealth, and the land, and had the most influence in matters of politics.