1

INSTRUMENTATION AND

PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS

Q What is meant by plant and process instrumentation?

A Instrumentation is the science of applying devices and techniques

to measure, display, monitor, and control plant equipment and process

operations.

Q What are the objectives of instrumentation and control systems?

Why are they needed in plants and industrial processes?

A Instrumentation and control systems are applied to plant equip

ment and processes to optimize process efficiency; to produce a better

product at lower cost in less time. Instrumentation is needed to (1) in

crease and control product quality; (2) increase process throughput and

yield; (3) provide reliable data on raw materials, product quantities, and

services related to process economics; (4) perform inspection and testing

functions more rapidly and reliably; (5) simplify research and develop

ment projects and complex data gathering systems; and (6) provide

safety systems for personnel, plants, and processes.

Q How does an instrumentation or control system accomplish its

objectives?

A An efficient process plant represents a balance of energies into and

out of dynamic processes. Instrumentation and control systems regulate

automatically the flow of energy to the process units and the characteris

tics of process products to give stable operation at optimum efficiency.

But attaining top efficiency is not easy. To succeed, it must combine all

the know-how of process and equipment characteristics with that of

instrumentation techniques and automatic control element techniques.

And this must be done during the design stages of the process, then

applied to the instrumentation and control system. Even greater efficien

cies will result as market considerations and economic data are applied

to day-by-day plant operations when a process control computer is added

to the instrumentation and control system.

1
2 Standard Instrumentation Questions and Answers

Q What are the basic functions and elements of an instrumentation

and automatic control system?

Process disturbances

A Two prime components are (1)

the process, and (2) the automatic

controller (Fig. 1-1). The automatic

controller performs the functions of

(1) measuring the value of a process

variable, (2) displaying the measured

variable, (3) comparing the measured

value with a preset desired value, and

(4) manipulating another process vari

able to correct the measured value

when a difference exists. It contains

the measuring means (primary sensing

element, measurement transmission

means, measuring element, display,

and often monitoring function) and

the controlling means (control unit,

control transmission means, final con

trol element). The process is defined

as the collective function performed in

and by the equipment in which a

process variable is controlled. It in

cludes everything that affects the con

trolled variable.

Q Illustrate a simple process con

trol system and define its elements.

A Figure 1-2 indicates a heat ex

changer in which a product is heated

to the desired temperature of 175°F

Fig. 1-1. Basic elements of instrumenta- by Controlling the flow of Steam

tion and control system. through the heat-exchanger coils. The

product is called the controlled me

dium, and the product temperature is the controlled variable (and the

measured variable). The steam is called the control agent, and the

manipulated variable is the rate of flow of steam, which is increased or

decreased as the temperature of the product varies.

Q Using Fig. 1-2, illustrate a typical automatic controller and define

its elements.

A The measuring means has these components: (1) primary sensing

element (thermometer bulb to detect product temperature), (2) meas-

Instrumentation and Process C/iarocfer/sf/cs 3

urement transmission means (thermal capillary tubing to connect ther

mometer bulb to spiral measuring element), (3) measuring element in

the recorder-controller case [pressure spiral which converts measured vari

able signal (pressure change in this case) to a recording pen motion on

a chart], (4) display means (a recording pen, ink, and paper chart

calibrated for a temperature range of 0 to 300°F).

Final

control

ogent

Steom m

(Control ogent)

(Control transmission)

Steom out

Fig. 1-2. Simple process control system.

Measurement

transmission

Measure display

control set point

Air supply

'(control medium)

Primary sensing element Product set

Control medium

Heot exchanger

(process)

-Product in

The controlling means consists of (1) set-point adjustment unit (it

sets the desired measured-variable value), (2) controller with error detec

tor (compares measured-variable value with desired set-point value and

produces an output control signal when an error or difference exists),

(3) control medium (medium used to transmit control signal to final

control element), in this case air under pressure, and (4) the final con

trol element (operated by the control signal to control the manipulated

variable), in this case an air-operated steam control valve. In Fig. 1-2,

we control product temperature at 175°F with pneumatic (air-operated)

recording temperature controller. The set-point index is adjusted to 175°F

on a chart calibrated 0 to 300°F. As the thermometer bulb senses the

product temperature, its output signal is transmitted through the capillary

tubing and spiral and actuates the recording pen. The pen draws a con

tinuous ink line on a round chart corresponding to the measured-variable

temperature. When the pen deviates from the set-point temperature of

175°F because of a process disturbance or load change, the error-detecting

control unit detects the difference. It produces a control signal which is

transmitted to the control valve in proportion to the error signal. When

the measured temperature is too high, the valve closes, decreasing the

steam flow; but with low temperature the valve opens, allowing more

steam to flow. This system can also be illustrated by the feedback control

loop diagram (Fig. 1-3).

4 Standard Instrumentation Questions and Answers

Q What are the basic characteristics of a process?

A Every process exhibits these two effects which must be considered

when instrumentation and control systems are applied to it: (1) load

changes (changes in the controlled variable due to altered conditions in

the process), (2) process lag (delay in time it takes the process variable

to reach a new value when load changes occur). In rapidly responding

processes, the dynamic response of the process variable is the important

characteristic.

Fig. 1-3. Feedback control loop diagram.

ControlagentSet Error Controller Tpoi^Errordetector•x signal , output Final controly— •• u>nm>nei »- element <Manipulated

variableProcessdisturbances{Process

variable•i,Primary

sensingelementA-

Q Define process load in terms of heat exchanger in Fig. 1-2. Name

four sources of process load changes.

A Process load is the total amount of control agent required by a

process at any one time to maintain a balanced condition. In heat ex

changers a flowing product is continuously heated with steam (control

agent). It takes a certain quantity of steam to hold the product tempera

ture at a given value when the product is flowing at a given rate. An

increase in product flow takes more steam; an increase in inlet product

temperature requires less steam. These are load changes. Any change in

process load needs a change in final control-element setting to maintain

a balance condition (keeps the controlled variable at set point). The

magnitude and rate of load change are important in instrumentation and

control systems.

Load changes occur from (1) greater or less demand for control

agent, (2) a change in ambient conditions, (3) a change in quality of

the control agent, and (4) a chemical reaction which generates or absorbs

heat (exothermic or endothermic process).

Q Name four sources of process lag.

A Process: (1) capacity and capacitance (see next question), (2) re

sistance, (3) potential, and (4) dead time.

Q Describe process capacitance and its effect on process lag.

A Although capacity is a familiar term to measure the ability of a

process to hold energy (measured in units of quantity), a more important

Instrumentation and Process Characteristics

factor is the capacitance of a process. Capacitance is a measure of the

ability of a process to hold a quantity of energy or material per unit

quantity of some reference variable. It is measured in units of quantity

divided by the reference variable. Figure 1-4 shows two tanks of dif-

Referencej

variable -4

(level)

| Reference

^variable

Fig. 1-4. Capacity compared with capacitance.

(level)

ferent shapes but of equal liquid volume capacity (128 cu ft). Each tank

has a different liquid capacitance with respect to liquid level. The 8-ft-

high tank has a liquid volume capacitance of 16 cu ft per ft of level

(128 -T- 8); while the 4-ft-high tank has a capacitance of 32 cu ft per ft.

So always identify capacitance with the type of energy or material in

volved. Thermal capacitance of a liquid is defined in terms of the heat

energy (Btu) needed to raise the liquid temperature per degree Fahren

heit.

Figure 1-5 shows a process with large thermal capacitance. Here a

large amount of liquid is heated in a steam-jacketed kettle by controlling

the steam flow through the jacket. Liquid temperature is measured by

Liquid in

Liquid out

Liquid in i Steam in

Steam in

n—Ki5Trap-»-rD

t Steam ou

^Liquid out

Fig. 1-5. Process with large thermal ca- Fig. 1-6. Process with limited thermal

pacitance. capacitance.

a thermometer bulb. The liquid's mass resists changes in temperature

which might be caused by variations in flow rate, heat input, and ambient

temperature. This mass exerts a stabilizing influence and would make

temperature control relatively easy. Conversely, Fig. 1-6 shows a high-

velocity heat exchanger with limited thermal capacitance. The rate of

6 Standard Instrumentation Questions and Answers

flow through this process is identical to the rate through the kettle process.

But there is a much smaller volume flow through the exchanger. With

this small mass of fluid there is no stabilizing influence. Slight variations

in feed rate or heat supply rate make it very difficult to control the

temperature because the total volume of liquid in the exchanger at one

time is so small compared with the rate of throughput and heat-transfer

area. So although the over-all effect of large capacitance is favorable

(acts like a flywheel), it does introduce a lag between the time a change

is made in the control agent and the time the controlled variable re

flects this change. It isn't easy to change the controlled variable in a

large capacitance process to a new value. But it may also be difficult to

maintain the controlled variable value in a small capacitance process

because of its higher sensitivity to process disturbances.

Q What is process resistance and its effect on process lag?

A Process resistance is opposition to flow. It is measured in units of

potential that is needed to produce a unit change in flow. Thermal re

sistance is the change of temperature which occurs per unit rate of heat

flow through a process material or vessel (expressed in Btu per second).

If a material is heated in a process with high thermal resistance, more

control agent will be required to change the material temperature than

in a low thermal resistance process. Potential represents a condition at

a given point in the process which determines the energy at that point.

Q How do you define dead time and its effect on process lag?

A Dead time (also called transportation or transmission lag) is the

interval from the time that a control agent change takes place until its

effect is felt on the controlled variable. For example, in a tubular-type

petroleum furnace, oil is pumped at a constant rate through hundreds of

feet of tubing which line the furnace walls. It takes a long time for a

given portion of oil to pass through the heater. This dead time causes

more difficulty in automatic control systems than any other type of lag.

During this period the controller is helpless, as it cannot initiate correc

tive action until the deviation is sensed.

Q What are the basic characteristics of the measuring means?

A Two basic characteristics considered in the evaluation of the measur

ing means are (1) speed of response, or lag, and (2) accuracy.

Q What is meant by the measurement speed of response?

A The time it takes a measuring system to respond completely to a

change in the measured variable value is called the speed of response of

the measuring system. Although ideally this time should be instantaneous,

the primary sensing element, transmission system, and the measuring

Instrumentation and Process C/iorocfer/sf/cs

element all respond to a process variable change in separate finite times.

This time is often called lag.

Q How do you evaluate the primary elements' response?

A Response of most primary sensing elements, and especially tempera

ture sensing elements, is expressed in terms of the lag coefficient. This is

an arbitrary figure which expresses the response of a bare temperature

primary element to an instantaneous (step) process variable temperature

change in terms of how long it takes the element to reach 63.2 per cent

of this total temperature change. Figure 1-7 shows speed-of-response

curves for typical thermometer bulbs

A and B. The response time of tem

perature elements is faster in moving

liquid as compared with moving air

(faster when unprotected than with

a protecting tube). Some protecting

tubes slow down speed of response

more than others. Air space between

a temperature element and protection

tube slows response but can be im

proved by grounding (making con

tact) the tip to the protecting tube.

Fluid velocity past the sensing element affects speed of response; the

higher the velocity, the better the response. Thermal capacity has the

same effect on speed of response as on process lag. Transmission lag

defines the speed of response between the primary sensing element and

the measuring element. Electric transmission means are much faster than

thermal system capillary or pneumatic transmission systems.

<<^ Thermometer A

in moving liquid

Thermometer B -^/

in moving ai —

--h-M

24

6 8 10 12 14 16

Time, min

Fig. 1-7. Speed-of-responie curves for

thermometer bulbs.

Q Name four factors which influence measurement accuracy.

A Four factors are (1) static error, (2) dynamic error, (3) reproduci-

bility, and (4) dead zone.

Q What is static error of measurement? How does it influence accu

racy?

A Static error of measurement is the deviation of the instrument read

ing from the true value of the static measured variable. While large static

error is undesirable, it is not detrimental to control when it is more

important for the variable to be held at a constant value than at an

exact absolute value. Accuracy is usually expressed in terms of the static

error of the instrument and as a per cent of its range. When an instru

ment whose range is 800 to 1800° is said to have an accuracy within

±0.25 per cent, this means its static error at any point of the scale

never exceeds 2.5° (0.25 per cent of 1,800 minus 800).

8

Standard Instrumentation Questions and Answers

Q What is rcproducibility of a measuring system?

A The degree of closeness with which the same value of the process

variable can be measured at different times. In automatic control sys

tems, reproducibility is more important than accuracy since it is a dy

namic characteristic and is consistent.

Q Explain the term dynamic error.

A Figure 1-8 shows the difference between a gradual change of process

180

^ 160

^ 140

Tem

ro

100,

Actual

temperature Ny/^

L£>

Dynamic

error

Log

t-

point

Measuied temperature

01 23456789 10

Time, min

Time —»•

Fig. 1-8. Dynamic error and lag during

a gradual change.

Fig. 1-9. Dynamic error and lag during

a sinusoidal change.

temperature and the temperature measured by a temperature measuring

system. Even with no static error the measuring system immediately lags

behind the actual temperature; the lag increases with time until the

actual temperature begins to level off and becomes steady. At this point

there is no error; the temperatures are the same. The dynamic error is

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Time, min

Fig. 1-10. Dead time is lag in detecting

time.

the difference between the actual and

measured temperatures. Lag is the

time between the actual temperature

and the point at which the measured

temperature reaches the value of the

actual temperature. Dynamic error is

in addition to static error. It influences

control response as well as measure

ment response. Figure 1-9 shows dy

namic error and lag during a sinusoidal

change about the set point caused by

the corrective action of a controller

during a gradual change in measured

variable.

Q What is dead zone and dead time?

A Dead zone is the largest range through which the measured variable
Instrumentation and Process Characteristics 9

can change without the change being detected by the measuring system.

As Fig. 1-10 shows, dead time is the length of time which elapses before

the instrument can detect a change in the variable. This is a function

of the variable rate of change and measuring system sensitivity and

response.

Q Name 26 of the most common and significant measured variables

in industrial plants and processes.

A (1) Temperature, (2) flow, (3) pressure, (4) vacuum, (5) level,

(6) chemical analysis, (7) humidity, (8) dew point, (9) moisture,

(10) viscosity, (11) consistency, (12) density, (13) specific gravity,

(14) speed, (15) stretch, (16) motion, (17) strain, (18) vibration,

(19) electrical variables, (20) weight, (21) force, (22) thrust, (23)

color, (24) gloss, (25) direction, and (26) nuclear radiation.

SUGGESTED READING

Eckman, Donald P.: Industrial Instrumentation, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New

York, 1950.

Elonka, Steve, and Joseph F. Robinson: Standard Plant Operator's Questions

and Answers, vols. I and II, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New

York, 1959.

Elonka, Steve: Plant Operators' Manual, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,

New York, 1956.

Elonka, Steve, and Julian Bernstein: Standard Industrial Electronics Questions

and Answers, vols. I and II, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New

York, to be published in 1964.