INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION I

COURSE CODE: PUB 101

Credit load: 2 Course lecturer : Course Objectives By the end of the course, the student will be able to:  analyze The nature of Public Administration  Similarities and differences between Public Administration and Business Administration

 Functions of Public Administration.  Schools or conceptual approaches to the study of Public Administration.  Decision-making models .  Classification or typologies of organizations.

Symbols and Acronyms

No special symbols and acronyms will be used in this course. COURSE DESCRIPTION:  The nature of Public Administration  Similarities and differences between Public Administration and Business Administration

 Functions of Public Administration  Schools or conceptual approaches to the study of Public Administration  Decision-making models  Classification or typologies of organizations

Introduction Dear students, you are welcome to this new semester and to this course. PUB 101 helps to provide a stepping stone in regard to your B.Sc. Programme in Public Administration. It introduces the basic concepts of the course to the student. The course is going to help you in future as a foundation stone in the programme, not to have a grip of PUB 101 is to be involved in something akin to reckless driving. Aim of the course This course will seek to develop students generic skills in a range of areas of public administration. It will seeks to develop students abilities in the following: Critical analysis skills. Creative thinking skills. Communication skills. About taking the Course General Information: Students in this course should read this study guide carefully at the start of semester because it contains important information about the course. Students are expected to do the following: Read and assimilate the study materials provided and prescribed in the course work. Review other study materials made available e.g. audio or audio-visual, video productions. Take the practice test. Attend and review the virtual class lecture. Take the examination Further information that is particularly important to students -NOTE: You must score at least 70% to pass the exam. -TIP: Taking the practice test improves your chances of success.

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Preparing for the examination This study guide will provide you with the in-depth knowledge you will need in order to prepare for the examination. A PowerPoint presentation has been included in this study material. The sample questions and practice test at the end of each lecture module and the course will help you assess your knowledge before you take the examination. The prescribed course book is not required to pass the examination; however, it will provide excellent additional information concerning this course and help you to excel in the tests and examination. Prerequisites The student must have the basic knowledge of public administration before sitting for the exam Assessments Forms of assessments will consist of the following: Collaboration with other students on blog sites, Assignments and tests, Participation in virtual classes, Examination, Special Warning. Penalties on Plagiarism may include: Deduction of marks, Failure in the course, Referral to the Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Disciplinary Committee. Course Module 1. The nature of public administration. Outline  Introduction,  Aims and objectives,  The main differences in the roles of public administration in the developed and developing countries.

INTRODUCTION Public Administration as a way of carrying out governmental activities does exist in both the developing and developed countries of the world. The nations of Western Europe, North America and English speaking dominions of the British. Commonwealth is usually recognized as developed societies. The newly Independent poor countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America are called developing countries. We should bear in mind that public administration is ecological and culture bound. Hence, the nature and role of public administration are greatly influenced by the environmental conditions of the society in which it functions, be it developed or developing. For this reason the role-played by public administration in developed countries differs from the role played by it in developing countries This unit is going to look at the role played by public administration in both developed and developing countries. The unit also explains the characteristics of public administration in the developed and developing countries, the characteristics of public administration in developing countries and further stress the differences between them and areas of inter-relationship. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: -Explain the characteristics of Public Administration in developed and developing countries. -Explain the characteristics of Public Administration in Developing countries. -Examine the differences between public administration in developed and developing countries. -And point out the areas of interrelationships THE MAIN DIFFERENCES IN THE ROLES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN THE DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ARE AS FOLLOWS

1. In the developed post industrial societies administration plays limited role. In these societies the highly developed and widespread infrastructure is owned and managed by private organizations. The public administrators regulate private sector to promote accelerated development and to provide services to the people efficiently. In the 144 developing countries public administration has a major and significant role to play in bringing about the much-needed socioeconomic changes in society. In the developing societies the government is required to create the necessary infrastructure and manage it. Agencies and organizations have to be established by governments for rendering social welfare services. There is high degree of reliance on public administration as an instrument to achieve developmental goals. 2. In the developed societies public administrators have to tackle the problems of increasing crime and serious social problems such as rape, violence, drug addiction, etc., which pose threats to the public s welfare. They deal with complex problems, which demand complex solutions. They have to solve such problems with the help of advanced technological techniques. They have to perform increasingly complex managerial tasks. In other words, the difficult challenges faced by public administrators demand unprecedented expertise and sensibility on their part. Contrastingly, the problems faced by public administration in the developing societies are quite different. They include such problems as poverty, unemployment, poor health, low agricultural and industrial productivity, etc. The problems have posed a formidable challenge for public

administrators of the developing societies. Usually the bureaucracies are deficient in skilled manpower for developmental programmes. 3. Public administration of the developed societies is influenced by developments of science and technology. Hence, public administrators have to familiarize themselves with fast changing scientific discoveries and technological techniques for managing human affairs. In the developing countries public administration is greatly influenced by developed economy and the challenges of socio-economic development. The developing countries depend on their government for all crucial decisions regarding economic developments. These societies have limited material and human resources for development. Because of scarcity of resources, governments of the developing societies intervene in social life by laying down major priorities and goals of government. 4. Public administration in developed societies is pragmatic and production oriented. Public administrators are loyal to the organization and committee to achieve it s objectives. Bureaucracy no longer conforms to the traditional Weberian model. It is passing through the post-Weberian phase of development. Bureaucracies in the developing societies emphasize orientations that are other than production directed. Much of the bureaucratic activity is diverted towards the non-developmental goals and non-productive operations. Loyalty to the organization or its mission is not powerful The major characteristics of public Administration in Developing countries : The countries refer to as developing are so called developing because of what they do and have in common. They exhibit the following common features.

1. Commonly shared colonial past: The developing countries commonly share a colonial past. As a result of the protracted colonial and imperial exploitation, these countries have underdeveloped economies and are in the grip of a deep crisis. In these societies, the national income per head is very low. 2. Facing similar problems: The developing countries are facing similar problems such as poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, population explosion, social stagnation, poor health, malnutrition, and low agricultural and industrial productivity. These problems have posed a formidable challenge for the governments of the developing nations. 3. Majority of the rural peoples are in the earthly stages of development: the vast majority of the rural masses in the developing countries are in the early stages of socio-economic development. The developmental process, which is usually an unbalanced one, favours the urban elite or the dominant rural groups. It does not give much importance to the vast majority of the rural poor. 4. Political instability: Political instability continues to affect social order and economical developments in the developing countries. Political instability is caused by economic frustrations and feelings of discrimination among diverse religious, linguistic, caste, ethnic, and tribal groups. The state and government of these countries have a responsibility of dealing with these dark forces, which are threatening their social fabric and blocking their economic development. 5. Heterogeneous picture of administration: The developing societies present a heterogeneous picture of old and new, traditional and modern in organizational forms and administrative behaviour. The developmental process reflects this division.

6. An instrument of developmental goals: In the developing societies, there is high degree of reliance on public administration as an instrument to achieve developmental goals: socio-economic progress and nation building. The political leaders of these countries widely shares commitment to these goals. They aim at progressive transformation of their societies through public administration. Hence, government centralizes the process of development. POLINAIDU in a similar vein simply observed that the characteristics of public administration in developing countries have been inherited from their ex-colonial rulers. Public administrations in the developing countries have certain general features, which are indicative of its nature. The most important of them are briefly dealt with as under: 146 The imitative pattern of public administration: The basic pattern of public administration in the developing countries is imitative rather than indigenous. Usually, the administrative system of a developing country resembles that of its ex-colonial ruler of western nation. The inherited administrative system is authoritarian, elitist, and distant from people. An acute shortage of skilled and trained manpower: The bureaucracies are deficient in skilled manpower necessary for developmental programmes. There is an acute shortage of trained administrators with management capacity, developmental skills, people-oriented outlook and technical competence. bureaucracy is very much concerned with non-productive operators: Much of the bureaucracy activity in the developing countries is diverted towards the non-developmental goals and non-productive operations. Loyalty to the organization or it s mission is not a powerful ethic among the bureaucrats. They use administrative methods to extend their personal

power without reference to the goals of the organization. Widespread discrepancy between form and reality in administrative practice: There is widespread discrepancy between form and reality, i.e. between the formally prescribed forms and their practice. Riggs has labelled this phenomenon as Formalism Because of formalism the official behaviour of public officials does not correspond to the legal status although public officials insist on following laws, rules and regulations. Thus, bureaucracy in the developing countries is Weberian in form but not in content. Operational autonomy: Bureaucracy in the developing countries enjoys an unusual degree of operational autonomy. This is because of bureaucracies near monopoly on technical expertise in administrative matters. The bureaucrats enjoy maximum power without effective control over it. This is because constitutional accountability system in the developing countries lacks implementation due to the politicization of administration. Over-lapping in the political and administrative functions: There is also overlapping in the political and administrative structures and in their functions. In the developing countries, it is not uncommon for bureaucrats to interfere in political policy-making. This privilege they enjoy because they monopolize some central functions and become the major interest group. An administrative system having the above bureaucratic traits was strong enough in the performance of regulatory and extractive functions of colonial governments. But it was found to be ineffective and inefficient to carry out promotional and developmental tasks. CONCLUSION In the developing countries the administrative system inherited from the ex-colonial rulers was reasonably efficient in serving the interests of it s

colonial master, namely, to dominate and oppress the natives, and to perform functions mostly of a regulatory and extractive nature. The inherited administrative system is characterized by (i) rigid organization structures. (ii) Cumbersome procedures, (iii) elitists, authoritarian, conservative outlook, (iv) corruption (v) aloofness from the common people (viii) lack of necessary technical skills and competence is and found to be grossly inadequate and unsuitable for developmental tasks. Further, public administrators steeped in the colonial administrative traditions and rigidly tied to the notions of bureaucratic status and hierarchy may be less useful. Development administrators in the post colonial administrative traditions who are rigidly tied to the nation s bureaucratic status and hierarchy may be less useful as development effort in rural areas is guided by neither any concern for the poor nor any clearcut social purpose. For the reasons stated in the preceding paragraph, the inherited administrative system is not suitable for the purpose of developing an efficient public administration. For the same reasons, the problem of big gap between the policy and it s implementation, the promise and it s performance exists in almost all developing countries of the Third World. The preceding discussion clearly shows that the administrative system in the developing countries is a source of frustration for the policy makers and the public alike in achieving developmental objectives. Hence, there is urgent need to phase-out the entire system and to promote attitudinal change and structures that can be ecologically adapted to our peculiar case. This change is needed to increase the integrity, efficiency and effectiveness of government officials and make them truly motivated and community needs oriented.

SUMMARY We have been able to discuss in this unit the differences between the public administration in developing countries and developed countries. In the developed post industrial societies, administration plays limited role since infrastructure is owned and managed by private organizations while in the developing societies the government is required to create the necessary infrastructure and manage it. We have explained the characteristics of public administration in developing countries to include commonly shared political past, population explotion, unbalanced development and political instability among others. The unit further explains the importance of public administration in developing countries to include setting the right development goals, utilising material and human resources, support for development efforts, developing a sense of nation hood and helping democracy to survive. The problems of public administration in developing countries can be overcome through flexible action-oriented initiatives, professionalising task, 148 attitudinal change and the simplification of rules and regulations that will reduce red-tapism.

Read more: http://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/NOUN_OCL/pdf/pdf2/BHM%20625%20Main%20Course%20%28Mrs %20Dayil%29.pdf Assessments question

1.List and explain the aims and objectives of public administration Course Module 2 Similarities and differences between public administration and business administration

Outline ADMINISTRATION OF A BUSINESS Administrator

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Similarities and differences between Public Administration and businesses administration PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its "fundamental goal... is to advance management and policies so that government can function. Some of the various definitions which have been offered for the term are: "the management of public programs" the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day and "the study of government decision making, the analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputs that have produced them, and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies. Public administration is "centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programmes as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct .Many unelected public servants can be considered to be public administrators, including heads of city, county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors, HRadministrators, city managers, Census managers, state [mental health]directors, and cabinet secretaries. Public administrators are public servants working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of government. In the US, civil servants and academics such as Woodrow Wilson promoted American civil service reform in the 1880s, moving public administration into academia. However, "until the mid-20th century and the dissemination of the German sociologist Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy" there was not "much interest in a theory of public administration. The field is multidisciplinary in character; one of the various proposals for public administration's subfields sets out five pillars, including human resources, organizational theory, policy analysis and statistics, budgeting, and ethics. ADMINISTRATION OF A BUSINESS consists of the performance or management of business operations and thus the making or implementing of a major decision. Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives. The word is derived from the Middle English word administracioun, which is in turn derived from the French administration, itself derived from the Latin administratio a compounding of ad ("to") and ministratio ("give service"). Administrator can serve as the title of the general manager or company secretary who reports to a corporate board of directors. This title is archaic, but, in many enterprises, this function, together with its associated Finance, Personnel and management information systems services, is what is intended when the term "the administration" is used. In some organizational analyses, management is viewed as a subset of administration, specifically associated with the technical and mundane elements within an organization's operation. It stands distinct from executive or strategic work.

In other organizational analyses, administration can refer to the bureaucratic or operational performance of mundane office tasks, usually internally oriented and reactive rather than proactive. The world's first business school, the Ecole Suprieure de Commerce de Paris, France, was established in 1819. The first business school in the United States, the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, was founded in 1881. Anecdotically, top French business school HEC was also created in 1881, while Harvard Business School, founded in 1908, was born just one year after France's prestigious ESSEC Business School. Read more: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_administration http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_of_business Assessments question

1. List and explain the similarities and differences between public administration and business administration Course Module 3 Functions of Public Administration

Highlights  Evolution and growth of public administration ADVANTAGES OF STUDYING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION purpose of the study of public administration SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION As the Basis of Government An Instrument for Implementing Laws and Policies Participation in Policy Formulation A Great Stabilizing Force in Society Provides Continuity when Government Change provides a wide Variety of Services in the Public Interest Protective functions Management of public enterprises An Instrument of Social Change and Economic Development EVOLUTION AND GROWTH OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Public administration as an activity is as old as civilization but as an academic discipline is a little over a hundred years old. This, however, does not mean by implication that thinkers in earlier ages had never said anything significant about public administration. Functioning of the governmental machinery has attracted the attention of scholars and administrators since the earliest periods of history. Kautilya s Arthashastra, the Mahabharata, the Ramayana and the maxims and teachings of Confucius in the realm of Oriental thought contain many profound observations about the organization and working of government. In the history of western political thought, Aristotle s politics and Machiavelli s The Prince are important contributions to administrative thought and practice. Scattered thoughts, however, do not constitute a discipline though it is interesting to note that even without systematic teaching and study of the subject, great cities, public works and monuments have been built, vast empires administered, huge armies organized, taxes collected, effective law and order maintained and enforced throughout history. Therefore, public administration as an activity proceeded long before systematic study of the subject began in the eighteenth century. Official academic status to the discipline did not come until World War I when professional chairs in public administration were established and subject textbooks published. Only when governments could be differentiated from other societal institutions and their activities developed to the point where professional administrators were indispensable for their effective performance, could modern public administration emerge. The term public administration began to creep into European languages during the seventeenth century to distinguish between the absolute monarch s administration of public affairs and his management of his private household. The contemporary discipline arose out of the

bureaucratization of the nation-state when the church was separated from the state and government was superimposed on all other social institutions within a definite territory. (Paulinadu, 2005:4) Modern public administration was first taught as a part of the training course of public officials-on-probation in Prussia. The subject was largely compiled and taught in a descriptive manner by professors of cameral sciences, which then included all knowledge considered necessary for the governance of an absolutist state. The cameralist approach continued to influence European studies in public administration well into the twentieth century, until it was replaced by the administrative law and legal studies approach. Ideologically cameralism gave way to bureaucracy. Civil service recruits had to study administrative law and gradually all over Europe including Nigeria public service training schools started offering courses on administrative law and public administration. ADVANTAGES OF STUDYING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION The studies of public administration as a field of activity and an area of intellectual inquiry have both utilitarian and intellectual objectives. The original purpose of the study of public administration was not to cultivate knowledge for its own sake. Instead, its purpose was explicitly utilitarian. The study of administration was directed at the twin pursuits of reforming government and training civil servants. Woodrow Wilson was the first to articulate the principles underlying the civil service reform movement in the USA. Wilson declared that the central purpose of the study of public administration was to discover and establish a set of valid principles and the most efficient ways of organizing and running the executive branch of government. Thus, Administrative theory grew in the late nineteenth century and the early

twentieth century with the primary objective of making government more effective and economical in its working thereby promoting governance. This goal is still important. However gradually, the study of public administration has also acquired certain intellectual objectives. The benefits or the advantages of the study of public administration may be briefly stated as follows. The study of public administration: i. Helps the student learn the basic concepts, principles and theories of public administration. ii. Helps explain the purposes, functions, and continuation of government bureaucracy. iii. Provides knowledge of public organizations and the context and methods by which they operate. iv. Promotes a superior understanding of government and its relationship with the society it governs and thus it enables us to learn more about how our country is governed. v. Is useful as training for citizenship and for preparing citizens for an active participation in the process of democratic governance. vi. Makes us learn how to promote the public interest more effectively. vii. Promotes among the people an awareness of the importance of the administrative activity in their lives. viii. Is useful to make public policies, which are more responsive to public needs. ix. As an applied discipline, provides knowledge which is helpful to the policy makers and to those who implement policies, and x. Prepares students for employment in the government services and makes them aware of the opportunities and challenges of the public service and thus is useful as a self-serving investment.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Public administration lies at the centre of modern society, which has witnessed the emergence of the Administrative State . In the administrative state public administration has become all encompassing and affect the lives of the people from the womb to the tomb since the end of the second world war governmental activities have increased manifold and became more complex and pervasive. Public administration has undergone far-reaching changes both in its objectives and functions. Consequently public administrators have entered new functional areas. They are grappling with new problems in administering public affairs. It is recognized that public administration plays crucial role in all societies-developed and developing. In the modern administrative state,public administration has become so significant that our development, upliftment and progress depend mainly upon the efficient functioning of public administration. The different roles played by public administration in the modern society may be analyzed under the following heads: As the Basis of Government Public administration serves as the basis of government. A government can exist without a legislature or an independent judiciary. But no government can exist without administrative machinery. Paul H. Appleby remarks, without administration government would be a discussion club, if indeed it could exist at all. All nations, irrespective of their system of government, require some sort of administrative machinery for implementing public policies. Thus, public administration has been the instrument of ancient empires, of monarchies of both democracies and dictatorship, of both developed and developing nations. As an activity public administration cuts across different political ideologies such as

capitalism or socialism. Administrative principles as such have no particular ideology at heart. Administration is conceived as a purely neutral instrument. An Instrument for Implementing Laws and Policies Public administration is responsible for implementing the laws and policies of government. In doing this public administration plays a crucial role. By carrying out laws, it regulates the behaviour of the people in society. By implementing public policies and programmes, it delivers the promised goods and services to the intended beneficiaries. It is said that the ideals and objectives of government may be very popular, the plans for national development may be extremely progressive and the national resources of the country may be abundant, but without an efficient administration nothing can be achieved. In other words, even the good objectives of the best policies and laws of a government may remain as mere paper declarations of intent, if the administrative machinery does not function efficiently and honestly. An efficient public administration can avoid waste, correct errors; limit the consequences of incompetence, or irresponsibility while implementing laws and public policies. Thus public administration acts as an instrument for translating plans, laws and policies into reality. As A.D. Gorwala remarks, in a democracy there can be no successful planning without a clear, efficient and impartial administration . Participation in Policy Formulation According to Dimock and Dimock, Adminstration In the modern world bureaucracy is the chief policy maker in government . It is a source of facts and experience as well as of ideas and solution of public problems. In modern democracies public administrators participate in policy making by

giving advice to ministers and providing them the necessary information 26 (i.e., facts and figures) which is relevant for policy formulation. As Sir Josiah Stamp says, the officials must be the main spring of the new society, suggesting, promoting and advising at every stage . The administrative tasks of public bureaucracy include formulation of policies and plans, executing and monitoring programmes, laying down laws rules and regulations, which affect human actions in almost all walks of life. A Great Stabilizing Force in Society Public administration acts as a great stabilizing force in society. It settles social tensions and conflicts and thus creates social unity and harmony. This role of public administration is of particular significance in the newly independent Afro-Asian developing countries and Nigeria in particular. Public administrators solve social problems. Thus public administration stabilizers social structure, social organization. As Paul Pigors says, The main purpose of administration is to preserve the status quo in society . The administrative function ensures the continuance of the existing order with a minimum of effort and risk. Its fundamental aim is to carry on rather than to venture along new and untried paths. Administrators are, therefore, the stabilizers of society and the guardians of tradition . Provides Continuity when Government Change Public administration carries on government when rulers change every now and then owing to elections or revolutions or coups. According to Ramsay Muir, while governments may come and go, ministers may rise and fall, the administration of a country goes on forever. No revolution can change it and no upheaval can uproot it . It is a proven fact of history that public administration survives even revolutions and coup d tat or change a

regime. provides a wide Variety of Services in the Public Interest Public administration in the modern welfare state provides a large and wide variety of services for the people. Felix A Nigro remarks. the real core of administration is the basic service which is performed for the public . Public administration provides a number of services in the public interest. Protective functions First of all, public administration protects the life and property of the people by maintaining law and order. The survival and progress of human beings in society depend on the proper enforcement of laws against lawbreakers. As C.P. Bhambhrl remarks, .the maintenance of law and order

is the most primary and crucial role of public administration . This is because the law of the jungle will prevail in society, if public administration fails to perform this function effectively. National defence is another protective function performed by public administration. This function is essential for the maintenance of the independence of the nation and protecting its frontiers. -In recent times, protection of environment is added to the protective functions of government mentioned in the preceding lines. As a result of rapid industrialization there is the problem of environmental pollution, which threatens our lives, and civilization. Befouled air, water and earth affect our health and lives. Now almost all governments are making efforts at the enhancement of environment quality. The environmental administration regulates the relations between man and earth with its environment. It must maintain the quality of air, the uses of the ocean, and the purity of rivers and streams. It considers man s spiritual and physical survival.

Facilitative services Today public administration provides facilitative services such as transportation, communications, supply of power, and so on. Management of public enterprises Public administrators manage public enterprise and public utilities in the interest of socio-economic justice. Public utilities are either publicly owned or strictly regulated in most countries. Government also imposes controls over private economic and business activities in the public interest. Welfare services The welfare services provided for the people include social security, old age pensions, welfare of the weaker sections, family planning, health, unemployment relief, poverty alleviation, housing etc. Promotion of agriculture, industry etc Public administration promotes agriculture, industry, internal and international trade, banking, insurance etc Cultural services In the cultural sphere, public administration undertakes certain functions as provision of education, promotion of science and technology, encouragement of arts and ideology etc. Maintenance of Political system Public administration is concerned with the maintenance of the nation s political system and national unity. It is a continuous process in determining the activities of the government. To be brief, it is concerned with the preservation of the polity. The wide variety of functions performed by public administration is influenced by developments in the political, economic and social area.

The preceding discussion indicates that public administration has become a part of the social, economic, political and cultural life of the people. How well we enjoy the service provided by government depend, in large part, on how well they are administered. Hence, in simpler societies of early days good administration was important, but in modern complex societies good administration is essential. It has to play a very important role not only as an instrument of governance but also as an important means to achieve the goals of socio-economic progress and nation building. As Appleby says, The heart of administration is the management of programmes designed to serve the general welfare. An Instrument of Social Change and Economic Development Public administration is concerned with managing change in pursuit of publicly defined societal values . In the developing nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America public administration acts as an instrument of social change and economic development. The developing nations are mostly traditional and poor agricultural societies without adequate basic amenities of good life. These nations are anxious to achieve modernization of society and economic development and realize welfare goals. The state is called upon to achieve these goals. These objectives have placed challenging tasks on public administration such as formulation of economic plans and their successful implementation to realize economic growth and social change and welfare goals. The accomplishment of these goals requires honest and competent public administrators. Without efficient administration socio-economic progress cannot be achieved. It is expected today to be the accelerator of economic and social change. (Paulinadu, 2005:19, 20&21) The Meaning of Administration

The English word Administer is derived from a combination of two Latin words, ad + ministrare which means to serve, to direct, to control, to manage affairs. In the words of E.N Gladden, Administration is a long and slightly pompous word, but it has a humble meaning, for it means to care for or to look after people, to manage affairs . He defines it as determined action taken in pursuit of conscious purpose. Administration is a rational human activity, which is inherent in any organized social life public or private. It occurs even in such a simple activity as when two men cooperate to roll a stone that neither could have moved alone . It consists of all those operations, which aim at the achievement of some purpose shared by two or more people. To put it differently, administration is a cooperative human effort towards achieving some common goals. It is, thus, a goal-oriented, purposive, cooperative, joint activity undertaken by a group of people. Administration, therefore, excludes non-purposive and non-cooperative group activities such as two men fighting with each other or watching a stone. In this example the two men are not mutually involved in a joint endeavour. Administration also excludes those operations that concern a single individual, e.g. one man moving a stone. This one-man activity is not administration because it lacks cooperative effort made by two or more people to accomplish a common goal. Thus we can understand what administration is:According to George E. Berkley, administration is: i. People; because without the presence of people there can be no administration ii. Action; people have to do something before administration can enter the picture; and

iii. Interaction; administration is people interacting with other people to accomplish task. Joint activity is an essential part of all administration. (Paulinadu, 2005:3). In its generic sense, administration is a universal process that can be found in various institutional settings such as a business firm; a hospital, a university a government department and so on. All these diverse organizations use commonly the same administrative processes (e.g. planning, organizing, coordinating, etc) as well as the human and material resources to achieve their respective goals. Thus administration is concerned with means to achieve prescribed ends. It is not an end in itself. This view of administration disregards what kind of administration is in question. In this sense the term administration covers both public and private organizations. MEANING OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION/CLARRIFICATION OF CONCEPTS. Definition of Public Administration As E.N. Gladden says, the field of public administration is mainly a debate over definitions. Despite more than a hundred years of development, public administration lacks a significant definition that is acceptable to all students of public administration. Various scholars have defined it in different ways. While the traditional writers have defined public administration in its narrower sense, the modern scholars have defined it is its wider sense. Let us examine both the views by quoting some important definitions. Traditional Definitions The following are some of the important definitions of public administration, which reflect the traditional view of the disciplines. 1. Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of law. Every particular application of law is an act of administration .

Woodrow Wilson. To Wilson, Administration is the most obvious part of government, it is government in action, and it is the executive, the operative, the most visible side of government . 30 2. Public Administration consists of all those operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or enforcement of public policy . L.D White 3. By public administration is meant, in common usage, the activities of the executive branches of the National, state, and local government Herbert A. Simon 4. Public Administration is that part of the science of administration which has to do with government, and thus concerns itself primarily with the executive branch, where the work of government is done, though there are obviously administrative problems also in connection with the legislative and judicial branches Luther Gulick 5. Public administration is the action part of government, the means by which the purposes and goals of government are realized. Corson and Harris 6. In its broadest sense, it (public administration) denotes the work involved in the actual conduct of governmental affairs, regardless of the particular branch of government concerned. In its narrowest sense, it denotes the operations of the administrative branch only . W.F. Willoughby 7. Administration consists of getting the work of government done by

coordinating the efforts of people so that they can work together to

accomplish their set tasks . Pfiffner( in Polinaidu,2005:4&5). The definitions quoted above reflect the narrow traditional point of view of public administration. This view locates public administration in the executive branch of government. Its main business comprises all those activities that are involved in carrying out public policies as expressed in laws made by the legislature and interpreted by courts. It is denied any role in both legislative (i.e. policy making) and judicial functions. Its main business is to get things done and not to decide what things to do. Public administration is thus identified with the administrative side of government as opposed to the legislative and judicial sides. Therefore, the traditional view is unduly restrictive as an explanation and does not fully capture the scope of public administration. It emphasizes the locus but not the focus of Public Administration. The reason is that administration not only carries out policy but also recommends it. Administration is also concerned with the hearing and deciding cases and controversies not allocated to the judiciary. For all these reasons the traditional view presents too narrow, formalistic, and legalistic picture of Public Administration. Some Modern Definitions Some modern textbook writers such as M.E. Dimock, James Fesler and F.A. Nigro have used the term Public Administration in its wider sense. In their opinion, public administration has some responsibility in formulating governmental policies, besides executing them. The definitions quoted below are illustrative of the modern broader view of public administration. 1. Public administration is the area of study and practice where law

and policy is recommended and carried out .M.E. Dimock and G.O. Dimock 2 public Administration is policy executive and also policy formulation James W. Fesler 1. Public Administration i. Is cooperative group effort in a public setting ii. Covers all three branches their interrelationships. iii. Has an important role in the formulation of policy and is thus a part of the political process. iv. Is different in significant ways from private administration, and v. Is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community. Conclusions Organisation emanated from the societies need to maintain law and order and to regulate inter-group relations. With the increasing need for administration to go beyond the normal maintenance of law and order to the provision of social services, public administration come to cover all governmental activities from the formulation of policies to the accomplishment of common goals. It covers all areas of planning, organising, budgeting, coordinating and directing of governmental affairs. Public administration could be studied as an academic discipline or as an activity. As a discipline it deals with systematic teaching and the study of the subject, great cities, and public works, how empires are administered and how law and order is maintained and enforced throughout history. While as an activity it deals with the entire act of governance and all the knowledge considered necessary for governance. The study of Public administration is significant because it exposes the executive, legislative, and judicial and

students to learning the principles and theories of administration to promoting superior understanding of government among others. This is because public administration serves as the basis of governance and more significantly as an instrument for implementing laws and policies, a stabilising force in society, providing protective functions among others. Public Administration has been subjected to varied definations,among which is the definition of public administration as the most obvious part of government , The executive branch of government , The action part of government . Regardless of these definitions one fact remain central; that public administration is the machinery through which cooperative efforts can be achieved and sustained. Summary In this unit, we have been able to look at the origin of public administration as it preceded the modern understanding of the subject matter. It is also stated here that public administration can be studied as an activity and also as a discipline dealing with a range of activities of government and theorising the functioning and existence of government. Public administration also deals with all governmental activities including the areas of planning, organising, budgeting, coordinating and directing governmental activities. The unit also explain the significance to the study of public administration, and concluded by clarifying the definition of concept as administration, organisation and management. http://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/NOUN_OCL/pdf/pdf2/BHM%20625%20Main%20Course%20 %28Mrs%20Dayil%29.pdf Assessments question

1. List and explain advantages of studying public administration 2. What are the significance of public administration 3. Define public administration as the basis of government

Course Module 4 Schools or conceptual approaches to the study of Public Administration

Highlights Introduction Philosophical Approach Legal Approach Historical Approach Scientific Approach Case Method Approach Institutional and structural Approach Behavioural Approach The Consensus Approach APPROACHES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Introduction The approaches to the study of Public administration can be categorized from many angles such as normative approach and empirical approach. Normative approach concentrates on what public administration should be. Empirical approach sets its eyes on description and analysis of actual administrative Situations. Another classification of approaches is based upon the objects of study the individual scholar seeks to emphasize, such as; Philosophical approach Legal approach Historical approach Scientific approach Case Method Approach Institutional and Structural Approach Behavioural Approach Philosophical Approach The Philosophical approach takes within its purview all aspects of administrative activities. Its goal is to find out and enunciate the principles or ideals underlying these activities. This approach is found in Locke s Treatise on civil Government , Plato s Republic , Hobbes ,

Leviathan , etc. The philosophical approach is perhaps the oldest approach to public administration as of all other social sciences. Legal Approach The legal approach is the systematically formulated approach and traces its ancestry to the European tradition of rooting Public administration in law. Public administration was considered to be a part of law, concentrating on legally prescribed structure and organization of Public authorities. This approach was formed at a time when the functions of the state were narrowly limited and simple in nature. The legal or juristic method is mostly used in France, Germany, and Belgium. These countries have a long tradition of administrative law. The administrative law is an important branch of Public law and is conceived in quite broad terms so as to include the organization and functions of public authorities and with the problem of their correlation, powers and responsibilities. Public administration is considered to be a part of administrative law and as such it is studied in the legal framework. In India also the administrative study was mainly preoccupied with the legal foundations of administrative authority and its procedures and was narrower in its scope than that of European continent because there law itself was conceived in broad sociological terms whereas in India, it had a narrow juristic connotation. Historical Approach The historical approach to the study of public administration Seeks to recreate a segment of history. It Studies the public administration of the past with a particular time span, organizing and interpreting the information in a Chronological order. This approach naturally commands a powerful attraction in a society having rich past and can be valuable in identifying the uniqueness of the administrative system. Scientific Approach Public administration like many other social sciences makes use of the inductive method of proceeding from particular to general through observation for collecting the data, classification of data and verification of the hypotheses. The scientific management movement gave a great fillip to the use of this method in the development of effective techniques of organization and management and of budgeting and supply. Administration was separated from politics. It was treated as a mechanical organization and was subjected to the rigours of laws of mechanics. Although the Study of public administration has now passed off the Stage of scientific management fad, many activities of the office management, accounting and control of material and supply are still determined on the scientific principles. Measurement of work, time and motion studies, work flow charts, cost accounting and opinion sampling and polls are the techniques based on the Scientific and technical method for the solution of administrative problems. Case Method Approach A case is a narration of what has actually taken place in administration, keeping in fact the context and all relevant dimensions. Ably, handled, the case method approach is a sensitive one, seeking as it does to reconstruct the administrative realities and gives to students a

flavour of the administrative Process. The case approach has been motivated by a commitment to the objectives and methods of social sciences. It has been shaped also by a considerable sensitivity to traditional concerns of humanities and by practical interest in pedagogy as against research. The case method to the study of public administration began to be popularized in the thirties. The case method has come to stay in public administration, but it cannot become the dominant approach. In Public administration, case study is essentially historical method. It is a method in which an administrative decision, in any given question or issue, is made the focal point for historical exposition. Its aim is to point out as to what factors or considerations- political, economical, and personal or any other-influence the decision of the administrator and also to know the process of decision or policy-making. The case as presented to the student in the file on monograph comprises every possible aspect of the situation. It is best presented as a running account embodying explanations of various procedures as they occur in relation to the circumstances. It provides the student with indications concerning the legislative and institutional framework within which the problem to be solved by the administrative agencies arises. It also, wherever possible contains notes to help the analyst understand the psychological back-ground, the characters of the people who took part in the case, the tensions among the staff of the administrative organization concerned, and other factors. The account as a whole is intended to reconstruct and explain, with reference to the greatest number of identifiable factors, the initiation, procedure and conclusion of the operation concerned and more specially, the process of formalizing the administrative decision. The case histories are prepared with the help of relevant documents and files, inquiries and interviews with officers concerned and all other sources of the case. Public Administration and policy Administration published by the interuniversity case programme of the United States was a pioneering use of this technique. Following this several national institutes of public administration of various countries have launched their own study programme. Early in the sixties the Indian Institute of Public Administration (I.I.P.A) brought out three books on case studies the I.I.P.A and the National Academy of Administration have prepared about eighty case studies in memography form for their training use. The I.I.P.A recently published four more volumes of its case Studies. Some of the limitations of this that, re-living another person s life through case studies never succeed. Secondly, the most significant part of a decision is the agony of it; one cannot relire the agony anxiety and put himself in another individual s position. Institutional and structural Approach This approach to the study of public administration is the oldest and in point of number, it has the largest following. But it is least homogenous of all schools of public administration as it includes among its protagonists, teachers and research workers with varied training, ranging from political scientist to specialists in scientific management techniques. The common features of this school which distinguishes it from other schools of administrative thought. These features are of follows The followers of this school took policy administration dichotomy quite seriously. They defined the task of administration as nonpolitical or technical which lay merely in carrying out the will of political authority by either neutral means. They directed all their efforts to discover principles of public administration.

The early work of this school is characterized by an empirical and pragmatic approach. Their sole aim was to describe a set of facts and not to build any theories. This view prevails particularly in United States during the period between the two world wars and its greatest exponents were Leonard.D.White and Luther Gulick. Since the fifties of the last century, there has been a shift in this approach. Although the study has retained its institutional character, yet the policy administration dichotomy has been qualified after being found too hasty. More attention is now being given to the normative aspects of public administration and administration is being viewed as an element in political theory and the accepted political Values. Scholars like John. M. Gaus and Paul Appleby of this school have frankly given up the technical view of public administration and they approach public administration from the broad political standpoint. Behavioural Approach This approach examines public administration by studying individual and collective human behavior in administrative situation. It brings to bear upon administrative problems on interdisciplinary approach which includes Sociology, individual and social psychology and cultural anthropology. Originated in the United States this approach focuses on the actual behavior of persons and groups in organizations and has four Characters which are of follows The increased attention to the individual and his relationship to the administrative organization in which scientific-management approach tended to consider him rather as a thing or a means, without taking in to account the different aspects of his personality and his relationship to interests and social group other than the administrative organization in which he worked. Increased attention to the individual in administration is based on more realistic research concerning motivation, decision making process and nature of authority. Administration is studied as a social system with the result that whereas formerly attention was concentrated exclusive on formal and rational relationships of the organization, now informal relationships of men in the organization receive equal attention. On account of these developments, more importance is given to communication. This is understandable because an administration is described as a complex aggregate of human relations. Under the traditional approaches the only recognized means of communication were the formal orders and circulars issued by the superior to the subordinates and reports and returns submitted by the subordinates to their superiors. But under the new approach, the informal means of contact and communication receive of as much attention as the formal ones. Replacement of the theory of Sovereignty by that of legitimacy. The concept of political sovereignty had given birth to the theories of hierarchical structure, line of authority, chain of command, delegation and others. Under the new approach, there is an increasing tendency to analyse the reason why given persons, considered individually and collectively, feel that they must obey orders. Thus emphasis is put on administrative leadership and motivation.

In this method a new approach is followed by comparing the behavioral pattern of public administration in different countries, this comparative method has been used in studying the contemporary system of government and administration. The Behavioural science and the case study approach has impacted a distinct shift in the techniques of comparative approach in which the normative study of comparative administration merged gradually into the empirical and explanatory writings on different administrative systems. The recent trend is towards a nomothetic approach whereas earlier it was towards ideographic approach. Ideographic approach showed interest in concrete situations, case studies, area information and particular facts while the present emphasis is on theory or testable propositions which assert regularities of behavior and correlation between variables. The new trend involves a greater interest in the environment factors as they interact with public administration. It is now realized that these factors conditions and are conditioned by governmental behavior and hence their study is an essential part of study of public administration. The Consensus Approach The principles of public administration developed at the time were devices suggested to achieve efficiency. This efficiency-oriented approach coupled with the anti- patronage movement was strengthened by the view that policy making and policy implementing are two different things. Policy determining was considered to be field of politics, and policyimplementation, the field of administration. It is now accepted that administration is involved in policy formulation also. It is now wrong to say that policies can be formulated without the advice or assistance of administrative staff .The whole theory of delegated legislation disproved the dichotomy between politics and administration. According to Appleby, Public administration is policy-making . It is not autonomous, exclusive or isolated policy-making. It is policy-making on a field where mighty forces contend- forces engendered in any society. Further, public administration cannot be fruitfully studied apart from its political and social setting. The Structural approach concentrated on the description of the administrative structure of the government bodies. This approach emphasizes the study of PODSCORB techniques of administration. But the administrative structure and techniques cannot be studied without proper reference to the environment in which public administration is working as well as the human factor. According to the scientific management approach, the problems of the public administration should be studied by the methods and spirit of science. Taylor concentrated on the work methods, machines and materials. He was concerned with the questions of mechanical efficiency. Scientific management taking efficiency as the objective, views administration as a technical problem concerned basically with the division of labour and specialization of functions. This approach is considered defective because it ignores the human elements in administration. The socio-psychological approach or the Behavioural approach believes that public administration should be concerned with the study of human behavior in organization and operations of the various organizations. According to Simon decision making is the most important activity of administration. Human beings who work in an organization have aspirations and desires. Their behavior is conditioned by their psychology, motives and social

environment. The administrative science should study these facts of behavior without getting involved in the question of values . This new approach is universalistic in character and its purpose is to build a system of interlocking generalizations about how organizations actually behave in these organizations. Summary The approaches to the study of public administration can be summarized as Public administration was studied from the background of administrative law .The emphasis in this jusrisdical approach is on formal structures both constitutional and administrative. It has been concerned with officers, with duties, limitations, prerogatives and disabilities of officers and with legal, litigation and rights of Citizen. In the comparative public administration approach stimulated by the United Nations, the emphasis is on understanding the problems of administration operating under different socio political and cultural settings. Another approach is to study public administration in relation to political parties and pressure groups. Historical approach is also a fascinating area of study. Many lessons can be learnt by studying the history of administration. Institutional approach is to study the structure. It deals with the study of organs of the State. The Behavioural approach claims to explain administrative processes that are common to many forms of organization. The focus is on human behavior, including Psychology, Sociology and anthropology. http://blessan.wordpress.com/2010/07/25/approaches-in-public-administration/ Assessments question

1. Explain Philosophical Approach to the study of Public Administration 2. Explain Legal Approach to the study of Public Administration 3. Explain Historical Approach to the study of Public Administration 4. Explain Scientific Approach to the study of Public Administration Course Module 5 Decision- making model

Outline  Explanation of the steps in the model Data registration Condition

Meaning Discrepancy? Conservation options Weighing conservation options Proposed treatment DECISION-MAKING MODEL During the discussions concerning the desired treatment of the pilot objects in the initial phase of the Conservation of Modern Art project, it soon became apparent that it was necessary to develop a structure. In the first discussions it was clear how many differing and disparate arguments could play a role in establishing a decision-making model. It was evident that the problems arising in the conservation and restoration of modern and contemporary art are complex. The present model originated from new and improved attempts to steer the discussions of the theoretical working group into proper channels. Once a consensus has been reached concerning the terminology, the model appears to function well: it affords a structure for leading a discussion; it organises the decision making; it affords possibilities for checking an existing decision in the light of consequences that may have been less clear when determining the problems; it helps to formulate issues of the justification of the decision making; and it guarantees insight into the justification so that it may later also be consulted by others. The model presented here builds upon a model for decision making in conservation issues developed earlier by Ernst van de Wetering.C This model took into account an important aspect of such decisions, namely that they always represent a compromise between various

kinds of considerations. These considerations can sometimes conflict. Moreover, comparable considerations may weigh differently depending on the individual cases. Each case requires a new evaluation of whether preservation of the appearance is more or less important than preservation of the authentic material or possible functioning of the object. The pros and cons of each individual case have to be weighed and guide the final decision in various paths. The final result will always prevail over one or even more of the various considerations. This process is illustrated as a circle with the factors to be considered as arrows facing inward which, in accordance with the value attached to the various considerations, guide the process in a certain given direction with more or less force. The final decision, thus, is both a compromise and a reflection of the relevant factors. Ernst van de Wetering s model was initially developed with the conservation problems associated with traditional art in mind. In order to apply it to contemporary art, it had to be expanded. With regard to traditional art, the meaning of the object in a material sense is generally unambiguous. Material and technique serve the meaning, which is largely determined by the representation. This means that as long as the representation is preserved, intervention with regard to the material characteristics of the work do not have to take place at the expense of the work s meaning, to the extent that this is determined by the representation. Naturally, they can take place at the expense of other elements of the meaning that are determined by technique and material, such as the transparency and depth of the colour, or of other values, such as authenticity. In

Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 2 addition, with traditional art there is usually greater agreement as to the meaning of a given work of art: the meanings it can embody are generally shared. With regard to non-traditional objects of modern and contemporary art, the relationship between material and meaning is usually ambiguous. Meanings are mostly specific to the artist in question or even the object in question. Materials and techniques. moreover, also carry their own meaning. The array of materials and techniques is thereby so expanded that in principle anything and everything can be used. A concomitant factor is that the less traditional the material used is, the more it contributes to the meaning of the work. A consequence of this is that a change in the material characteristics of a contemporary art work often directly alters its meaning. Along these lines, active conservation procedures which directly intervene with the material identity of the art work can also have repercussions for the meaning. With respect to non-traditional objects of contemporary art, two moments can be distinguished in the decision-making process as to their conservation in which the role a particular material characteristic plays with regard to meaning must be investigated. The first moment in the model is when the consequences of a change in the material condition of a work for its meaning have to be established. Is there a discrepancy between the physical condition of the art work and its meaning? Not every change in the condition of the material is equally problematic: a scratch in a floor plate by Carl Andr can confirm its

meaning, while a similar scratch in a metal object by Donald Judd would negate its meaning. Sometimes the meaning can denote decay: namely, if the transience of an object is consciously produced by the maker and is part of the content of the work. In that case, conservation implies an intervention affecting the intended meaning. Should a conscious discrepancy be established between the physical condition of the work and its meaning and treatment proposals have been formulated, a second moment arises when the significance of material characteristics for meaning must be investigated. At this point, the consequences of various possible active conservation interventions which entail just as many changes in the material characteristics of the work must be investigated. Thus, there are two moments when the relationship of the material characteristics to the meaning of the art work must be investigated: when the question is posed as to whether condition and meaning can be united and whether intervention and meaning can be united. These considerations led to an expansion of Ernst van de Wetering s original model and now we speak of two circles: one in which the central issue is whether in the present case there is a discrepancy between physical condition and meaning; and a circle in which certain conservation options and their consequences are considered. For Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 3 both of these moments various considerations can guide the decision to be made in various directions. For both moments, moreover, the considerations that lead to an answer are not predetermined, but originate from the problem at hand. The questions formulated in the instructions indicate only a direction.

The questions are grouped around various aspects of the object: aesthetic considerations, authenticity, historicity and functionality. Moreover, the questions can be answered from various perspectives: that of the artist (or of his/her surviving relatives and studio assistants), that of a forum of authoritative art critics and art historians, and that of those responsible for making a decision (the curator and/or conservator). The answers will rarely agree, and it cannot be stated a priori which perspective should prevail. The model presented here suggests a decision-making trajectory. It addresses the condition phenomenon; whether this phenomenon is a problem; and if so of what nature; it proposes various solutions; weighs the consequences of these solutions; and proposes a definitive conservation plan. The model is not intended to give a description of the manner in which decisions are made in reality. The model is not descriptive, but normative: it describes how a decision should be taken in an ideal case. It serves as a guideline for the manner in which the decision should be made, as an aid to explicating and thereby controlling the considerations which in practice are often implicit, and finally as an instrument to check and provide an insight into the decisions ultimately taken EXPLANATION OF THE STEPS IN THE MODEL 1. Data registration Knowledge of the object, including information on the materials used, the way it was made and the intentions of the artist is crucial for the conservation of contemporary objects. The gathering and registration of this knowledge forms the basis for a responsible decision as to conservation.

Experience has taught the Conservation of Modern Art project that some basic information is necessary for the conservation of contemporary objects. This was only sporadically available from the museums involved in the project. In some instances the implicit knowledge of a curator, conservator or another outside expert could be tapped. In a number of instances, the necessary information could no longer be recovered. A model for data registration was developed during the Conservation of Modern Art project that can be used as a guideline in gathering and registering the necessary information. Instructions: Register the following information, preferably using the model for data registration. Information about (and from) the artist about the actual production of the object, its meaning and particularly the meaning of the material (possibly through an interview with the artist). Visual material of the original condition and/or intermediate condition, registration of motion, sound, installation. Literature on the artist. Information on the composition of materials, brand names, production processes, information from assistants and producers. Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 6 2. Condition In determining the condition of a work, first the composition and ageing of the materials must be scientifically (chemically, biological,

physically) investigated. This is followed by an analysis of the mechanical ageing (for example through use) and of reactions to the environment (pollution). In the event of damage to the object, the damage and consequent changes must be precisely documented. In establishing the condition of the object, questions can also be formulated about the future ageing behaviour of a specific material. In a number of cases it will be difficult to predict the future ageing behaviour and the conditions under which this will arise. A problem in describing the condition of contemporary objects is that the composition of many of the materials used is not known and moreover the ageing behaviour of many materials has not been investigated. This holds true primarily for the new materials , such as plastics, but also for parts of equipment, such as transistors and cathode-ray tubes (screens). The more information we have concerning the materials used and their composition, the better their condition can be determined. The condition report is made on a regular basis, when checking the condition of the object or when there is a concrete reason for doing so, for example when the object is being lent or has been damaged. Each new condition report is then appended to the data registration. The model for condition regristration was developed in the course of the Conservation of Modern Art project. Instructions: - Make a condition report of the work using the model for a condition report. The most appropriate expert for making such a report is a conservator. If necessary, he/she will consult other experts.

Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 7 3. Meaning Determining the meaning of the work prior to conservation is the foundation for responsible decision making in the conservation of modern art. The meaning of a work, however, is layered and certainly not unambiguous. One can speak of meaning imparted by the artist, but also by a context (criticism, group, style, time), by a place (collection, country, site-specific ), or event (performance). In addition, the choice of material and working method has consequences for the meaning of the work. Finally there are also ideological (political, philosophical and religious) layers of meaning. In the case of modern art, materials and working methods acquire a highly specific significance so that conservation research must be conducted per artist and per work. Because conservation in most cases constitutes an intervention in the materiality of the work, research into this layer of meaning before a conservation method is established is particularly important. The meaning of the work is determined on the basis of available data gathered in the course of the investigation. The gathering of data that could influence the meaning of the work with an emphasis on the use of material and working method is thus one of the first activities to be undertaken in the conservation of modern art. The curator/conservator determines the meaning. Following specific research for the sake of conservation, information related to the meaning is amplified and refined.

Instructions: Determine the general meaning of the object on the basis of the following questions: What is the subject or theme of the work (whether or not this can be gauged from the title)? What is the importance of the perceptible appearance for the meaning of the work? The perceptible appearance can be visual, but also auditive, kinetic, etcetera. What is the importance of the various materials used for the meaning of the work? What is the importance of production processes for the meaning of the work? In what lies the expressiveness of the work? What are other important associations? Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 8 4. Discrepancy? Correct diagnosis of the conservation problem is extremely important for the decision making concerning the method of conservation. In the Conservation of Modern Art project it appeared that a conservation problem was engendered by a discrepancy between the condition and the meaning of a work. A discrepancy, therefore, can only be determined with extensive knowledge of the meaning of the work on the one hand, and investigation of the physical condition of the work on the other hand. Whether there is a discrepancy between condition and meaning of the work can be determined by answering the following question: Does the meaning of the work change as a result of the ageing,

damage or decay it has sustained such that intervention must be considered? It cannot be stated beforehand whether a certain ageing or damage, indeed, constitute a problem. As mentioned in the introduction, a scratch can reinforce the meaning of one work of art (for example in a floor plate by Carl Andr) while negating it in another (a metal object by Donald Judd). Therefore, designating a potential discrepancy is not a linear process: one can speak of various kinds of considerations and factors. Determining whether a discrepancy can be identified in each individual case will differ in each case. Moreover it is possible that in a later phase of the research (namely in weighing the conservation options), new information will come to light that will also influence the assessment of the discrepancy. The factors to be weighed in determining a discrepancy (aesthetic factors, authenticity, historicity and functionality) can be presented as arrows pointing inward in a circle that will guide the decision in a certain direction with more or less force according to the value attached to these considerations. The final determination of the discrepancy is thus the outcome of a process of deliberation involving a number of factors, and therefore a compromise. Instructions: - Determine whether there is a discrepancy and define the conservation problem. This can be done with the help of the following checklist. The factors to be weighed can be applied in the circle.

Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 9 Checklist for determining a discrepancy between the physical condition and the meaning of a work Central question: Does the meaning of the work change as a result of the ageing, damage or decay it has sustained to such an extent that intervention must be considered? 4a. Aesthetic and artistic factors Does the ageing, damage or decay influence the subject or theme of the work? What subjects or themes does the work explicitly refer to? Does the work evoke associations or reactions that are important for its meaning? What importance do the changes in the perceptible appearance of the work have as a result of ageing, damage or decay to the meaning of the work? What importance does the perceptible appearance have for the meaning of the work? Does the meaning of the materials used change as a result of the ageing, damage or decay? What importance do the various materials used have for the meaning of the work? What importance do the various materials used have in relation to the (cultural-historical) context? What materials were used by the artist s contemporaries? What materials does/did the artist use in the rest of his oeuvre?

Is the expressiveness of the work affected as a result of the ageing, damage or decay? In what lies the expressiveness of the work? 4b. Authenticity What importance does the deviation from the original appearance (generated by damage, ageing and decay) have for the meaning of the work? What importance does the perceptible appearance have for the meaning of the work? Is the production process important in assessing whether the change in appearance influenced the meaning? Can one speak of a single implementation or of an edition? To what extent is the hand of the artist in the production process important for the meaning? Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 10 Does the work have parts that were made, whether or not on commission, by third parties? What is the meaning of these parts in the work? What relation does the ageing, damage or decay have to the importance of the original creation for the meaning of the work? Does the work have parts of which the originality is not important for its meaning and that can be regularly changed without problems? For example a palm rather than the palm provided by Broodthaers. Can arguments be found in favour of or against a possible remaking of the work or parts thereof?

4c. Historicity Are there traces of ageing that contribute to the meaning of the work? To what extent is the established ageing and decay part of the work? 4d. Functionality Does ageing, damage or decay affect the functionality in a way that is important to the meaning of the work? Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 11 5. Conservation options Should a discrepancy be established between the condition and the meaning of the work, the technical possibilities for conservation and restoration are then explored. This is done by a conservator, who gathers the relevant information from specialists (material experts and scientists). Instructions: - Formulate various options for passive and active conservation that could contribute to the termination or lessening of the discrepancy or of the conservation problem. 6. Weighing conservation options The possibilities for conservation and restoration are weighed in light of the consequences and risks that the treatment would entail for the meaning of the work. The following question is central: In what sense will the meaning of the work alter as a result of the proposed conservation option? The factors related to the object when considering the options (authenticity, aesthetic factors, functionality and historicity) are

important in answering this question. In addition, external limitations (legal aspects, economic limitations and possibilities: see also the checklist in this chapter) that play a role when weighing the various options for conservation must also be considered. The various conservation and/or restoration options are considered within a framework of risks, meaning and limitations. In this way, technical possibilities might yield to ethical or economic considerations, or a treatment might be abandoned in the light of ideological priorities. As when determining a discrepancy, an important feature when weighing conservation options is that various considerations steer the decision on conservation in various directions. Consequently, a decision always has the character of a compromise. Here, too, the weighing factors are illustrated as arrows pointing inward in a circle which, in accordance with the value attached to the various considerations, guide the decision in a certain direction with more or less force. Thus, the final decision is a compromise and the outcome of a weighing of Instructions: - Balance the conservation options against the consequences and risks that the treatment would have for the meaning of the work with the aid of the following checklist. - The weighing factors can be applied in the circle on page 14. Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 12 Checklist for weighing the options for conservation Central question:

In what sense will the meaning of the work be altered as a result of the proposed conservation options? 6a. Aesthetic and artistic factors Will the theme or subject of the work be influenced by the proposed conservation? What subjects or themes does the work explicitly refer to? Does the work evoke associations or reactions that are important for its meaning? What importance do the changes in the perceptible appearance as a result of the proposed conservation have for the meaning of this work? Will the meaning of the materials used be altered as a result of the proposed treatment? What importance do the various materials used have for the meaning of the work? What importance do the various materials used have in relation to the context? What materials does/did the artist use in the rest of his oeuvre? What importance does the perceptible appearance have for the meaning of this work? In what sense is the expressiveness of the work affected by the proposed conservation? In what lies the expressiveness of the work? 6b. Authenticity Following the proposed conservation, what is the impact of an intervention in the original appearance of a work on its meaning?

What importance does the perceptible appearance have for the meaning of the work? Will traces of the production process be influenced by the proposed conservation such that the meaning of the work changes? What is the importance of the production process for the meaning of the work? To what extent is the hand of the artist in the production process important for the meaning? Can one speak of a single implementation or of an edition? Does the work have parts that were made, whether or not on commission, by third parties? What is the meaning of these parts in the work? Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 13 Will the proposed conservation affect the original creation to such an extent that the meaning of the work changes? Does the work have parts of which the originality is not important or its meaning and that can be regularly changed without problems? For example a palm rather than the palm provided by Broodthaers. Can arguments be forwarded in favour of or against a possible re-making of the work or parts thereof? 6c. Historicity Will the proposed conservation affect the traces of ageing and does this influence the meaning of the work? Will the proposed conservation eliminate other traces of ageing, which should be preserved not for artistic but for

historical reasons? 6d. Functionality Does the proposed conservation affect the functionality of the work in any way that is important to the meaning of the work? Which are the preconditions in the decision-making process on conservation and to what extend do they influence the process? 6e. Relative importance of the art work What role does the work in question play within the oeuvre of the artist, artistic movement, museum collection, or national collection in the decision about conservation? Can one speak of an edition or a single work and is this work part of a series or is it an individual work of art? What are the consequences of this for the decision regarding the proposed conservation? 6f. Financial limitations and possibilities What are the financial limitations and possibilities for the proposed conservation options? What is the maximum available budget for the conservation of the object? Does the financial value of the object justify the costs of the conservation or are there other reasons for justifying the expense of conservation? 6g. Legal aspects What legal consequences can be anticipated as a result of the proposed conservation? Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 14 6h. Artist s opinion of the intervention

What is the opinion of the artist concerning the proposed restorations and how does this fit in with earlier statements by the artist concerning the work? 6i. Technical limitations and possibilities What are the technical limitations and possibilities of the proposed conservation? 6j. Restoration ethics Is the integrity of the work sufficiently guaranteed after treatment? Are the answers to the previous questions sufficient for treatment to be initiated? Can the proposed methods be reversed? If not, are there decisive reasons for using them nonetheless? Is the professionalism of the implementation guaranteed? Will the treatment be documented? Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 15 7. Proposed treatment The result of the previous steps in the model is a definitive treatment proposal with a well-founded motivation. This treatment plan contains proposals for preventive conservation, for active conservation and for restoration. Instructions: Draught the treatment plan and make sure that the motivation for the decision making is stored with the data registration. Decision-making model, Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art 16 The decision-making model was conceived under the supervision of the working group Decisionmaking model in the project 'Conservation of Modern Art'.

The working group comprised: Wilma van Asseldonk curator De Pont Foundation, Tilburg Marja Bosma curator Centraal Museum, Utrecht Marianne Brouwer curator Krller-Mller Museum, Otterlo IJsbrand Hummelen coordinator Netherlands Institute for Cultural Heritage conservation research Amsterdam Dionne Sill project manager Foundation for the Conservation of Modern Art Rene van de Vall philosopher & lecturer Faculty of Art and Culture, Maastricht University Rik van Wegen curator Bonnefantenmuseum, Maastricht

Read more: http://www.nou.edu.ng/noun/NOUN_OCL/pdf/pdf2/BHM%20625%20Main%20Course%20%28Mrs %20Dayil%29.pdf Assessments question

1. Based on Decision- making model explain a. Data registration b. Condition c. Meaning d. e. f. Discrepancy? Conservation options Weighing conservation options Course Module 6 Classification or typologies of organizations

Outline Formal Organization Informal Organization Relationship between formal and informal organizations Organisation CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISATION Formal Organization - This is one which refers to a structure of well defined jobs each

bearing a measure of authority and responsibility. It is a conscious determination by which people accomplish goals by adhering to the norms laid down by the structure. This kind of organization is an arbitrary set up in which each person is responsible for his performance. Formal organization has a formal set up to achieve pre- determined goals. Informal Organization - It refers to a network of personal and social relationships which spontaneously originates within the formal set up. Informal organizations develop relationships which are built on likes, dislikes, feelings and emotions. Therefore, the network of social groups based on friendships can be called as informal organizations. There is no conscious effort made to have informal organization. It emerges from the formal organization and it is not based on any rules and regulations as in case of formal organization. Relationship between formal and informal organizations For a concerns working both formal and informal organization are important. Formal organization originates from the set organizational structure and informal organization originates from formal organization. For an efficient organization, both formal and informal organizations are required. They are the two phase of a same concern. Formal organization can work independently. But informal organization depends totally upon the formal organization. Formal and informal organization helps in bringing efficient working organization and smoothness in a concern. Within the formal organization, the members undertake the assigned duties in co- operation with each other. They interact and communicate amongst themselves. Therefore, both formal and informal organizations are important. When several people work together for achievement of organizational goals, social tie ups tends to built and therefore informal organization helps to secure co-operation by which goals can be achieved smooth. Therefore, we can say that informal organization emerges from formal organization. 1. INTRODUCTION This paper addresses the role of networks in the organisation of two different knowledge intensive sectors - biotechnology and software. Its main aim is to identify and explain the differences in the architecture of the networks, formal and informal, mobilised to access resources and competences by young entrepreneurial firms in those two sectors in Portugal. For this purpose we have adopted an analytical framework combining contributions from two streams of literature: social networks and entrepreneurship in knowledge intensive sectors. This literature leads us to assume that networks (both formal and informal) are critical to access the wide range of resources necessary to identify and explore new business opportunities in both

sectors, enabling firms to go beyond internal constraints. But we also expect those networks to differ across the two sectors, given the differences in the nature of the resources that are mobilised through them. These sectoral differences may be interpreted in the light of the diversity of technological patterns and strategies but also in the light of the diversity of specific stories and context of the sectors. We have also developed a methodology to reconstruct the networks mobilised by firms in the search for resources. Combining several methods usually applied separately, it permitted to assemble a vast array of data capturing the nature and contents of the range of relationships through which key resources and competences flow into the new firm. This methodology was applied to two groups of firms, sector representative, created between 1998 and 2008 and operating in specific areas: molecular biology (for biotechnology) and software for mobile communications. Both sectors are knowledge intensive but with significant differences in terms of their knowledge base, maturity and dominant business model. The research entailed the analysis and comparison of the structure and composition of the sectoral networks along two main aspects: a) nature of resources searched - which involved the reconstruction of two different mobilisation networks : knowledge networks (access to scientific and technological knowledge) opportunity and access networks (access to tangible and intangible resources); b) nature of the relationships established which involved the reconstruction of the formal and informal networks. The objective was to identify and explain potential differences (and similarities) between sectors, at these levels. 3 The paper is organised as follows. First, it provides the theoretical background. Second,

the empirical setting and methodological options are presented, with focus on the network (re)construction and analysis. Third, it is delivered an overview of the most relevant results of the analysis of the (re)constructed networks. The last sections discuss the results and draw some conclusions. TYPOLOGIES OF ORGANIZATIONS 2. BACKGROUND This paper aims to analyse and compare the roles and characteristics of social networks in the entrepreneurial processes that underpin the organisation of two knowledge-intensive sectors, molecular biotechnology and software for mobile communications, in Portugal. Both sectors are knowledge intensive, meaning that technology inputs are crucial. Both sectors undergo rapid processes of technological change and both have high rates of product innovation. However, their innovation and entrepreneurial processes differ. 2.1 Social networks and entrepreneurship Theoretically, our paper stands on a triangle: social networks entrepreneurship knowledge intensive sectors. The role of social networks for entrepreneurship has originated a vast literature, since the pioneer papers by Birley (1985), Hebert and Link (1989) and Dubini and Aldrich (1991). This was due to the acknowledged necessity to study human agency and social phenomena within their context, meaning that no single social entity exists without and outside its social relations. This view applies both to the firm and to the entrepreneur (see Hebert and Link, 1989; Grebel, Pyka and Hanusch, 2003; Granovetter, 1985). Another aspect of the relational context provided by the networks approach is that it takes into consideration the threads of continuity linking actions

across a field of action that includes individuals, organizations, and environment as a totality (Dubini and Aldrich, 1991:306) (see Sousa, 2008; and Salavisa et al, 2009). This means that they capture the stories of the firms relations whenever they leave an enduring trace until the present. But they also capture structural transformations that are underway regarding industrial sectors. In fact, the fragmentation of the value chains together with the deepening of specialization of economic units has constrained firms and entrepreneurs to invent forms of 4 coordination that are parallel to markets mechanisms. Meanwhile, technological breakthroughs have permitted, together with transformations in the markets, a reorganization of companies, increasingly focused on their core business and resorting extensively to the outsourcing of services and goods. Large companies have split their operations and partially delocalized them to other regions or countries. Their different sites are connected by intra-company networks. Almost all have engaged in stronger and lasting interactions with suppliers, customers, competitors, public agencies, universities and research centres, technological experts, business services, finance companies and the worldwide web. This back to the marketplace trend entails a bigger exposure to uncertainty and to opportunism, both present in market transactions (Ozman, 2009). The establishment of long-term relations based on predictability and mutual trust could help lessening those problems (see Dubini and Aldrich, 1991). Networks have then become (see Ozman, 2009): - A representation of social relations (lato sensu), in the line of the primitive social network analysis a sociological approach, similar to that of social capital; - A tool to access (and provide) pre-existent immaterial and material resources

(information, knowledge, experts, human resources in general, goods, funding, support, influence); - An organizational form to coordinate a decentralized multi-agents process of knowledge creation and/or of production of goods. Likewise, networks1 are important for the success of innovative endeavours in many different ways. Formal and informal networks2 provide critical resources to the companies, sometimes as an alternative and sometimes as a complement to the market. They constitute conveyors of diversified elements: scientific and technological knowledge; management knowledge; information about market opportunities, skilled labour, funding sources, potential partners; ideas for new or improved products; reputation and credibility. Furthermore, they frequently are facilitators of cooperation among entities to carry on research, or a technological or commercial project. In this sense, they become organisational forms by their own. As a consequence, networks connect various kinds of actors: individuals (entrepreneurs, scientists, etc.); firms from the sector under analysis; firms from different sectors; universities and research institutions; public agencies; science parks and incubators. When dealing with the innovation process, however, networks are usually conceived of as knowledge networks and defined in two broad senses: 1) they convey scientific and technological knowledge (Ozman, 2009); 2) they are a means of conducting collaborative research for knowledge creation. These two roles appear as a consequence of the increasing complexity and specialization of knowledge (Powell and Grodal, 2005). A broader definition however has also been used (Vonortas, 2009), encompassing resources associated to the commercialization process of new technologies. In this paper, we will mostly conceive networks as tools to access resources, in the line of

the mobilisation networks suggested by Castilla et al. (2000) and we will endorse a resourcebase view of the firm. Considering that the nature of the resources been accessed is likely to influence the type of networks being established (Sammarra and Biggiero, 2008; Sousa et al, 2011) - we split the innovation network into sub-networks: The knowledge network includes actors and relationships used to obtain scientific and technological knowledge; the network of opportunity and access (O&A) is composed of all the actors/relationships used to identify the opportunity and to access and acquire the tangible and intangible resources necessary to explore it. We will also analyse separately informal and formal networks, looking at the differences between them and across sectors. Networks are generally composed of formal and informal relationships. Powell and Grodal (2005) describe networks including formal contractual relations, such as subcontracting relationships, strategic alliances or participation in an industry-wide research consortium, and informal ties, based on common membership in a professional or trade association, or even a looser affiliation with a technological community (p. 7). However, research on firms networks has largely focused on formal inter-organisational (often inter-firm) networks (Schwartz and Hornych, 2010), even if, as argued Smith-Doerr and Powell (2003, p. 13) considerable activity outside the formal channels of authority is obvious to anyone who has spent any time in organizations, but curiously there is little theory to guide us in understanding informal organization . Likewise, in the innovation domain, formal knowledge networks have been much more studied (Street and Cameron, 2007; Roijakkers and Hagedoorn, 2006; Cloodt et al, 2010). In fact,

although the importance of informal knowledge flows in innovation has long been acknowledged - as reflected on the extensive literature on spillovers (Jaffe et al, 1993) - informal networks have been less frequently addressed, and sometimes still largely within the boundaries of formal relationships. Some researchers have nevertheless attempted to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the actual informal knowledge flows that take place between individuals in 6 different organisations. One stream of research used co-patenting / patent citations (Breschi and Lissoni, 2006; Singh, 2005) or co-authorships (Murray, 2002) to identify and investigate the origin and dynamics of knowledge communities that develop outside specific organisational boundaries but are highly influential in firm level. Other strands of research have focused on communities of practice (Wenger, 1998; Rosenkopf and Tushman, 1998), epistemic communities (Steinmueller, 2000; Breschi and Lissoni, 2001) or invisible colleges (Crane, 1972). These communities are networks of interrelated professionals (e.g. scientists, technicians, entrepreneurs, managers) that develop largely outside organisational boundaries and are linked in terms of their ideas, as well as in terms of various types of professional and social relationships and patterns of interaction , relying on a mix of formal and informal mechanisms that enable both face-to-face and mediated communication (Morlacchi et al, 2004, p.5). Other studies have addressed directly the knowledge generating and sharing processes that arise at the micro-level, conducting purposive data collection on the interactions between

individuals. Following the seminal work of Von Hippel (1987), this latter stream has traced the informal know-how trading activities that occur among firm employees (Schrader, 1991; Kreiner and Schultz, 1993; Lissoni, 2001; Giuliani and Bell, 2005; Dahl and Pedersen, 2004; Morrison and Rabellotti, 2009) or between firm employees and researchers (Ostergaard, 2009; Kreiner and Schultz, 1993). According to Cassi and Morrison (2007), one important contribution of these studies was to move the focus to the identification of the relevant community of actors and the relevant type of knowledge, thus enabling a better understanding of the configuration of these informal networks. [ While research tends to focus either on formal or on informal networks, in fact, they are strongly intertwined (Cassi and Morrison, 2007). Underlying formal agreements there is frequently a variety of informal (social) relations (Powell et al, 1996), which can give an important contribution to their success (Kreiner and Schultz, 1993). These relations may have emerged as a result of interactions in the context of the formal collaboration, or may be based on preexisting personal relationships that were mobilised to sustain or complement the formal activities or even be behind their establishment. Thus, inter-organisational relationships may encompass a dense web of ties, both formal and informal, whose contents may go beyond the specific tasks formally outlined. However, research comparing formal and informal networks between organisations is rare (Trippl et al, 2009; Kang and Kang, 2009; Huggins and Johnston, 2010). At this level, the study 7

conducted by Trippl et al on the Vienna software cluster is particularly interesting. They distinguished between four types of knowledge linkages: market relations (buying of embodied technology and knowledge), formal networks (durable and interactive relationships between specific partners), spillovers (exchanges of knowledge through labour mobility, face-to-face contacts, monitoring of competitors) and informal networks (based on trust, a shared understanding and the acceptance of common rules). They found that spillovers and informal networks are comparatively more relevant than formal networks and market linkages, at all spatial scales (and not exclusively at local scales as the literature often suggests), although they are complemented by more formalised R&D partnerships. In addition, they have concluded that the nature of innovation (more or less radical) influences the type and combination of knowledge linkages required. Trippl et al (2009) focused exclusively on knowledge networks. However, since it was found that access to different types of resources may require different networks, it will be important to take the resource dimension into account, when comparing the role played by formal and informal networks. Read more: http://druid8.sit.aau.dk/druid/acc_papers/i6sj493md44chk7aada3jke859sb.pdf http://www.managementstudyguide.com/organizations_classification.htm Assessments question

1. Define Formal Organization 2. Define Informal Organization 3. Identify and explain the Relationship between formal and informal organizations Assessment Questions State the aims of Public Administration.

Define Public Administration Compare and contrast Public Administration in developed and less developed countries. Enumerate the functions of Public Administration Provide a classification of Organisations Discuss the schools of Public Administration you came across in this course Discuss the decision-making models that you know. OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Katz and Khan look at formal organisations from the point of view of ________________ 2. Grapevine is a special attribute of ________ organisations 3. Adam Smith propounded the principles of ______________ 4. John Maynard Keynes propounded the principles of _____________ 5. Max Weber propounded the principles of _____________ 6. The Communist Manifesto by Karl Max was launched in the year _______ 7. The defunct Soviet Union came into existence in the year __________ 8. The Hawthorne Experiment of which began in the year ________ was led by the sociologist _____________ 9. POSDCORB means ___________________________________________ 10. An Administrator requires the following qualities (Name any five) __________ __________ ___________ _____________ __________ Mobile: Email ID: Lecturer Information (Name and Status) CONTACT INFORMATION:

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Address (Department):